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SECTION 5.5

NONHOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS AND

THE METHOD OF UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS

The method of undetermined coefficients is based on "educated guessing". If we can guess

correctly the form of a particular solution of a nonhomogeneous linear equation with constant
coefficients, then we can determine the particular solution explicitly by substitution in the given
differential equation. It is pointed out at the end of Section 5.5 that this simple approach is not
always successful — in which case the method of variation of parameters is available if a
complementary function is known. However, undetermined coefficients does turn out to work
well with a surprisingly large number of the nonhomogeneous linear differential equations that
arise in elementary scientific applications.

In each of Problems 1–20 we give first the form of the trial solution ytrial, then the equations in
the coefficients we get when we substitute ytrial into the differential equation and collect like
terms, and finally the resulting particular solution yp.

1. ytrial = Ae3 x ; 25 A = 1; yp = (1/25)e3x

2. ytrial = A + Bx; − 2 A − B = 4, − 2 B = 3; yp = -(5 + 6x)/4

3. ytrial = A cos 3x + B sin 3x; − 15 A − 3B = 0, 3 A − 15B = 2;

yp = (cos 3x - 5 sin 3x)/39

4. ytrial = Ae x + B x e x ; 9 A + 12 B = 0, 9 B = 3; yp = (-4ex + 3xex)/9

5. First we substitute sin2x = (1 - cos 2x)/2 on the right-hand side of the differential
equation. Then:
ytrial = A + B cos 2 x + C sin 2 x; A = 1/ 2, − 3B + 2C = − 1/ 2, − 2 B − 3C = 0;
yp = (13 + 3 cos 2x - 2 sin 2x)/26

6. ytrial = A + B x + C x 2; 7 A + 4 B + 4C = 0, 7 B + 8C = 0, 7C = 1;
2
yp = (4 - 56x + 49x )/343

7. First we substitute sinh x = (ex - e-x)/2 on the right-hand side of the differential
equation. Then:
ytrial = Ae x + B e − x ; − 3 A = 1/ 2, − 3B = − 1/ 2; yp = (e-x - ex)/6 = -(1/3)sinh x

264 Chapter 5
8. First we note that cosh 2x is part of the complementary function
yc = c1 cosh 2 x + c2 sinh 2 x. . Then:

ytrial = x ( A cosh 2 x + B sinh 2 x ) ; 4 A = 0, 4 B = 1; yp = (1/4)x sinh 2x

9. First we note that ex is part of the complementary function yc = c1ex + c2e-3x. Then:
ytrial = A + x ( B + Cx ) e x ; − 3 A = 1, 4 B + 2C = 0, 8C = 1;
yp = -(1/3) + (2x2 - x)ex /16.

10. First we note the duplication with the complementary function yc = c1 cos 3x + c2 sin 3x.
Then:
ytrial = x ( A cos 3x + B sin 3x ) ; 6 B = 2, − 6 A = 3; yp = (2x sin 3x - 3x cos 3x)/6

11. First we note the duplication with the complementary function

yc = c1 x + c2 cos 2 x + c3 sin 2 x. Then:

ytrial = x ( A + B x ) ; 4 A = − 1, 8B = 3; yp = (3x2 - 2x)/8

12. First we note the duplication with the complementary function

yc = c1 x + c2 cos x + c3 sin x. Then:

ytrial = Ax + x ( B cos x + C sin x ) ; A = 2, − 2 B = 0, − 2C = − 1;

yp = 2x + (1/2)x sin x

13. ytrial = e x ( A cos x + B sin x ) ; 7 A + 4 B = 0, − 4 A + 7 B = 1;

x
yp = e (7 sin x - 4 cos x)/65

14. First we note the duplication with the complementary function

yc = ( c1 + c2 x ) e − x + ( c3 + c4 x ) e x . Then:

ytrial = x 2 ( A + B x ) e x ; 8 A + 24 B = 0, 24 B = 1; yp = (-3x2ex + x3ex)/24

15. This is something of a trick problem. We cannot solve the characteristic equation
r 5 + 5r 4 − 1 = 0 to find the complementary function, but we can see that it contains no
constant term (why?). Hence the trial solution ytrial = A leads immediately to the
particular solution yp = -17.

16. ytrial = A + ( B + Cx + Dx 2 ) e3 x ;
9 A = 5, 18B + 6C + 2 D = 0, 18C + 12 D = 0, 18D = 2;

Section 5.5 265

 yp = (45 + e3x - 6xe3x + 9x2 e3x)/81

17. First we note the duplication with the complementary function yc = c1 cos x + c2 sin x.
Then:
ytrial = x [( A + Bx ) cos x + (C + Dx )sin x ] ;
2 B + 2C = 0, 4 D = 1, −2 A + 2 D = 1, −4 B = 0;
yp = (x2 sin x - x cos x)/4

18. First we note the duplication with the complementary function

yc = c1e − x + c2e x + c3e −2 x + c4e 2 x . Then:

ytrial = x(Aex) + x(B + Cx) e2x; −6 A = 1, 12 B + 38C = 0, 24C = −1;

yp = -(24xex - 19xe2x + 6x2 e2x)/144

19. First we note the duplication with the part c1 + c2 x of the complementary function
(which corresponds to the factor r 2 of the characteristic polynomial). Then:
ytrial = x2(A + Bx + Cx2); 4 A + 12 B = −1, 12 B + 48C = 0, 24C = 3;
yp = (10x2 - 4x3 + x4)/8

20. First we note that the characteristic polynomial r 3 − r has the zero r = 1 corresponding
to the duplicating part ex of the complementary function. Then:
ytrial = A + x ( Be x ) ; − A = 7, 3B = 1; yp = -7 + (1/3)xex

In Problems 21–30 we list first the complementary function yc, then the initially proposed trial
function yi, and finally the actual trial function yp in which duplication with the
complementary function has been eliminated.

21. yc = e x ( c1 cos x + c2 sin x ) ;

yi = e x ( A cos x + B sin x )
yp = x ⋅ e x ( A cos x + B sin x )

22. yc = ( c1 + c2 x + c3 x 2 ) + ( c4e x ) + ( c5e − x ) ;

yi = ( A + Bx + Cx ) + ( D e )
2 x

yp = x ⋅ ( A + Bx + Cx ) + x ⋅ ( D e )
3 2 x

23. yc = c1 cos x + c2 sin x;

yi = ( A + Bx ) cos 2 x + (C + Dx )sin 2 x
yp = x ⋅ [( A + Bx ) cos 2 x + (C + Dx )sin 2 x ]

266 Chapter 5
24. yc = c1 + c2 e −3 x + c3e4 x ;
yi = ( A + Bx ) + (C + Dx )e −3 x
yp = x ⋅ ( A + Bx ) + x ⋅ (C + Dx )e −3 x

25. yc = c1e − x + c2e −2 x ;

yi = ( A + Bx )e − x + (C + Dx )e −2 x
yp = x ⋅ ( A + Bx )e − x + x ⋅ (C + Dx )e −2 x

26. yc = e3 x ( c1 cos 2 x + c2 sin 2 x ) ;

yi = ( A + Bx ) e3 x cos 2 x + (C + Dx )e3 x sin 2 x
yp = x ⋅  ( A + Bx )e3 x cos 2 x + (C + Dx )e3 x sin 2 x 

27. yc = ( c1 cos x + c2 sin x ) + ( c3 cos 2 x + c3 sin 2 x )

yi = ( A cos x + B sin x ) + ( C cos 2 x + D sin 2 x )
yp = x ⋅ ( A cos x + B sin x ) + ( C cos 2 x + D sin 2 x )

28. yc = ( c1 + c2 x ) + ( c3 cos 3x + c3 sin 3x )

yi = ( A + Bx + Cx ) cos 3x + ( D + Ex + Fx ) sin 3x
2 2

yp = x ⋅  ( A + Bx + Cx ) cos 3 x + ( D + Ex + Fx ) sin 3 x 
2 2

29. yc = ( c1 + c2 x + c3 x 2 ) e x + c4e 2 x + c5e −2 x ;

yi = ( A + Bx ) e x + C e2 x + D e−2 x
yp = x 3 ⋅ ( A + Bx ) e x + x ⋅ ( C e 2 x ) + x ⋅ ( D e −2 x )

30. yc = ( c1 + c2 x ) e − x + ( c3 + c4 x ) e x
yi = yp = ( A + Bx + Cx 2 ) cos x + ( D + Ex + Fx 2 ) sin x

In Problems 31–40 we list first the complementary function yc, the trial solution ytr for the
method of undetermined coefficients, and the corresponding general solution yg = yc + yp where
yp results from determining the coefficients in ytr so as to satisfy the given nonhomogeneous
differential equation. Then we list the linear equations obtained by imposing the given initial
conditions, and finally the resulting particular solution y(x).

31. yc = c1 cos 2 x + c2 sin 2 x; y tr = A + Bx

yg = c1 cos 2 x + c2 sin 2 x + x / 2

Section 5.5 267

 c1 = 1, 2c2 + 1/ 2 = 2
y ( x ) = cos 2 x + (3/ 4)sin 2 x + x / 2

32. yc = c1e − x + c2e −2 x ; ytr = Ae x

yg = c1e − x + c2e −2 x + e x / 6

c1 + c2 + 1/ 6 = 0, − c1 − 2c2 + 1/ 6 = 3
y ( x ) = (15 e − x − 16 e −2 x + e x ) / 6

33. yc = c1 cos 3 x + c2 sin 3x; ytr = A cos 2 x + B sin 2 x

yg = c1 cos 3x + c2 sin 3x + (1/ 5)sin 2 x

c1 = 1, 3c2 + 2 / 5 = 0
y ( x ) = (15cos 3x − 2 sin 3x + 3sin 2 x ) /15

34. yc = c1 cos x + c2 sin x; y tr = x ⋅ ( A cos x + B sin x )

yg = c1 cos x + c2 sin x + 12 x sin x

c1 = 1, c2 = − 1; y ( x ) = cos x − sin x + 12 x sin x

35. yc = e x ( c1 cos x + c2 sin x ) ; ytr = A + B x

yg = e x ( c1 cos x + c2 sin x ) + 1 + x / 2

c1 + 1 = 3, c1 + c2 + 1/ 2 = 0
y ( x ) = e x ( 4 cos x − 5sin x ) / 2 + 1 + x / 2

36. yc = c1 + c2 x + c3e −2 x + c4e2 x ; y tr = x 2 ⋅ ( A + B x + C x 2 )

yg = c1 + c2 x + c3e −2 x + c4e 2 x − x 2 /16 − x 4 / 48

c1 + c3 + c4 = 1, c2 − 2c3 + 2c4 = 1, 4c3 + 4c4 − 1/ 8 = −1, − 8c3 + 8c4 = −1

y ( x ) = ( 234 + 240 x − 9e −2 x − 33e 2 x − 12 x 2 − 4 x 4 ) /192

37. yc = c1 + c2e x + c3 x e x ; y tr = x ⋅ ( A ) + x 2 ⋅ ( B + Cx ) e x

yg = c1 + c2e x + c3 x e x + x − x 2e x / 2 + x 3e x / 6

268 Chapter 5
 c1 + c2 = 0, c2 + c3 + 1 = 0, c2 + 2c3 − 1 = 1

y ( x ) = 4 + x + e x ( −24 + 18 x − 3x 2 + x 3 ) / 6

38. yc = e − x ( c1 cos x + c2 sin x ) ; ytr = A cos 3x + B sin 3x

yg = e − x ( c1 cos x + c2 sin x ) − ( 6cos 3x + 7sin 3x ) / 85

c1 − 6 /185 = 2, − c1 + c2 − 21/ 85 = 0

y ( x ) =  e − x (176 cos x + 197 sin x ) − ( 6 cos 3x + 7 sin 3x )  / 85

39. yc = c1 + c2 x + c3e − x ; y tr = x 2 ⋅ ( A + Bx ) + x ⋅ ( Ce − x )

yg = c1 + c2 x + c3e − x − x 2 / 2 + x 3 / 6 + x e − x

c1 + c3 = 1, c2 − c3 + 1 = 0, c3 − 3 = 1

y ( x ) = ( −18 + 18 x − 3x 2 + x 3 ) / 6 + (4 + x ) e − x

40. yc = c1e − x + c2e x + c3 cos x + c4 sin x; y tr = A

yg = c1e − x + c2e x + c3 cos x + c4 sin x − 5

c1 + c2 + c3 − 5 = 0, − c1 + c2 + c4 = 0, c1 + c2 − c3 = 0, − c1 + c2 − c4 = 0

y ( x ) = ( 5e − x + 5e x + 10 cos x − 20 ) / 4

41. The trial solution ytr = A + Bx + Cx 2 + Dx 3 + Ex 4 + Fx 5 leads to the equations

2 A − B − 2C − 6 D + 24 E = 0
−2 B − 2C − 6 D − 24 E + 120 F = 0
−2C − 3D − 12 E − 60 F = 0
−2 D − 4 E − 20 F = 0
−2 E − 5 F = 0
−2 F = 8

that are readily solve by back-substitution. The resulting particular solution is

y(x) = –255 - 450x + 30x2 + 20x3 + 10x4 - 4x5.

Section 5.5 269

42. The characteristic equation r 4 − r 3 − r 2 − r − 2 = 0 has roots r = − 1, 2, ± i so the
complementary function is yc = c1e − x + c2e 2 x + c3 cos x + c4 sin x. We find that the
coefficients satisfy the equations

c1 + c2 + c3 − 255 = 0
− c1 + 2c2 + c4 − 450 = 0
c1 + 4c2 − c3 + 60 = 0
− c1 + 8c2 − c4 + 120 = 0

Solution of this system gives finally the particular solution y = yc + yp where yp is the
particular solution of Problem 41 and

yc = 10 e − x + 35 e 2 x + 210cos x + 390sin x.

43. (a) cos 3x + i sin 3x = (cos x + i sin x )3

= cos3 x + 3 i cos 2 x sin x − 3cos x sin 2 x − i sin 3 x
When we equate real parts we get the equation

cos3 x − 3 ( cos x ) (1 − cos2 x ) = 4 cos3 x − 3cos x

and readily solve for cos3 x = 43 cos x + 41 cos 3x. The formula for sin 3 x is derived
similarly by equating imaginary parts in the first equation above.

(b) Upon substituting the trial solution yp = A cos x + B sin x + C cos 3x + D sin 3x
in the differential equation y′′ + 4 y = 43 cos x + 41 cos 3x, we find that A = 1/4, B = 0,
C = –1/20, D = 0. The resulting general solution is

y(x) = c1 cos 2x + c2 sin 2x + (1/4)cos x - (1/20)cos 3x.

44. We use the identity sin x sin 3x = 12 cos 2 x − 12 cos 4 x, and hence substitute the trial
solution yp = A cos 2 x + B sin 2 x + C cos 4 x + D sin 4 x in the differential equation
y′′ + y′ + y = 12 cos 2 x − 12 cos 4 x. We find that A = –3/26, B = 1/13, C = –14/482,
D = 2/141. The resulting general solution is

y(x) = e-x/2 (c1 cos x 3 /2 + c2 sin x 3 /2)

+ (-3 cos 2x + 2 sin 2x)/26 + (-15 cos 4x + 4 sin 4x)/482.

45. We substitute

sin4 x = (1 - cos 2x)2 /4

270 Chapter 5
 = (1 - 2 cos 2x + cos2 2x)/4 = (3 - 4 cos 2x + cos 4x)/8

on the right-hand side of the differential equation, and then substitute the trial solution
yp = A cos 2 x + B sin 2 x + C cos 4 x + D sin 4 x + E. We find that A = –1/10, B = 0,
C = –1/56, D = 0, E = 1/24. The resulting general solution is

y = c1 cos 3x + c2 sin 3x + 1/24 - (1/10)cos 2x - (1/56)cos 4x.

46. By the formula for cos3 x in Problem 43, the differential equation can be written as
y′′ + y = 3
4 x cos x + 14 x cos 3x.
The complementary solution is yc = c1 cos x + c2 sin x, so we substitute the trial solution

yp = x ⋅  ( A + Bx ) cos x + ( C + Dx ) sin x  + ( E + Fx ) cos 3x + ( G + Hx ) sin 3x  .

We find that A = 3/16, B = C = 0, D = 3/16, E = 0, F = −1/ 32, G = 3/128, H = 0. Hence

the general solution is given by y = yc + y1 + y2 where

y1 = (3x cos x + 3x2sin x)/16 and y2 = (3 sin 3x - 4x cos 3x)/128.

In Problems 47–49 we list the independent solutions y1 and y2 of the associated homogeneous
equation, their Wronskian W = W ( y1 , y2 ), the coefficient functions

⌠ y ( x) f ( x) ⌠ y ( x ) f ( x)
u1 ( x ) = −  2 dx and u2 ( x ) =  1 dx
⌡ W ( x) ⌡ W ( x)

in the particular solution yp = u1 y1 + u2 y2 of Eq. (32) in the text, and finally yp itself.

47. y1 = e-2x, y2 = e-x, W = e-3x

u1 = -(4/3)e3x, u2 = 2e2x,
yp = (2/3)ex

48. y1 = e-2x, y2 = e4x, W = 6e2x

u1 = -x/2, u2 = -e-6x /12,
yp = -(6x + 1)e-2x /12

49. y1 = e2x, y2 = xe2x, W = e4x

u1 = -x2, u2 = 2x,
yp = x2e2x

Section 5.5 271

50. The complementary function is y1 = c1 cosh 2x + c2 sinh 2x, so the Wronskian is

W = 2 cosh2 2x - 2 sinh2 2x = 2,

so when we solve Equations (31) simultaneously for u1′ and u2′ , integrate each and
substitute in yp = y1u1 + y2u2, the result is

y p = − (cosh 2 x ) ∫ 12 (sinh 2 x )(sinh 2 x ) dx + (sinh 2 x ) ∫ 12 (cosh 2 x )(sinh 2 x ) dx .

Using the identities 2 sinh2 x = cosh 2x - 1 and 2 sinh x cosh x = sinh 2x, we evaluate
the integrals and find that

yp = (4x cosh 2x - sinh 4x cosh 2x + cosh 4x sinh 2x)/16,

yp = (4x cosh 2x - sinh 2x)/16.

51. y1 = cos 2 x, y2 = sin 2 x, W = 2

Liberal use of trigonometric sum and product identities yields

u1 = (cos5 x − 5cos x ) / 20, u1 = (sin 5 x − 5sin x ) / 20

yp = -(1/4)(cos 2x cos x - sin 2x sin x) + (1/20)(cos 5x cos 2x + sin 5x sin 2x)

= -(1/5)cos 3x (!)

52. y1 = cos 3x, y2 = sin 3x, W = 3

u1 = − (6 x − sin 6 x ) / 36, u1 = − (1 + cos 6 x ) / 36

yp = -(x cos 3x)/6

53. y1 = cos 3x, y2 = sin 3x, W = 3

u1′ = -(2/3)tan 3x, u2′ = 2/3

yp = (2/9)[3x sin 3x + (cos 3x) ln cos 3x ]

54. y1 = cos x, y2 = sin x, W = 1

u1′ = -csc x, u2′ = cos x csc2x

yp = -1 - (cos x) ln csc x − cot x

55. y1 = cos 2x, y2 = sin 2x, W = 2

u1′ = -(1/2)sin2 x sin 2x = -(1/4)(1 - cos 2x)sin 2x

272 Chapter 5
 u2′ = (1/2)sin2 x cos 2x = (1/4)(1 - cos 2x)cos 2x

yp = (1 - x sin 2x)/8

56. y1 = e-2x, y2 = e2x, W = 4

u1 = -(3x - 1)e3x /36, u2 = -(x + 1)e-x /4
yp = -ex(3x + 2)/9

57. With y1 = x, y2 = x-1, and f(x) = 72x3, Equations (31) in the text take the form

x u1′ + x-1 u2′ = 0,

u1′ - x-2 u2′ = 72x3.

Upon multiplying the second equation by x and then adding, we readily solve first for

u1′ = 36x3, so u1 = 9x4

and then
′
u2′ = -x2 u1 = -36x5, so u2 = -6x6.

Then it follows that

yp = y1u1 + y2u2 = (x)(9x4) + (x-1)(-6x6) = 3x5.

58. Here it is important to remember that — for variation of parameters — the differential
equation must be written in standard form with leading coefficient 1. We therefore
rewrite the given equation with complementary function yc = c1x2 + c2x3 as

y″ - (4/x)y′ + (6/x2)y = x.

Thus f(x) = x, and W = x4, so simultaneous solution of Equations (31) as in Problem

50 (followed by integration of u1′ and u2′ ) yields

y p = − x 2 ∫ x 3 ⋅ x ⋅ x −4 dx +x 3 ∫ x 2 ⋅ x ⋅ x −4 dx

= − x 2 ∫ dx +x 3 ∫ (1/ x ) dx = x 3 (ln x − 1).

59. y1 = x2, y2 = x2 ln x,
W = x3, f(x) = x2
u1′ = -x ln x, u2′ = x
yp = x4 /4

Section 5.5 273

60. y1 = x1/ 2 , y2 = x 3/ 2

f(x) = 2x-2/3; W = x
u1 = − 12 x5 / 6 / 5, u2 = − 12 x −1/ 6

yp = − 72 x 4 / 3 / 5

61. y1 = cos(ln x), y2 = sin(ln x), W = 1/x,

f(x) = (ln x)/x2
u1 = (ln x)cos(ln x) - sin(ln x)
u2 = (ln x)sin(ln x) + cos(ln x)
yp = ln x (!)

62. y1 = x, y2 = 1 + x2,
W = x2 - 1, f(x) = 1
u1′ = (1 + x2)/(1 - x2), u2′ = x/(x2 - 1)

yp = -x2 + x ln|(1 + x)/(1 - x)| + (1/2)(1 + x2)ln|1 - x2|

63. This is simply a matter of solving the equations in (31) for the derivatives

y2 ( x ) f ( x ) y1 ( x ) f ( x )
u1′ = − and u2′ = ,
W ( x) W ( x)

integrating each, and then substituting the results in (32).

64. Here we have y1 ( x ) = cos x, y2 ( x ) = sin x, W ( x ) = 1, f ( x ) = 2sin x , so (33) gives

y p ( x ) = − (cos x ) ∫ sin x ⋅ 2sin x dx +(sin x ) ∫ cos x ⋅ 2sin x dx

= − (cos x ) ∫ (1 − cos 2 x ) dx + (sin x ) ∫ 2(sin x ) ⋅ cos x dx

= − (cos x )( x − sin x cos x ) + (sin x )(sin 2 x )
= − x cos x + (sin x )(cos2 x + sin 2 x )
y p ( x ) = − x cos x + sin x

But we can drop the term sin x because it satisfies the associated homogeneous
equation y′′ + y = 0.

274 Chapter 5