PREFACE

Construction is the final process of any civil works. Prior to that, many different works are carried out
in order to build a desirable and useful structure. One of them is the preparation of a report. A final
report of the given civil work is the compilation of existing situation as well as proposed model
considering various social, economic and technical parameters. Likewise, this detailed feasibility
report considers social situation, agricultural practices, river morphology, ground topography, etc. in
order to give the final design for lift irrigation project.

This report consists of detail description of the project site including background, climate,
temperature variations, rainfall variation, etc. Design portion is the main part of this report. It
consists of arrangement of cropping pattern in suitable format to estimate the water requirement of
crops in the given command area. This data is then analyzed and modified in order to determine the
required capacities of intake, reservoir, pipes and other accessories. Similarly, all the construction
works are considered as per the design to give the estimate of quantity and cost of the project.
Economic analysis of the proposed irrigation project is done to justify the benefit of the project. This
report consists of scaled drawings of intake structure, pipes, reservoir as well as the distribution
system. All tables, calculations and supplementary data are compiled in Annex part of this project
report.

In doing all the survey, analysis, calculations and design, a beautiful report has been prepared.
Various researches has also been carried out to estimate/design parts of this project. This report will
guide the client about the cost of the project. The design and drawings will guide the contractor to
construct the required structures in appropriate form. All in all, this detailed feasibility report is a
great achievement for the purpose of construction of lift irrigation projects.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We wish to record our appreciation for all persons who helped us in site and in office in preparing
this report. We are grateful to Users’ Committee of Sandhikharka municipility-4 for the detail
information about site and help in the survey work. Similarly, we must thank the villagers who
worked with us in survey and helped us to carry survey equipment in field.

We must thank civil engineers Mr. Sabin Pudasaini, Mr. Sundar Aryal and Mr. Sandeep Pandey who
were directly involved in design of this project. This work would not have been possible without
their effort. Also, we should thank engineers from Non-Conventional Irrigation Technology Project
(NITP), Department of Irrigation as well as Irrigation Development Division, Arghakhanchi for all the
help and guidance.

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 UNITS AND ABBREVIATIONS

UNITS

cum : CUBIC METRE

sqm : SQUARE METRE
rm : RUNNING METRE
no. : NUMBER
C : CELSIUS
mm/d : MILLIMETRE PER DAY
lps : LITRES PER SECOND
HP : HORSE POWER

ABBREVIATIONS

VDC : VILLAGE DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE

EDM : ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
CWR : CROP WATER REQUIREMENT
ET : EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
K : CROP COEFFICIENT

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE..................................................................................................................................................i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT............................................................................................................................ii
UNITS AND ABBREVIATIONS..................................................................................................................iii
UNITSiii
ABBREVIATIONS................................................................................................................................iii
ABSTRACT..............................................................................................................................................2
SALIENT FEATURES OF THE PROJECT......................................................................................................3
1. INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................1
1.1 BACKGROUND..........................................................................................................................1
1.2 RATIONALE...............................................................................................................................2
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT...................................................................................................2
1.4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY..............................................................................................................3
1.5 METHODOLOGY.......................................................................................................................3
2. THE PROJECT SITE...............................................................................................................................4
2.1 GENERAL......................................................................................................................................4
2.2 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS..........................................................................................4
2.3 CLIMATE...................................................................................................................................5
2.4 TOPOGRAPHY AND EXISTING STRUCTURES.............................................................................5
2.5 AGRICULTURE..........................................................................................................................5
3. ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF THE PROJECT............................................................................................6
3.1 ENGINEERING STUDY...................................................................................................................6
3.1.1 SITE SURVEY.........................................................................................................................6
3.1.2 MATERIAL SURVEY...............................................................................................................6
3.2 LITEREATURE REVIEW..............................................................................................................7
3.2.1 CROP WATER REQUIREMENT...............................................................................................7
3.2.2 ESTIMATING REFERENCE CROP EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ETo).............................................9
3.2.3 ESTIMATING CROP EVAPOTRANSPIRATION OR CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS UNDER
STANDARD CONDITIONS (ETc)....................................................................................................12
3.3 DESIGN AND CALCULATION...................................................................................................15
4. RECOMMENDATIONS...................................................................................................................16
5. CONCLUSION................................................................................................................................17
6. REFERENCES..................................................................................................................................18
ANNEX I..................................................................................................................................................1
ANNEX II.................................................................................................................................................2
ANNEX III................................................................................................................................................3
 ABSTRACT

Lift Irrigation is a method of irrigation in which water is transported from source which is at lower
elevation to the target land which is at higher elevation. Work is done in order to transport the
required water to the higher ground by use of electric energy and then distributed by suitable
means. In this report, an electric motor system is proposed to perform mechanical work by which
the required quantity of water is transported from badkhola and divarna khola to the reservoir
proposed 325 m above.

Small Lift Irrigation technique is a boon for most land users in hilly and terai areas. As the name
suggests, it is constructed in low cost to support the agriculture activities of people. Because of
relatively low head uplift, the motor capacity can be lowered and thus it can be used commonly. One
of the benefits of using Small Lift Irrigation is its flexibility in the use of power source to run the
motor. Both electric power as well as solar panel can be used to run the motor. However, in this
project, we use electric power because of the availability of the power grid. Moreover, this project is
designed to account for all the cultivable crops and hence can later be used to cultivate any required
crops. This irrigation project is socially acceptable, technically sound and economically viable.

For the purpose of preparation of this report, detailed survey of site was carried out and necessary
table work was completed for design. Detailed survey of the site was carried out after the
completion of initial Identification survey from concerned government agency. In detailed survey,
ground points were recorded using EDM method. Then, appropriate computer software was used to
analyze the data and to give suitable design as output. Various designs were proposed and best
design was selected after proper social, economic and technical considerations. After rigorous rate
analysis and cost estimation, the total cost of the project has been calculated to be NRs.
1,26,10,000 /-
 SALIENT FEATURES OF THE PROJECT

Sn. Description
Detailed Feasibility Bansetari Dekhi
Name of Project
Adityapur Irrigation Project, Sa.Na.Pa 4
Province 5
District Arghakhanchi
Village/ Municipality Sandhikharka
Climate Lower Tropical
Terrain Hilly

1. Social Information
Total Household (Nos.) 100
Total Population (Nos) 500

2. Engineering Information
Name of the source Badkhola and Divarna khola
Type of Source Perennial
Maximum flood Discharge (m3/s) 33.647 lps in August
Least Discharge (m3/s) 1.23 lps in April

Intake Coordinate
-Submersible Pump 713064.36mE 3097483.07mN

GCA(ha) 27
Total CCA(ha) 25
Discharge from Pump (lps) 4
-Submersible Pump 2

Duty (lps/ha) 0.16

Intake 1 Sump Well Structure (18840 ltrs)

Distribution type Pipe Network

Nos. of Distribution
Main Pipe 2
2 Submersible Electric Pump, 15HP
Pump
operated by 11KW inverter
Valves Chamber 55
Length of Rising Main 950m
 Diameter of Rising Main 65mm
Excavation 1259.8 cum.
Backfilling 1034.73 cum.

3. Project Cost
Total cost (NRs.) Rs11,100,000
Cost of civil works (NRs.) Rs. 69,43,160
WUA Payable (NRs.) Rs.69,89,234
WUA contribution (NRs.) Rs. 5,24,493
Cost / ha Rs. 5,04,400.00

4. Agriculture Information
Existing Cropping intensity (%) 60%
Proposed Cropping intensity (%) 195%
 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

From the beginning of civilization, people have developed agriculture as one of their main occupation. It
is through agricultural development that the advancement of mankind has been possible. Today, billions
of people rely on cultivated crops like paddy, wheat, maize, potato, sugarcane, etc. for their food. Many
different technologies have been developed in order to increase the productivity of the crops.
Traditionally, people used to rely on water from the rainfall to irrigate the fields. This made crop yield
uncertain due to fluctuation in the average annual rainfall. One of the important technological
developments is brought by the shift in conventional agriculture system which broke the reliance on
rainfall. This development is called Irrigation system. While irrigation was practiced in the
Mesopotamian plains, ancient Egypt, ancient Persia as well as Sri Lanka, China, Korea, North America in
the earlier centuries, it was only in the mid-20 th century that the invention of diesel engine along with
electric motor leads to the development of modern irrigation system. Today, different types of irrigation
system are practiced as per the ground condition, water availability as well as convenience in irrigation.
Some of the main types of irrigation in use are Surface Irrigation, Drip Irrigation, Sprinkler Irrigation,
Subsurface Irrigation, etc. A simpler form of Irrigation system is to develop a conveyance channel to
divert the available water from the source to the target area. The conveyance channel can be a canal or
pipe. Similarly, a distribution channel is developed for the distribution of fetched water to the cultivable
land using suitable irrigation system.

Irrigation is relatively convenient in plain land adjoining the river than hilly land which lies above the
water source. In plain land, a suitable channel can be developed from river upstream and the head can
be utilized to irrigate the lower lands. For country like Nepal, which has large area of cultivable land in
hilly areas, utilization of water head is only possible if there is a source of water above the target area. In
places where there is no water source above or places which is at the top itself, a new technique is
required to fetch water. In Nepal, there are many cultivable lands in hills where water is abundant in
river below but cannot be brought up to the fields. To address such scenario, a new system of irrigation
has been developed which utilizes an electric motor to lift the water from river intake to a reservoir
from where it is distributed to the fields. Such a system is termed as Lift Irrigation system. Similarly,
Small Lift Irrigation scheme is a type of Lift Irrigation scheme designed for low head pumping and
distribution in relatively small irrigable area.

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 1.2 RATIONALE

Despite agriculture being the main occupation of people in Bansetari, their dependence on rainfall for
irrigation has not been sufficient for the production of desired crops. The farmers are unable to increase
the productivity due to the lack of sufficient water despite proper agriculture knowledge and
techniques. The construction of suitable irrigation works has become necessity of the farmers of
Bansetari in order to sustain their livelihood. Not only this, development of irrigation system will
enhance the cropping pattern thereby pushing the farmers to embrace professional agriculture
approach. This will in turn upgrade the living standard and economic status of the place.

While a earthen canal system has been developed for the purpose of Irrigation, it is not able to supply
required water to the cultivable lands. As it looks, one of the ways to irrigate the cultivable land is to
mobilize the nearby stream which seems to carry sufficient water to irrigate the land during all seasons.
This way the river water can be utilized and water can be made available throughout the year. In this
project, we propose to use Badkhola and Divarna khola as the source. The river water cannot be used
even in rainy period. Since some large part of the irrigable land is at elevation not very higher to the
river water level, low head pumping is sufficient for this project. Therefore, Small Lift Irrigation Scheme
seems to be appropriate to meet the demand of farmers in Bansetari. Beside technical aspect of
viability, this civil engineering project will promote lift irrigation system in Nepal as well.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

The specific objectives of the given project are as follows:

 To conduct detail ground survey of the irrigation site.
 To design lift irrigation scheme according to the proposed pipeline alignment and prepare
standard drawings of the irrigation structures.
 To embrace non-conventional irrigation technology by incorporating economical and sustainable
design philosophy.
 To prepare the estimation of works on the basis of construction norms and existing rates.
 To design suitable lift irrigation project.

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 1.2 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

Following points will be executed as part of the detailed feasibility survey and design of the irrigation:

 Selection of economically feasible and technically sound pipe alignment within the project area
including location of intake and reservoir.
 Conduct a detail engineering survey of the pipe alignment, intake and reservoir locations.
 Establishment of Bench Marks (BM) and temporary reference points.
 Meteorological data analysis of the given area for calculation of appropriate rainfall value and
hydrological data analysis of the river to determine the available discharge for lifting.
 Agricultural study of the project area including agriculture pattern to determine the net water
requirement of crops.
 Necessary demographic survey of the project area.
 Preparation of working drawings.
 Preparation of proper cost estimate of the engineering works along with rate analysis.
 Preparation of final report on survey and design of irrigation system.

1.3 METHODOLOGY

Any civil engineering design and construction requires survey of the project site, organization of the
survey data and analysis. Survey of the project site has different stages. Usually in irrigation survey, an
identification survey is carried out by the government agency and then detailed survey and design is
done by the selected consultants. Likewise, the study carried out in this project can be divided into two
phase. In first phase, a suitable site is selected for the irrigation features like intake structures, and
conveyance alignment and distribution points. This selection of site is partly based on previously carried
out identification survey by Irrigation Development Division, Arghakhanchi and partly based on the
technical judgment of the survey engineers. In second phase, detailed ground survey of the selected site
is carryout out using Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) method with support of Total Station. The
ground points are automatically stored in the machine in suitable format which is later transferred to
the computing device and analysis is carried out. For this project, civil 3D software is used for analysis
and design of irrigation features. Apart from technical aspects, ethical considerations are taken in
account for the survey and design. The hierarchy of Society, Profession, Organization and Individual has
been embraced.

The methodology used in this project is an upgrade to the traditional system. Conventionally, detailed
survey was carried out using Level Instrument and distance was measured using Tape. Similarly, ground
slope was determined using Abney Level. However, with the use of EDM methods these days, survey is
more precise and easy to carry out. The work can be completed in less time and less manpower is
required. This makes the project economical as well. Similarly, the use of civil software has made it
easier to analyze the data, develop plan, profile, section, etc. Therefore, design can be done more
efficiently.

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 2. THE PROJECT SITE

2.1 GENERAL

Bansetari is a place at Sandhikharka municipality in Arghakhanchi district of Nepal. It is a small village

situated at the top of mountain. The project site is a village which falls under Sandhikharka. The village
lies in high level difference topography. Most of the part of the village is hilly with some scattered
settlements at relatively higher altitude having total cultivable area of around 25 Hectares.

Source: Google Earth

2.2 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS

Bansetari has a total of 60 household with the population consisting mostly Majhi as the main ethnic
group. Like most of Arghakhanchi, Bansetari also share religious practice and festivals like Dashain,
Tihar, Maghe Sankranti and others which are of historic significance. Agriculture is the main occupation
of people living in this village. The district headquarter Sandikharka is about 112 kilometers from Butwal
via Sandhikharka-Gorusinghe road.

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A brief demographic description of Bansetari is presented below.

Self Surveyed Data

Total population 500
Male 285
Female 215
Total number of Household 100

2.3 CLIMATE

The climate in the project area is warm and temperate with average monthly temperatures ranging from
38°C to 6.6°C. Mean daily percentage of annual sunshine hours varies from 0.31 to 0.24. Similarly,
average annual rainfall in Bansetari varies between 0 mm to 1088.5mm. Because of uneven rainfall
distribution throughout the year, irrigation is used intensively in dry season i.e. October to April. During
wet season, irrigation is used to supplement rainfall and ensure proper soil moisture conditions for crop
cultivation.

2.4 TOPOGRAPHY AND EXISTING STRUCTURES

The topography of Bansetari is rolling where ground slope is mild, uniform. The badkhola and divarna
khola provides availability of water throughout the year. In hilly lands, professional farming is found to
be adopted. Regarding existing structures, there are few canal alignments throughout the village. The
canal is earthen. Due to the presence of such canal network, it is easier to build irrigation system. Only
the water from source has to be conveyed through the canal.

2.5 AGRICULTURE

People in Bansetari use different crops in different seasons. The selection of crop is mostly dependent
on crop water requirement since there is no sufficient water for crops with high crop water requirement
like paddy. The farmers generally cultivate Paddy, Wheat, Maize, Potato, Cauliflower, Onion etc. from

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Falgun to Asar. Similarly, they crop mostly paddy from Asar to Kartik when the water is obtained
abundantly from rainfall. At this time, the water is surplus and thus, no irrigation is required. Again, from
Kartik to Falgun, farmers mostly cultivate potato, lentil, onion, reddish, chilly.
In general, the cropping pattern used is mixed type. Because the land is divided into small parts and
each part generally belong to different user, the cropping pattern depends on their necessity, will and
convenience.

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 3. ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF THE PROJECT

3.1 ENGINEERING STUDY

3.1.1 SITE SURVEY
Before a pipeline alignment is finalized in an irrigation project, an engineering survey is carried out .The
survey may be completed in three stages. The first two stages consider all possible alternate alignments
keeping in view the viability of intake and reservoir. The fourth stage is meant for the detailed survey of
the selected alignment.
The stages of the engineering surveys are:
1. Map study
Map study is carried out at the first within the office. Various topographic maps are considered
prior to the site survey. Nowadays, internet is used mostly to locate the site. Software like
Google Earth is used most widely to navigate through the site and study the existing ground
features.

2. Identification Survey
Identification survey here refers to initial feasibility survey of the proposed site. After map study
and preliminary judgement, officials from concerned government agency go to the site and
study the viability of the project. GPS points are recorded in different possible intake/reservoir
locations. This survey decides whether or not to process the project ahead.

3. Detailed Feasibility Survey

Detailed feasibility survey refers to detail study of the ground feature of the proposed site,
selection of best possible location of intake/reservoir and pipeline alignment. This survey is
carried out by consultants and it is the final study of the project area prior to construction.

3.1.2 MATERIAL SURVEY

Detail information was collected during the detail survey to know if the construction materials were
available at the vicinity of the project area. Some basic assumptions were made during the rate analysis
of this proposed study, which are as follows:
Transportation of material from outside the project site:
The construction materials such as cement, GI wire, reinforcement etc. are transported by Truck from
Sandikharka up to the site. The transportation cost incurred for these materials to bring up to starting
point from Sandikharka is taken as given in the District Rate. Similarly, some materials like electric pump
are assumed to be transported from Kathmandu. Appropriate analysis of transportation cost is done in
Rate analysis.
Lead of boulder and aggregate:
Stone and sand are assumed to be available in the project site whereas crushed aggregates are assumed
to be transported from Nearby river.

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 3.2 LITEREATURE REVIEW

3.2.1 CROP WATER REQUIREMENT

3.2.1.1 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

Water can be lost from the soil surface and wet vegetation through a process called evaporation (E),
whereby liquid water is converted into water vapour and removed from the evaporating surface. Energy
is required to change the state of the molecules of water from liquid to vapour. The process is affected
by climatological factors such as solar radiation, air temperature, air humidity and wind speed. Where
the evaporating surface is the soil surface, the degree of shading of the crop canopy and the amount of
water available at the evaporating surface are the other factors that affect the evaporation process.
The second process of water loss is called transpiration (T), whereby liquid water contained in plant
tissues vaporizes into the atmosphere through small openings in the plant leaf, called stomata.
Transpiration, like direct evaporation, depends on the energy supply, vapour pressure gradient and
wind. Hence solar radiation, air temperature, air humidity and wind terms should be considered when
assessing transpiration. The soil water content and the ability of the soil to conduct water to the roots
also determine the transpiration rate, as do waterlogging and soil salinity. Crop characteristics,
environmental aspects and cultivation practices also have an influence on the transpiration.
The combination of these two separate processes, whereby water is lost on one hand by evaporation
from the soil surface and on the other hand by transpiration from a plant, is called evapotranspiration
(ET). Evaporation and transpiration occur simultaneously and there is no easy way of distinguishing
between the two processes.
When the crop is small evaporation is the main process, but once the crop is fully grown and completely
covers the ground transpiration becomes the dominant process. It has been estimated that at crop
sowing 100% of the total ET comes from evaporation, while at full crop cover evaporation accounts for
about 10% of ET and transpiration for the remaining 90%.

Factors affecting crop evapotranspiration:

The main factors affecting evapotranspiration are climatic parameters, crop characteristics,
management practices and environmental aspects.
The main climatic factors affecting evapotranspiration are solar radiation, air temperature, air humidity
and wind speed.
The crop type, variety and development stages affect evapotranspiration. Differences in crop resistance
to transpiration, crop height, crop roughness, reflection, canopy cover and crop rooting characteristics
result in different evapotranspiration levels in different types of crops under identical environmental
conditions.
Factors such as soil salinity, poor land fertility, limited use of fertilizers and chemicals, lack of pest and
disease control, poor soil management and limited water availability at the root zone may limit the crop
development and reduce evapotranspiration. Other factors that affect evapotranspiration are
groundcover and plant density. Cultivation practices and the type of irrigation system used can alter the
microclimate, affect the crop characteristics or affect the wetting of the soil and crop surface. All these
affect evapotranspiration

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 3.2.1.2 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION CONCEPTS

The evapotranspiration from a reference surface not short of water is called the reference crop
evapotranspiration and is denoted by ET o. The reference surface is a hypothetical grass reference crop
with specific characteristics. The concept of ETo was introduced to study the evaporative demand of the
atmosphere independently of crop type, crop development stage and management practices. As water
is abundant at the evapotranspiring surface, soil factors do not affect evapotranspiration. Relating
evapotranspiration to a specific surface provides a reference to which evapotranspiration from other
surfaces can be related. It removes the need to define a separate evapotranspiration level for each crop
and stage of growth.
The only factors affecting ET o are climatic parameters. As a result, ET o is a climatic parameter and can be
computed from weather data. ETo expresses the evaporative demand of the atmosphere at a specific
location and time of the year and does not consider crop and soil factors.

3.2.1.3 CROP EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

The crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions, denoted as ET c, is the evapotranspiration from
disease-free, well-fertilized crops, grown in large fields under optimum soil water conditions and
achieving full production under the given climatic conditions. The values of ET c and CWR (Crop Water
Requirements) are identical, whereby ET c refers to the amount of water lost through evapotranspiration
and CWR refers to the amount of water that is needed to compensate for the loss.
ETc can be calculated from climatic data by directly integrating the effect of crop characteristics into ET o.
Using recognized methods, an estimation of ETo is done. Experimentally determined ratios of ET c/ ETo,
called crop coefficients (Kc), are used to relate ETc to ETo as given in the following equation:

Equation 1:

ETc = ETo x Kc

Where:
ETc = Crop evapotranspiration (mm/day)
ETo = Reference crop evapotranspiration (mm/day)
Kc = Crop coefficient

Differences in leaf anatomy, stomata characteristics, aerodynamic properties and even albedo (solar
radiation reflected by the surface) cause ET c to differ from ETo under the same climatic conditions. Due
to variations in crop characteristics throughout its growing season, K c for a given crop changes from
sowing till harvest.

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 3.2.1.4 CROP WATER AND IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS

Crop water requirements (CWR) encompass the total amount of water used in evapotranspiration. FAO
(1984) defined crop water requirements as ‘the depth of water needed to meet the water loss through
evapotranspiration of a crop, being disease-free, growing in large fields under non restricting soil
conditions, including soil water and fertility, and achieving full production potential under the given
growing environment’. Basically, CWR is equal to ETc.
Irrigation requirements (IR) refer to the water that must be supplied through the irrigation system to
ensure that the crop receives its full crop water requirements. If irrigation is the sole source of water
supply for the plant, the irrigation requirement will always be greater than the crop water requirement
to allow for inefficiencies in the irrigation system. If the crop receives some of its water from other
sources (rainfall, water stored in the ground, underground seepage, etc.), then the irrigation
requirement can be considerably less than the crop water requirement.

3.2.1.5 CROPPING PATTERN AND SCHEDULE

Once the crop water and irrigation requirements have been calculated, the next step is the preparation
of field irrigation pattern and schedule. Three parameters have to be considered in preparing an
irrigation schedule:
 The daily crop water requirements
 The soil, particularly its total available moisture or water-holding capacity
 The effective root zone depth
Plant response to irrigation is influenced by the physical condition, fertility and biological status of the
soil. Soil condition, texture, structure, depth, organic matter, bulk density, salinity, sodicity, acidity,
drainage, topography, fertility and chemical characteristics all affect the extent to which a plant root
system penetrates into and uses available moisture and nutrients in the soil. Many of these factors
influence the water movement in the soil, the water-holding capacity of the soil, and the ability of the
plants to use the water. The irrigation system used should match all or most of these conditions.
The schedule and cropping pattern of Sandhikharka-4, Bansetari Adhityapur, Arghakhanchi is listed in
table 4.

3.2.2 ESTIMATING REFERENCE CROP EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ETo)

ETo can be calculated from meteorological data. Several empirical and semi-empirical methods have
been developed over the last 50 years to estimate reference crop evapotranspiration from climatic
variables. Some of the methods that have been developed are the Blaney-Criddle, Radiation, Modified
Penman and Pan Evaporation methods. The different methods catered for users with different data
availability and requiring different levels of accuracy. In all four methods the mean climatic data for a 10-
years period are used. ETo is expressed in mm/day, representing the mean daily value for the period
under consideration. Details of these methods are given in FAO (1984).

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The development of more accurate methods of assessing crop water use together with advances in
science and research revealed the weaknesses in the above-mentioned four methodologies. The
performances of the methods were analyzed for different locations and it became evident that the
methods do not behave the same way in different locations around the world. Deviations from
computed to observed values were often found to exceed the values indicated by researchers. For
example, the Modified Penman method was frequently found to overestimate ET o by up to 20% for low
evaporative demands. The other three methods showed variable adherence to the reference crop
evapotranspiration standard of grass.

3.2.2.1 BLANEY AND CRIDDLE’S METHOD FOR ESTIMATING ETo

The Blaney-Criddle method is simple, using measured data on temperature only. It should be noted,
however, that this method is not very accurate; it provides a rough estimate or "order of magnitude"
only. Especially under "extreme" climatic conditions the Blaney-Criddle method is inaccurate: in windy,
dry, sunny areas, the ETo is underestimated (up to some 60 percent), while in calm, humid, clouded
areas, the ETo is overestimated (up to some 40 percent).

The Blaney-Criddle formula: ETo = p (0.46 T mean +8)

Where,
ETo = Reference crop evapotranspiration (mm/day) as an average for a period of 1 month
T-mean = Mean daily temperature (°C)
p = Mean daily percentage of annual daytime hours

The use of the Blaney-Criddle formula:

Step 1: Determination of the mean daily temperature: T mean
Mont Janu Febr Marc Apri Augu Septe Octo Nove Dece
h ary uary h l May June July st mber ber mber mber
12.89 20.55 25. 26.56 27.79 26.75 26.44 25.93 22.17 17.63 14.29
mean 032 16.9 806 195 452 397 968 839 5 742 167 788
mean 44.89 52.55 57. 58.56 59.79 58.75 58.44 57.93 54.17 49.63 46.29
+32 032 48.9 806 195 452 397 968 839 5 742 167 788

Table 1. Mean monthly temperature of Arghakhanchi (°C)

The Blaney-Criddle method always refers to mean monthly values, both for the temperature and the
ETo.

If in a local meteorological station the daily minimum and maximum temperatures are measured, the
mean daily temperature is calculated as follows:

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 Step 2: Determination of the mean daily percentage of annual daytime hours: p

To determine the value of p. Table 4 is used. To be able to determine the p value it is essential to know
the approximate latitude of the area: the number of degrees north or south of the equator (see Fig. 12).

Table 2. MEAN DAILY PERCENTAGE (p) OF ANNUAL DAYTIME HOURS FOR DIFFERENT LATITUDES
Latitud Nort Sep
e h Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug t Oct Nov Dec
Sout Sep
  h July Aug t Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June
0.1
60°   5 0.2 0.26 0.32 0.38 0.41 0.4 0.34 0.28 0.22 0.17 0.13
0.1 0.3
55   7 0.21 0.26 0.32 0.36 0.39 8 0.33 0.28 0.23 0.18 0.16
0.1 0.3
50   9 0.23 0.27 0.31 0.34 0.36 5 0.32 0.28 0.24 0.2 0.18
0.3
45   0.2 0.23 0.27 0.3 0.34 0.35 4 0.32 0.28 0.24 0.21 0.2
0.2 0.3
40   2 0.24 0.27 0.3 0.32 0.34 3 0.31 0.28 0.25 0.22 0.21
0.2 0.3
35   3 0.25 0.27 0.29 0.31 0.32 2 0.3 0.28 0.25 0.23 0.22
0.2 0.3
30   4 0.25 0.27 0.29 0.31 0.32 1 0.3 0.28 0.26 0.24 0.23
0.2 0.3
25   4 0.26 0.27 0.29 0.3 0.31 1 0.29 0.28 0.26 0.25 0.24
0.2
20   5 0.26 0.27 0.28 0.29 0.3 0.3 0.29 0.28 0.26 0.25 0.25
0.2 0.2
15   6 0.26 0.27 0.28 0.29 0.29 9 0.28 0.28 0.27 0.26 0.25
0.2 0.2
10   6 0.27 0.27 0.28 0.28 0.29 9 0.28 0.28 0.27 0.26 0.26
0.2 0.2
5   7 0.27 0.27 0.28 0.28 0.28 8 0.28 0.28 0.27 0.27 0.27
0.2 0.2
0   7 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 7 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27

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27.979 Nort 0.2 0.2540 0.3059 0.3159 0.3 0.2959 0.2440 0.2340
73 h 4 41 0.27 0.29 59 59 1 59 0.28 0.26 41 41

Step 3: Calculate ETo, using the formula: ETo = p (0.46 T mean + 8)

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 3.2.3 ESTIMATING CROP EVAPOTRANSPIRATION OR CROP WATER
REQUIREMENTS UNDER STANDARD CONDITIONS (ETc)

As explained earlier, crop evapotranspiration can be calculated under standard conditions (ET c).
Standard conditions refer to crops grown in large fields under non-limiting agronomic and soil water
conditions.
The effects of weather conditions are captured in the ET o estimate. Therefore, as ETo represents a factor
of climatic demand, Kc varies mainly with the specific crop characteristics. This allows the transfer of
standard values for Kc between locations and climates. This has been the main reason for the worldwide
acceptance of the crop coefficient approach and usefulness of K c factors developed in past studies.
Factors determining the crop coefficient

Many factors affect Kc, namely crop type, changing crop characteristics over the growing season (stages
of growth) and, to a limited extent, the prevailing weather conditions. As evaporation is part of crop
evapotranspiration, conditions affecting soil evaporation will also affect K c.

CROP TYPE
The large variation in Kc values between major groups of crops is due to the resistance to transpiration
of different crops, such as closed stomata during the day (pineapple) and waxy leaves (citrus). Also,
differences in crop height, crop roughness, reflection and groundcover produce different Kc values.

CLIMATE
General climatic conditions, especially wind and humidity, affect crop coefficients. Variations in wind
change the aerodynamic resistance of the crops and their crop coefficients, especially for those crops
that are substantially taller than the grass reference crop. Crop aerodynamic properties also change with
climate, in particular relative humidity. Kc for many crops increases as wind speed increases and as
relative humidity decreases. More arid climates and conditions of greater wind speed will have higher
values for Kc. More humid climates and conditions of lower wind speed will have lower values for Kc.

SOIL EVAPORATION
Crop evapotranspiration is a combination of transpiration by the crop and evaporation from the soil
surface. Differences in soil evaporation and crop transpiration between field crops and the reference
surface are integrated within the crop coefficient. The K c for full cover crops reflects differences in
transpiration, as the contribution of soil evaporation is relatively small. After rainfall or irrigation, the
contribution of soil evaporation is significant, especially if the crop is small and has small groundcover.
For such low cover conditions Kc is largely determined by how frequent the soil is wetted.

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 CROP GROWTH STAGES
The Kc for a given crop changes over the growing period as the groundcover, crop height and leaf area
changes. Four growth stages are recognized for the selection of K c: initial stage, crop development
stage, mid-season stage and the late season stage.

Initial stage
The initial stage refers to the germination and early growth stage when the soil surface is not or is hardly
covered by the crop (groundcover < 10%). The K c during this initial stage (K c ini) is large when the soil is
wet from irrigation and rainfall and is low when the soil surface is dry.

Crop development stage

The crop development stage is the stage from the end of the initial stage to attainment of effective full
groundcover (groundcover 70-80%). As the crop develops and shades more and more of the ground, soil
evaporation becomes more restricted and transpiration becomes the dominant process. During the crop
development stage, the Kc values correspond to amounts of groundcover and plant development and
thus varies. If the soil is dry, K c dev = 0.5 corresponds to about 20-40% groundcover. A K c dev = 0.7 often
corresponds to about 40-60% groundcover.

Mid-season stage
The mid-season stage is the stage from attainment of effective full groundcover to the start of maturity,
as indicated for example by discolouring of leaves (as in beans) or falling of leaves (as in cotton). The
mid-season stage is the longest stage for perennial crops and for many annual crops, but it may be
relatively short for vegetables that are harvested fresh for their green vegetation. At this stage, K c
reaches its maximum value. The value of K c mid is relatively constant for most growing and cultural
conditions.

Late season stage

The late season stage runs from the start of maturity to harvest or full senescence. The calculation of K c
and ETo is presumed to end when the crop is harvested, dries out naturally, reaches full senescence, or
experiences leaf drop.

The Kc value at the end of the late season stage (K c end) reflects crop and water management practices.
The Kc end value is high if the crop is frequently irrigated until harvested fresh. If the crop is allowed to
senescence and to dry out in the field before harvest, the K c end value will be small.
Kc Values for Arghakhanchi are listed in the Table 3.

EFFECTIVE RAINFALL
Not all dependable rainfall is effective and some may be lost through surface runoff, deep percolation or
evaporation. Only a part of the rainfall can be effectively used by the crop, depending on its root zone
depth and the soil storage capacity. Different methods exist to estimate the effective rainfall and the
reader is referred to FAO (1992) for details. Small amounts of rainfall which only wet the plant canopy
are sometimes considered ineffective, however they may contribute to the satisfaction of the

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evaporative demand. For planning purposes P-eff is usually takes as a fraction of the reliable rainfall and
different coefficients, f, apply for flooded fields of paddy crops of dry fields of upland crops.

IRRIGATION EFFICIENCIES
Not all water taken from a source (river, well) reaches the root zone of the plants. Part of the water is
lost during transport through the canals and in the fields. The remaining part is stored in the root zone
and eventually used by the plants. In other words, only part of the water is used efficiently, the rest of
the water is lost for the crops on the fields that were to be irrigated.

1. Evaporation from the water surface

2. Deep percolation to soil layers underneath the canals
3. Seepage through the bunds of the canals
4. Overtopping the bunds
5. Bund breaks
6. Runoff in the drain
7. Rat holes in the canal bunds
To express which percentage of irrigation water is used efficiently and which percentage is lost, the
term irrigation efficiency is used.

The scheme irrigation efficiency (e in %) is that part of the water pumped or diverted through the
scheme inlet which is used effectively by the plants.
The scheme irrigation efficiency can be sub-divided into:

 Conveyance efficiency (ec) which represents the efficiency of water transport in canals, and
 Field application efficiency (ea) which represents the efficiency of water application in the field.
The conveyance efficiency (ec) mainly depends on the length of the canals, the soil type or permeability
of the canal banks and the condition of the canals.

In irrigation schemes more water is lost than in small schemes, due to a longer canal system. From
canals in sandy soils more water is lost than from canals in heavy clay soils. When canals are lined with
bricks, plastic or concrete, only very little water is lost. If canals are badly maintained, bund breaks are
not repaired properly and rats dig holes, a lot of water is lost which is not a great problem in our case as
the conveyance is done by the pipeline.

INDICATIVE VALUES OF THE FIELD APPLICATION EFFICIENCY (ea)

Irrigation methods Field application efficiency

Surface irrigation (border, furrow, basin) 60%

Sprinkler irrigation 75%

Drip irrigation 90%

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 NET IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS
Net irrigation water requirement (NIWR) is the quantity of water necessary for crop growth. It is
expressed in millimeters per year or in m3/ha per year (1 mm = 10 m3/ha). It depends on the cropping
pattern and the climate. Information on irrigation efficiency is necessary to be able to transform NIWR
into gross irrigation water requirement (GIWR), which is the quantity of water to be applied in reality,
taking into account water losses. Multiplying GIWR by the area that is suitable for irrigation gives the
total water requirement for that area. In this study water requirements are expressed in km3/year.

In order to be able to do this, assumptions have to be made on the definition of areas to be considered
homogeneous in terms of rainfall, potential evapotranspiration, cropping pattern, cropping intensity and
irrigation efficiency.

Delineation of major irrigation cropping pattern zones. These zones are considered homogeneous in
terms of types of irrigated crops grown, crop calendar, cropping intensity and gross irrigation efficiency.
The cropping pattern proposed for the zone should be viewed as representative of an 'average' rather
than a 'typical' irrigation scheme.

• Definition of the area of influence of the climate stations and quality check on the climate data.
• Combination of the irrigation cropping pattern zones with the climate stations' zones to obtain basic
mapping units.
• Calculation of net and gross irrigation water requirements for different scenarios.

Net Irrigation requirements for Bansetari, Arghakhanchi are tabulated in table 3.

3.3 DESIGN AND CALCULATION

 Average Monthly and Yearly available Discharge

 Cropping Pattern
 Crop Water Requirement
 Design of Reservoir
 Selection of Pump

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  Design of Rising Main
All these calculations with necessary tables are included in Annex II.

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 4. RECOMMENDATIONS

After carrying out the overall survey and design works of this project, following recommendations are
made:

1. Proper communication should be maintained with the local people before carrying out the
project work.
2. Things which may be contrary to the socio-cultural practice must be avoided.
3. River protection systems must be adopted wherever the possibility of flooding is encountered in
the vicinity of the project area.
4. Local resources should be given priority as far as possible.
5. During construction phase, the natural stability of the existing surface should not be disturbed
so as to prevent possible failures.
6. Pipes should not disturb the natural environment while installation.
7. Location of Intake, pipe alignment and reservoir should be maintained as per the report while
constructing.
8. Gradient of distribution pipes should be well maintained to flow the water in required velocity.
9. Priority should be given to local materials like boulders, weathered rocks, gravels, etc. in
construction works.
10. Quarries must be identified at the near distances for selecting the well-graded materials for the
pavement works.
11. The cut volume and fill volume should be made equal as far as possible.
12. The design parameters should be maintained.
13. The economic evaluation of the project should be properly done to justify the need and use of
the project.

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 5. CONCLUSION

The main aim of formulating this project is to provide a new technology in irrigation sector of Nepal
while simultaneously providing the users of Bansetari with sufficient water for irrigation of their
cultivable land.

Construction of this irrigation project will fulfill the Government’s plan to promote non-conventional
irrigation technology projects throughout the nation. For the given area, this irrigation will help to lift
the agricultural production. Bansetari has a potential of becoming an economic town of Arghakhanchi in
near future. The increase in the agricultural production will definitely find market there. Similarly it is
expected that current agriculture pattern will change from existing subsistence farming to commercial
farming. This will in turn lift the economic status of Bansetari. Also, abundance of water will encourage
the local farmers and other villagers to invest in other farming systems as well. Other agro based
industry can be developed when the agricultural production will be sufficient to sustain the industry. In
this way, a sustainable village can be developed in the future. This project will be a milestone for the
development of the town too. Similarly, Bansetari is connected by feeder road. Bansetari will find it easy
to develop itself as a self-sustaining village by incorporating new technology in agriculture. Hence, the
proposed lift irrigation project will serve the society and benefit the people apart from providing water
for agriculture.

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 6. REFERENCES

1. Savva, A., & Frenken, K. (2002). Crop Water Requirements and Irrigation Scheduling.
Harare: FAO Sub-Regional Office for East and Southern Africa
2. Garg, S. K. (2014). Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulic Structures. New Delhi:
Khanna Publishers
3. Jacob, B. S. (1995). Hill Irrigation Engineering. New Delhi: The Ford Foundation
4. Chakraborty, M. (2014). Estimating, Costing, Specification & Valuation in Civil
Engineering. Kolkata: Monojit Chakraborty
5. Maitra, M. K. Lift Irrigation Methods and practises. New Delhi: Action for Food
Production
6. (2017). Irrigation. Retrieved from en.wikipedia.org/wiki/irrigation
7. Brouwer C. & Heibloem M. (2017). Irrigation Water Management: Irrigation Water
Needs. Retrieved from www.fao.org/docrep/s2022e/s2022e00.htm

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 ANNEX I

ECONOMIC ANALYSIS, COST ESTIMATION & RATE

ANALYSIS
 ANNEX II

DESIGN AND CALCULATION OF PIPES, PUMP,

RESERVOIR & CROP WATER REQUIREMENT
ANNEX III

DRAWINGS