Chapter 10: Boiling and

Condensation
Dr Ali Jawarneh
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Hashemite University
 Objectives
When you finish studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Differentiate between evaporation and boiling, and gain
familiarity with different types of boiling,
• Develop a good understanding of the boiling curve, and the
different boiling regimes corresponding to different regions of
the boiling curve,
• Calculate the heat flux and its critical value associated with
nucleate boiling, and examine the methods of boiling heat
transfer enhancement,
• Derive a relation for the heat transfer coefficient in laminar
film condensation over a vertical plate,
• Calculate the heat flux associated with condensation on
inclined and horizontal plates, vertical and horizontal cylinders
or spheres, and tube bundles,
• Examine dropwise condensation and understand the
uncertainties associated with them.
 Boiling Heat Transfer
• Evaporation occurs at • Boiling occurs at the
the liquid–vapor solid–liquid interface
interface when the when a liquid is brought
vapor pressure is less into contact with a
than the saturation surface maintained at a
pressure of temperature sufficiently
the liquid above the saturation
at a given temperature of the
liquid
temperature.
 Classification of boiling
Pool Boiling Flow Boiling
• Boiling is called pool • Boiling is called flow
boiling in the absence boiling in the presence
of bulk fluid flow. of bulk fluid flow.
• Any motion of the fluid • In flow boiling, the fluid
is due to natural is forced to move in a
convection currents and heated pipe
the motion of the
bubbles or over a
under the surface by
influence external
of buoyancy. means such
as a pump.
 Classification of boiling
Subcooled Boiling Saturated Boiling
• When the temperature • When the temperature
of the main body of the of the liquid is equal to
liquid is below the the saturation
saturation temperature. temperature.
 Pool Boiling
Boiling takes different forms, depending on the ΔTexcess=Ts-Tsat
 Natural Convection (to Point A on the
Boiling Curve)
• Bubbles do not form on the heating surface until the
liquid is heated a few degrees above the saturation
temperature (about 2 to 6°C for water)
the liquid is slightly superheated in this
case (metastable state).
• The fluid motion in this mode of boiling is governed
by natural convection currents.
• Heat transfer from the heating surface to the fluid is
by natural convection.
 Nucleate Boiling
• The bubbles form at an increasing rate at an
increasing number of nucleation sites as we
move along the boiling curve toward point C.
• Region A–B ─isolated bubbles.
• Region B–C ─ numerous continuous columns
of vapor in the liquid.
 Nucleate Boiling
• In region A–B the stirring and agitation caused by the
entrainment of the liquid to the heater surface is
primarily responsible for the increased heat transfer
coefficient.
• In region A–B the large heat fluxes obtainable in this
region are caused by the combined effect of liquid
entrainment and evaporation.
• After point B the heat flux increases at a lower rate
with increasing ΔTexcess, and reaches a maximum at
point C.
• The heat flux at this point is called the critical (or
maximum) heat flux, and is of prime engineering
importance.
 Transition Boiling
• When ΔTexcess is increased past point C, the heat flux
decreases.
• This is because a large fraction of the heater surface is
covered by a vapor film, which acts as an insulation.
• In the transition boiling regime, both nucleate and film
boiling partially occur.
 Film Boiling
• Beyond Point D the heater surface is completely
covered by a continuous stable vapor film.
• Point D, where the heat flux reaches a minimum is
called the Leidenfrost point.
• The presence of a vapor film between the heater
surface and the liquid is responsible for the low heat
transfer rates in the film boiling region.
• The heat transfer rate increases with increasing excess
temperature due to radiation to the liquid.
 Burnout Phenomenon
• A typical boiling process does not follow the boiling
curve beyond point C. C E
• When the power applied to the
heated surface exceeded the
value at point C even slightly,
the surface temperature
increased suddenly to point E. D
• When the power is reduced
gradually starting from point E
the cooling curve follows Fig. 10–8 with a sudden
drop in excess temperature when point D is reached.
 Heat Transfer Correlations in Pool
Boiling
• Boiling regimes differ considerably in their
character
different heat transfer relations need
to be used for different boiling regimes.
• In the natural convection boiling regime heat
transfer rates can be accurately determined
using natural convection relations.
 Heat Transfer Correlations in Pool
Boiling ─ Nucleate Boiling
• No general theoretical relations for heat transfer in
the nucleate boiling regime is available.
• Experimental based correlations are used.
• The rate of heat transfer strongly depends on the
nature of nucleation and the type and the condition of
the heated surface.
• A widely used correlation proposed in 1952 by
Rohsenow:
1) All fluid properties (vapor {v}+liquid{l}) can be evaluated at Tsat
2) Liquid (l) and Vapor (v) properties for water Table A-9
3) Csf and n Table 10-3
4) σ Table 10-1 and 10-2
 Heat Transfer Correlations in Pool
Boiling ─ Nucleate Boiling
• The values in Rohsenow equation can be used for any
geometry since it is found that the rate of heat transfer
during nucleate boiling is essentially independent of
the geometry and orientation of the heated surface.
• The correlation is applicable to clean and relatively
smooth surfaces.
• Error for the heat transfer rate for a given excess
temperature: 100%.
• Error for the excess temperature for a given heat
transfer rate for the heat transfer rate and by 30%.
 Critical Heat Flux (CHF)
• The maximum (or critical) heat flux in nucleate pool boiling was
determined theoretically by S. S. Kutateladze in Russia in 1948 and
N. Zuber in the United States in 1958 to be: 1
qmax = Ccr h fg ⎡⎣σ g ρv2 ( ρl − ρv ) ⎤⎦ 4
Ccr is a constant whose value depends on the heater
geometry, but generally is about 0.15, See Table 10-4
Fluid properties could be evaluated at Tsat
• The CHF is independent of the fluid–heating surface
combination, as well as the viscosity, thermal conductivity,
and the specific heat of the liquid.
• The CHF increases with pressure up to about one-third of the
critical pressure, and then starts to decrease and becomes zero
at the critical pressure.
• The CHF is proportional to hfg, and large maximum heat
fluxes can be obtained using fluids with a large enthalpy of
vaporization, such as water.
 Minimum Heat Flux
• Minimum heat flux, which occurs at the Leidenfrost point, is
of practical interest since it represents the lower limit for the
heat flux in the film boiling regime.
• Zuber derived the following expression for the minimum heat
flux for a large horizontal plate
1
⎡ σ g ( ρl − ρv ) ⎤ 4

qmin = 0.09 ρv hfg ⎢ ⎥

⎢⎣ ( ρl + ρv ) ⎥⎦
2

• the relation above can be in error by

50% or more.
*Fluid Properties could be evaluated at Tsat
 Film Boiling
• The heat flux for film boiling on a horizontal
cylinder or sphere of diameter D is given by

1
⎡ gk ρv ( ρl − ρv ) ⎡ h fg + 0.4C pv (Ts − Tsat ) ⎤ ⎤
3 4
⎣ ⎦⎥
q film = C film ⎢
v
(Ts − Tsat )
⎢⎣ μv D (Ts − Tsat ) ⎥⎦

• Cfilm=0.62 for horizontal cylinders and 0.67 for

spheres
• Vapor properties are to be evaluated at:
Tf = (Ts+Tsat )/2
• Liquid properties and hfg are to be evaluated at
Tsat
* At high surface temperatures (typically above 300°C), heat
transfer across the vapor film by radiation becomes significant and
needs to be considered.
*The two mechanisms of heat transfer (radiation and convection)
adversely affect each other, causing the total heat transfer to be
less than their sum.
*The radiation heat transfer from the surface to the liquid enhances
the rate of evaporation, and thus the thickness of the vapor film,
which impedes convection heat transfer. For , Bromley
determined that the relation
Enhancement of Heat Transfer in Pool
Boiling
• The rate of heat transfer in the nucleate boiling regime
strongly depends on the number of active nucleation sites on
the surface, and the rate of bubble formation at each site.
• Therefore, modification that enhances nucleation on the
heating surface will also enhance heat transfer in nucleate
boiling.
• Irregularities on the heating surface, including roughness and
dirt, serve as additional nucleation
sites during boiling.
• The effect of surface roughness is
observed to decay with time.
Enhancement of Heat Transfer in Pool
Boiling
• Surfaces that provide enhanced heat transfer in
nucleate boiling permanently are being manufactured
and are available in the market.
• Heat transfer can be enhanced by a factor of up to 10
during nucleate boiling, and the
critical heat flux by a factor of 3.

Thermoexcel-E
 Flow Boiling
• In flow boiling, the fluid is forced to move by an
external source such as a pump as it undergoes a
phase-change process.
• The boiling in this case exhibits the combined effects
of convection and pool boiling.
• Flow boiling is classified as either
external and internal flow boiling.
• External flow ─ the higher the
velocity, the higher the nucleate
boiling heat flux and the critical
heat flux.
 Flow Boiling ─ Internal Flow
• The two-phase flow in a
tube exhibits different flow
boiling regimes, depending
on the relative amounts of
the liquid and the vapor
phases.
• Typical flow regimes:
Axial position in the tube

– Liquid single-phase flow,

– Bubbly flow,
– Slug flow,
– Annular flow,
– Mist flow,
– Vapor single-phase flow.
 Flow Boiling ─ Internal Flow
• Liquid single-phase flow
– In the inlet region the liquid is subcooled and heat transfer to the liquid is
by forced convection (assuming no subcooled boiling).
• Bubbly flow
– Individual bubbles
– Low mass qualities
• Slug flow
– Bubbles coalesce into slugs of vapor.
– Moderate mass qualities
• Annular flow
– Core of the flow consists of vapor only, and liquid adjacent to the walls.
– Very high heat transfer coefficients
• Mist flow
– a sharp decrease in the heat transfer coefficient
• Vapor single-phase flow
– The liquid phase is completely evaporated and vapor is superheated.
EXAMPLE: Water is to be boiled at atmospheric pressure
in a mechanically polished steel pan placed on top of a
heating unit. The inner surface of the bottom of the pan is
maintained at 110°C. If the diameter of the bottom of the
pan is 25 cm, determine (a) the rate of heat transfer to the
water and (b) the rate of evaporation.
 P = 1 atm

100°C
Water
110°C

Heating

Properties: The properties of water at the saturation temperature of

100C are (Tables 10-1 and A-9)
ρ l = 957.9 kg / m3 h fg = 2257 × 103 J / kg
ρ v = 0.60 kg / m3 μ l = 0.282 × 10−3 kg ⋅ m / s
σ = 0.0589 N / m C pl = 4217 J / kg⋅° C
Prl = 175
.

Also, Csf = 0.0130 and n = 1.0 for the boiling of water on a

mechanically polished stainless steel surface (Table 10-3 ).
Analysis: The excess temperature in this case is ΔT = Ts − Tsat = 110 − 100 = 10° C
which is relatively low (less than 30C). Therefore, nucleate boiling will
occur
 3
1/ 2 ⎛
⎡ g ( ρl − ρ v ) ⎤ C (T − T ) ⎞
qnucleate = μl h fg ⎢ ⎜ p ,l s sat ⎟
⎣ σ ⎥⎦ ⎜ Csf h fg Prln ⎟
⎝ ⎠
1/2 3
⎡ 9.8(957.9 - 0.60) ⎤ ⎛ 4217(110 − 100) ⎞
= (0.282 × 10− 3 )(2257 × 103 ) ⎢ ⎥⎦
⎜⎜ 3
⎟⎟
⎣ 0.0589 ⎝ 0.0130(2257 × 10 )1.75 ⎠
= 140,700 W/m 2

As = πD 2 / 4 = π (0.25 m) 2 / 4 = 0.04909 m 2

Then the rate of heat transfer during nucleate boiling becomes

Q boiling = As q nucleate = (0.04909 m 2 )(140,700 W/m 2 ) = 6907 W

(b) The rate of evaporation of water is determined from

Q boiling 6907 J/s −3

m evaporation = = 3
= 3.06 × 10 kg/s
h fg 2257 × 10 J/kg
 Condensation
• Condensation occurs when the temperature of
a vapor is reduced below its saturation
temperature.
• Only condensation on solid surfaces is
considered in this chapter.
• Two forms of condensation:
– Film condensation,
– Dropwise condensation.
 Film condensation
• The condensate wets the
surface and forms a liquid
film.
• The surface is blanketed by
a liquid film which serves as
a resistance to heat transfer.
Dropwise condensation
• The condensed vapor forms
droplets on the surface.
• The droplets slide down
when they reach a certain
size.
• No liquid film to resist heat
transfer.
• As a result, heat transfer
rates that are more than 10
times larger
than with film
condensation
can be achieved.
 Film Condensation
• liquid film starts forming at the top
of the plate and flows downward
under the influence of gravity.
• δ increases in the flow direction x
• Heat in the amount hfg is released
during condensation and is
transferred through the film to the
plate surface.
• Ts must be below the saturation
temperature for condensation.
• The temperature of the condensate
is Tsat at the interface and decreases
gradually to Ts at the wall. Vertical Plate
 π π
A cyl = (D + 2δ) 2 − D 2
4 4
D δ
= πδ(D + δ) ≅ πδD
δ
L
- Condensation in an actual condensation is cooled further to some
average temp between Tsat and Ts, releasing more heat in the process.

h*fg: modified latent heat of vaporization

- If the vapor enters the condenser as superheated vapor at a

temperature Tv instead of as saturated vapor Tsat. In this case the
vapor must be cooled first to Tsat before it can condense, and
this heat must be transferred to the wall as well

1- Liquid properties @ Tf= (Tsat+Ts)/2

2- ρv , hfg @ Tsat
3- Cpv @ (Tv+Ts)/2
4- Cpl @ Tf= (Tsat+Ts)/2
This relation is convenient to use to determine the Reynolds
number when the condensation heat transfer coefficient or
the rate of heat transfer is known
 Vertical Plate ─ Flow Regimes
• The dimensionless parameter
controlling the transition between
regimes is the Reynolds number
defined as:
hydraulic diameter ( Dh )
P
Re x =
( 4δ ) ρlVl
μl
• Three prime flow regimes:
– Re<30 ─ Laminar (wave-free),
– 30<Re<1800 ─ Wavy-laminar,
– Re>1800 ─ Turbulent.
• The Reynolds number increases in the
flow direction.
 Heat Transfer Correlations for Film
Condensation ─ Vertical wall
Assumptions:
1. Both the plate and the vapor are
maintained at constant temperatures of Ts
and Tsat, respectively, and the temperature
across the liquid film varies linearly.
2. Heat transfer across the liquid film is by
pure conduction.
3. The velocity of the vapor is low (or zero)
so that it exerts no drag on the condensate
(no viscous shear on the liquid–vapor
interface).
4. The flow of the condensate is laminar
(Re<30) and the properties of the liquid
are constant.
5. The acceleration of the condensate layer is Height L and width b
negligible.
 Hydrodynamics
• Netwon’s second law of motion
Weight=Viscous shear force +Buoyancy force
or du
ρl g (δ − y )( bdx ) = μl ( bdx ) + ρv g (δ − y )( bdx )
dy
• Canceling the plate width b and solving for du/dy
du g ( ρl − ρv )(δ − y )
=
dy μl

• Integrating from y=0 (u =0) to y (u =u(y))

g ( ρl − ρ v ) ⎛ y2 ⎞
u( y) = ⎜ yδ − ⎟ (10-12)
μl ⎝ 2 ⎠
• The mass flow rate of the condensate at a location
x is determined from
δ
m ( x) = ∫ ρl u ( y )dA = ∫ ρl u ( y )bdy (10-13)
A y =0

Substituting u(y) from Eq. 10–12 into Eq. 10–13

gb ρl ( ρl − ρv ) δ 3
m ( x) = (10-14)
3μ l

whose derivative with respect to x is

dm gb ρl ( ρl − ρ v ) δ d δ
2

= (10-15)
dx μl dx
 Thermal Considerations
• The rate of heat transfer from the vapor to the plate
through the liquid film

Tsat − Ts
dQ = h fg dm = kl ( bdx )

δ
dm kl b Tsat − Ts
→ = (10-16)
dx h fg δ
• Equating Eqs. 10–15 and 10–16 and separating
the variables give
μl kl (Tsat − Ts )
δ dδ =
3
dx
g ρl ( ρl − ρv ) h fg (10-17)

• Integrating from x =0 (δ=0) to x (δ=δ(x)), the

liquid film thickness at x is determined to be
14
⎡ 4 μl kl (Tsat − Ts ) x ⎤
δ ( x) = ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ g ρl ( ρl − ρv ) h fg ⎥⎦
(10-18)
• Since the heat transfer across the liquid film is assumed to be by
pure conduction, the heat transfer coefficient can be expressed
through Newton’s law of cooling and Fourier law as
Tsat − Ts kl
q x = hx (Tsat − Ts ) = kl → hx = (10-19)
δ δ
• Substituting δ(x) from Eq. 10–18, the local heat transfer coefficient
is determined to be
⎡ g ρl ( ρl − ρ v ) h k
14
3
⎤
hx = ⎢
fg l
⎥
⎢⎣ 4μl (Tsat − Ts ) x
(10-20)
⎥⎦

• The average heat transfer coefficient over the entire plate is

⎡ g ρl ( ρl − ρ v ) h k
14
1 L 4
3
⎤
h = ∫ hx dx = hx = L = 0.943 ⎢
fg l
⎥
⎢⎣ μl (Tsat − Ts ) L
(10-21)
L 0 3 ⎥⎦
• It is observed to underpredict heat transfer
because it does not take into account the
effects of the nonlinear temperature profile in
the liquid film and the cooling of the liquid
below the saturation temperature.
• Both of these effects can be accounted for by
replacing hfg by modified h*fg to yield
⎡ g ρl ( ρl − ρ v ) h k
14
1 L 4
* 3
⎤
h = ∫ hx dx = hx = L = 0.943 ⎢
fg l
⎥
⎢⎣ μl (Tsat − Ts ) L
(10-22)
L 0 3 ⎥⎦

0 <Re<30
• When ρv«ρl (and thus ρl-ρv≈ρl). Using this
approximation and substituting Eqs. 10–14 and 10–18 at
x =L into the Reynolds number definition by noting that
δx=L=kl/hx=L and havg=4/3hx=L (Eqs. 10–19 and 10–21)
give 3
4 g ρl ( ρl − ρ v ) δ
3
4 g ρ l ⎛ kl ⎞ 4 g ⎛ kl ⎞ (10-23)
3 2
Re ≅ = 2 ⎜ ⎟ = 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
3μl2
3μl ⎝ hx = L ⎠ 3ν l ⎝ 3havg / 4 ⎠
Eq. 10-18 at δ(L) Eq. (10-19) or Eq. (10-20) Replace x with L

• Then the average heat transfer coefficient in terms of Re

becomes
1/ 3
⎛g ⎞
hvert ≅ 1.47 k l Re −1/ 3
⎜ 2⎟ ρ v  ρl (10-24)
⎝ν l ⎠
0 < Re < 30
 Wavy Laminar Flow on Vertical
Plates
• The waves at the liquid–vapor interface tend to increase heat
transfer.
• Knowledge is based on experimental studies.
• The increase in heat transfer due to the wave effect is, on
average, about 20 percent, but it can exceed 50 percent.
• Based on his experimental studies, Kutateladze (1963)
recommended the following relation

1/ 3
Re k l ⎛g ⎞
hvert ,wavy = ⎜ ⎟ ; ρ v  ρl (10-25)
1.08 Re1.22 − 5.2 ⎝ ν l2 ⎠
30 <Re <1800
 Turbulent Flow on Vertical Plates
• Labuntsov (1957) proposed the following relation for
the turbulent flow of condensate on vertical plates:

1/ 3
Re k l ⎛g ⎞
hvert ,turbulent ⎜ 2⎟
(
8750 + 58 Pr −0.5 Re0.75 − 253 ) ⎝ν l ⎠
(10-28)

Re > 1800, ρv<< ρL

 Inclined Plates

Equation 10–30 is developed for laminar flow

of condensate, but it can also be used for wavy
laminar flows as an approximation.

- Less heat transfer than vertical

 Vertical Tubes

Equation 10–22 or 10-24 {laminar} or 10-25

{wavy laminar} for vertical plates can also be
used to calculate the average heat transfer
coefficient for laminar film condensation on
the outer surfaces of vertical tubes provided
that the tube diameter is large relative to the
thickness of the liquid film.
 Horizontal Tubes and Spheres

where D is the diameter of the horizontal tube. Equation 10–31 can easily
be modified for a sphere by replacing the constant 0.729 by 0.815

A comparison of the heat transfer coefficient relations

for a vertical tube of height L and a horizontal tube of
diameter D yields

Considering that the length of a tube in any practical application is several

times its diameter, it is common practice to place the tubes in a condenser
horizontally to maximize the condensation heat transfer coefficient on the
outer surfaces of the tubes.
 Horizontal Tube Banks
- This relation does not account for the increase
in heat transfer due to the ripple formation and
turbulence caused during drainage, and thus
generally yields conservative results.

N: # of tubes in a vertical single tier Eq. 10-31

As=Ntotal π D L

- The average thickness of the liquid film at the lower tubes is much
larger as a result of condensate falling on top of them from the tubes
directly above. Therefore, the average heat transfer coefficient at the
lower tubes in such arrangements is smaller.
EXAMPLE: Saturated steam at 30°C condenses on the
outside of a 4-cm-outer-diameter, 2-m-long vertical tube.
The temperature of the tube is maintained at 20°C by the
cooling water. Determine (a) the rate of heat transfer from
the steam to the cooling water, (b) the rate of
condensation of steam, and (c) the approximate
thickness of the liquid film at the bottom of the tube.
Properties: The properties of water at the saturation temperature of
30oC are hfg = 2431×103 J/kg and ρv = 0.03 kg/m3. The properties of
liquid water at the film temperature of Tf=(Tsat+Ts)/2=(30 + 20)/2 =
25°C are (Table A-9)
ρ l = 997.0 kg / m 3
μ l = 1002
. × 10 −3 kg / m ⋅ s
ν l = μ l / ρ l = 1005
. × 10 −6 m 2 / s
C pl = 4180 J / kg⋅° C
k l = 0.607 W / m⋅° C

Analysis (a) The modified latent heat of vaporization is

h *fg = h fg + 0.68C pl (Tsat − Ts )

= 2431 × 103 J / kg + 0.68 × 4180 J / kg⋅° C(30 − 20)° C = 2459 × 103 J / kg
Assuming wavy-laminar flow, the Reynolds number is determined from

0.820
⎡ 3.70 Lk l (Tsat − Ts ) ⎛ g ⎞
1/ 3
⎤
Re = Re vertical,wavy ⎢
= 4.81 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢ μ l h fg
* ⎜ν 2 ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ l ⎠ ⎦
0.82
⎡ 3.70 × (2 m) × (0.607 W/m ⋅ °C) × (30 − 20)°C ⎛ 9.8 m/s 2 ⎞
1/ 3
⎤
= ⎢4.81 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = 133.9
⎢ (1.002 × 10 kg/m ⋅ s)(2459 × 10 J/kg ) ⎜⎝ (1.005 × 10 −6 m 2 / s) 2
−3 3 ⎟
⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦

Wavy Laminar

1/ 3
Re k l ⎛ g ⎞
h = hvertical,wavy = ⎜ ⎟
1.08 Re − 5.2 ⎜⎝ ν l2
1.22 ⎟
⎠
1/ 3
133.9 × (0.607 W/m ⋅ °C) ⎛ 9.8 m/s 2 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ = 4132 W/m 2 ⋅ °C
1.08(133.9) − 5.2 ⎜⎝ (1.005 × 10 −6 m 2 /s) 2
1.22 ⎟
⎠
 As = πDL = π (0.04 m)(2 m) = 0.2513 m 2

Q = hAs (Tsat − Ts ) = (4132 W/m 2 ⋅ °C)(0.2513 m 2 )(30 − 20)°C = 10,385 W

(b) The rate of condensation of steam is determined from

Q 10,385 J / s
m condensation = = = 4.22 × 10 -3 kg / s
h *fg 2459 × 103 J / kg

(c) Combining equations δ L = k l / hl [10-19] and h = (4 / 3)hL [10-21]

the thickness of the liquid film at the bottom of the tube is determined to
be
4kl 4(0.607 W / m⋅° C) -3
δL = = 2
= 0.196 × 10 = 0.2 mm
3h 3(4132 W / m ⋅° C)
OR: You can use Eq. 10-18

Note: We used Eq. 18, 19 and 21 as an approximation for wavy laminar

flow
 Film Condensation Inside Horizontal Tubes
For low vapor velocities, Chato (1962) recommends this expression
for condensation

For
 Dropwise Condensation
• One of the most effective mechanisms of heat
transfer, and extremely large heat transfer coefficients
can be achieved.
• Small droplets grow as a result of continued
condensation, coalesce into large droplets, and slide
down when they reach a certain size.
• Large heat transfer
coefficients enable designers
to achieve a specified heat
transfer rate with a smaller
surface area.
• Heat transfer coefficients can be achieved that are more than
10 times larger than those associated with film condensation

Dropwise condensation is achieved by

1) adding a promoting chemical into the vapor

2) treating the surface with a promoter chemical

The promoters used include various waxes and fatty acids such as
oleic, stearic, and linoic acids

3) coating the surface with a polymer such as teflon or a

noble metal such as gold, silver, rhodium, palladium, or
platinum.
 Dropwise Condensation
• The challenge in dropwise condensation is not to
achieve it, but rather, to sustain it for prolonged
periods of time.
• Dropwise condensation has been studied
experimentally for a number of surface–fluid
combinations.
• Griffith (1983) recommends these simple
correlations for dropwise condensation of steam on
copper surfaces:
⎧⎪51,104 + 2044T sat 22 0C < T sat < 100 0C
hdropwise =⎨
⎪⎩255,310 T sat > 100 0C
Tsat: in oC