CONNECTIVE TISSUES II:

CARTILAGE AND BONE

LEFT: Horse joint; RIGHT: Dog leg with embedded birdshot

 WHY ARE THESE CT’S?
• Both have:
– Cells, extracellular fibers, and matrix
• Collagen & Elastic fibers
• Glycoproteins: Gel-like matrix
• Fibroblast-type cells
– Chondroblasts/osteoblasts
– Osteoblasts/osteocytes

• Both have:
– General functions of mechanical & physiological
support and protection
• Structural framework
• Reserves of Ca & P
• Interrelated with other CT’s in history and
development
 CARTILAGE TYPES
• HYALINE: The “archetype” cartilage
– Mechanical support:
– Covers articulating surfaces of bones
– Model for formation of the skeleton
– Plays a role in repair of fractures
• ELASTIC:
– Found where resilience and springiness
needed
• FIBROUS:
– Very limited; transitional form
• Basic cell type
– Can arise from re-
CHONDROCYTES
differentiated
fibroblasts
• Makes fibers and
matrix
– Appropriate type
variations
• Enclosed in lacunae
clustered as
isogenous groups
– Cells of IG have a
common precursor
• Division vs rate of
matrix formation
determines
spacing
• Original cell ISOGENOUS GROUPS
splits
– Daughter cells
produce matrix
“wall”
– Daughter cells
split and process
repeats
• If matrix growth
> division,
groups far apart
• If matrix growth
< division,
groups closer
together
– Groups not always
obvious!
 INTERSTITIAL GROWTH
• Existing
chondrocytes make
more matrix
• If division doesn’t
keep pace, spacing
of groups increases
• If division is fast,
distribution more
uniform
– ISOGENOUS
GROUPS STILL
EXIST
– Embryonic
cartilage more
uniform than
adult
APPOSITIONAL • Occurs at edges
GROWTH of cartilaginous
structures
• Cells in
perichondrium
differentiate
into
chondrocytes
– Matrix is made
and laid down,
lacunae formed
– Shape of
structure can be
changed
– May be localized
• Same process as
interstitial
growth:
different
location!
PERICHONDRIUM
• Cartilage almost
always
surrounded by a
dense fibrous CT,
• Cells of
perichondrium
are CHONDRO-
GENIC and
important in
growth
• Cells derived
from fibroblast
line
THE EXCEPTION: ARTICULAR
SURFACES
 HYALINE
CARTILAGE

“Hyalos’, =
“glassy”
Appearance
in gross
specimens
Most common
type
Other types are
variations on
the theme
 ELASTIC CARTILAGE
• Fibers primarily
elastic
– Not much
collagen
• Confers
flexibility and
shape retention
• Chondrocytes
larger and
isogenous
groups closely
spaced
Examples: epiglottis, pinna, larynx
 FIBROUS CARTILAGE
• Lacunae sparse,
often incomplete
• Matrix limited but
present
• Fibrous element
predominant
• “Transitional”
form between
cartilage and true
fibrous CT
• Limited to a few
sites: pubic
symphisis and
intervertebral
discs
 CARTILAGE REPAIR
• Cartilage has very limited repair capability
– Cartilage is AVASCULAR!
• Dependent on diffusion kinetics
– If chondrocytes live, matrix can be replaced
– Chondrocyte loss means loss of structure
• Some limited regeneration by differentiation of
cells from perichondrium
– Injury to articular cartilage not a good thing: no
perichondrium!
– Usual “repair” by fibrosis & collagen proliferation
• Calcification may occur
 BONE
• MOST DYNAMIC
• FUNCTIONS:
OF ALL TISSUES
– Protection:
• Remodeled • Brain, spinal cord,
continuously and internal organs
throughout life • Sites of attachment
• Cellular for muscles and
contribution tendons
determines • Houses
properties hemopoietic tissue
– Volume of cells is • Storehouse of
small
calcium and
– Fibrous & matrix
phosphorus
components vital
 “BONE” &
“BONES”
• GROSS &
HISTOLOGICAL
terms
• “Shell” of
histologically
compact bone;
• “Core” of
histologically spongy
bone
• Merge into each
other
 BONES
ARE NOT
“NAKED”
• Articular HYALINE
cartilage
• Outer surface
invested by a tough
CT covering
– PERIOSTEUM
• Analogous to
perichondrium
• Has fibroblasts
• No periosteum at
articular surfaces
• PERIOSTEUM HAS
OSTEOGENIC
POTENTIAL
– Appositional
growth shapes
bones
ANATOMIC
BONE
SECTION:
IN
THREE
DIMENSIONS
THE OSTEON
• Basic unit of compact
bone
• Cylindrical structure
of concentric lamellae
• Osteonal canal a
passageway for BV’s,
nerves, lymphatics
• All osteons potentially
in contact with each
other
• Lamellae composed of
collagen fibers
impregnated and
hardened
OSTEON IN 3-D
• Collagen
fibers
arranged at
right angles
• Osteocytes
embedded in
lamellae
– In lacunae
• Endosteum is
active
cellular layer
 OSTEON REPLACEMENT
• Renewal is continuous & predictable
• Old osteons become interstitial systems
 BLOOD SUPPLY IN BONE
• Arteries penetrate
from periosteum
• Ramify through
osteonal and lateral
canals
• Perforate to
marrow cavity
– Spongy bone
nourished by
diffusion
• Veins follow return
route
• Connect LATERAL CANALS
adjacent
osteons
• Route BV’s,
etc., through
hard
material
• Innermost
reach the
marrow
cavity
• Outermost
reach the
sub-
periosteal
space
 NUTRIENT &WASTE
TRANSPORT
• DIFFUSION
CANNOT WORK
• Resident cell in
lacunae between
lamellae
• Small channels radiate
from each lacuna
through the hard
material
• These are routes for
passage
– Gap Junctions essential
 OSTEOGENESIS
• THE FIRST PRINCIPLE: New bone
always develops by replacement of a
pre-existing connective tissue
• THE SECOND PRINCIPLE:
Regardless of what pre-existing CT is
replaced, the process of bone
formation and the cells involved are the
same
• THE THIRD PRINCIPLE: Both modes
can occur simultaneously in the same
osteogenic area
 ENDOCHONDRAL OSTEOGENESIS
• Replacement of pre-existing hyaline cartilage
by bone
 INTRAMEMBRANOUS
OSTEOGENESIS
• Replacement
of pre-existing
non-cartilage
CT by bone
– NO cartilage
model
– Embryonic CT
– Classic
example is
some flat
bones of the
skull
 ENDOCHONDRAL vs
INTRAMEMBRANOUS MODES
• BOTH PROCESSES ARE ESSENTIALLY
THE SAME
– Same cells participate and do the same things
• AT BIOCHEMICAL & CELLULAR LEVEL
SAME EVENTS OCCUR
– Differences:
• SITE of activity
• ORGANIZATION of activity
• NUMBERS of centers of ossification
• WHAT is replaced
ENDOCHONDRAL
OSSIFICATION
•Cartilage model
laid down
•Blood vessels
enter from
perichondrium
•Cells with
osteogenic
capacity “invade”
•Centers of
ossification set up
•Cartilage
replaced in an
orderly manner
ENDOCHONDRAL OSTEOGENESIS
• Resting
cells
divide
• Rate of
division
exceeds
rate of
matrix
synthesis
• Cells line
up in rows
• Hyper-
trophy
ensues
•Cells stop
dividing, die,
and enlarge
•Matrix thins,
lacunae open
•Cartilage is
provisionally
calcified
•Calcified
cartilage is
replaced by new
bone
•New bone
immediately
remodeled
GROWTH PLATE
 BONE CELLS: OSTEOBLAST
• Active bone
FORMING cell
• Arise from
fibroblast line or
stem cells
• Makes & calcifies
fibers & matrix
• In rows along bone
• Polarized,
basophilic
• Eventually become
osteocytes
 BONE CELLS: THE OSTEOCYTE
• “Mature” phase of
life cycle
• Osteoblasts enclose
themselves in
lacunae and transit
to this stage
• A “maintenance”
cell
• Plays an active role
in calcium
metabolism
• Maintains
communication
with all others
OSTEOCLAST
• BONE-ERODING
cell
– From the monocyte,
NOT fibroblast line
– Syncytial: arise from
fusion of precursors
– Same origin as
macrophages
• Large &
multinucleated
• Abundant in areas
undergoing
resorption
• Strongly reactive for
lysosomal enzymes
• “Frothy” look from
large #s of lysosomes
 STRIKING A BALANCE
• Bone cell activity is normally under very
tight control
• Hormonal, nutritional, and other factors
are important
• Balance between building activity of
osteoblasts and removal by osteoclasts
keeps anatomic bones “normal” in shape
and makeup
• Disease, malnutrition, parasitization, etc.
can affect this balance
• Age of the animal also must be considered
PUTTING IT TOGETHER:
FRACTURE REPAIR
• A nice example of coordination and
integration of endochondral and
intramembranous osteogenesis
• Involves CT of periosteum as well as
bone
• Demonstrates plasticity of bone and
responsiveness to insult
• SAME PROCESSES ARE USED AS
IN DE NOVO OSTEOGENESIS
BONE FRACTURE & REPAIR
PUTTING IT TOGETHER:
FRACTURE REPAIR