Cellular Membranes Membrane Structure: Two Main Roles

CHAPTER Cellular Membranes Membrane Structure
2 Two main roles

§  Isolate cells from the environment
Chemistry,
§  Control of intracellular conditions
Biochemistry, and Cell
Physiology §  Organize intracellular pathways into subcellular
Part 3 compartments
PowerPoint® Lecture Slides prepared by

Stephen Gehnrich, Salisbury University
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.43
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Lipid Profile Membrane Properties of Cholesterol Membrane Heterogeneity
§  Lipid bi-layer More PE and PS phosphoglycerides in inner leaflet

§  Phospholipids
More PC phosphoglycerides in the outer leaflet
§  Primarily phosphoglycerides
§  Other lipids Glycolipids only in the outer leaflet
§  Sphingolipids Lipid rafts
§  Alter electrical properties
§  Enriched in glycolipids and cholesterol
§  Glycolipids
§  Communication between cells §  More rigid and thicker
§  Cholesterol
§  Increase fluidity while decreasing permeability
Figure 2.44
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
1
Membrane Heterogeneity Membrane Fluidity Temperature and Membrane Fluidity
§  Environmental conditions affect membrane fluidity

§  For example, low temperature increases van der Waals
forces between lipids and restricts movement
§  Homeoviscous adaptation
§  Cell keeps membrane fluidity constant by altering the
lipid profile
Figure 12.45 Figure 2.46

Membrane Proteins Membrane Proteins Membrane Transport
§  Can be more than half of the membrane mass §  Cells must transport molecules across membranes
§  Structural and regulatory functions §  Three main types of transport:
§  Two main types §  Passive diffusion
§  Integral membrane proteins §  Facilitated diffusion
§  Tightly bound to the membrane §  Active transport
§  Embedded in bilayer or spanning the entire membrane Distinguished by direction of transport, nature of the
§  Peripheral membrane proteins carriers, and the role of energy
§  Weaker association with the lipid bilayer
Figure 2.47
2
Membrane Transport Passive Diffusion Facilitated Diffusion
§  Lipid-soluble molecules §  Hydrophilic molecules

§  No specific transporters are needed §  Protein transporter is needed
§  Molecules cross lipid bilayer §  No energy is needed
§  No energy is needed §  Depends on concentration gradient
§  Depends on concentration gradient §  High concentration à low concentration
§  High concentration à low concentration §  Steeper gradient results in faster rates
§  Steeper gradient results in faster rates
Figure 2.48
Facilitated Diffusion Ion Channels Active Transport
Three main types of protein carriers: §  Protein transporter is needed

§  Ion channels §  Energy is required
§  Small pores for specific ions
§  Molecules can be moved from low to high
§  Open and close in response to cellular conditions
§  “Gated” channels concentration
§  Porins
§  Like ion channels, but for larger molecules
§  Permeases
§  Function more like an enzyme
§  Carries molecule across membrane
Figure 2.49
3
Active Transport Primary Active Transport Secondary Active Transport
Two main types of active transport §  Hydrolysis of ATP provides energy §  Use energy in electrochemical gradient of one
§  Primary active transport §  Transporters are ATPases molecule to drive another molecule against its
§  Direct use of an exergonic reaction §  Three types gradient
§  P-type §  Antiport or exchanger carrier: molecules move in
§  Secondary active transport
§  Pump specific ions (e.g., Na+, K+, Ca2+)
opposite directions
§  Couples the movement of one molecule to the
§  F-type and V-type §  Symport or cotransporter carrier: molecules move in
movement of a second molecule
the same direction
§  Pump H+
§  Distinguished by the source of energy
§  ABC type
§  Carry large organic molecules (e.g., toxins)
Electrical Gradients Membrane Potential (Vm) Equilibrium Potential (Eion)
§  All transport processes affect chemical gradients §  Difference in charge inside and outside the cell Each ion has its own equilibrium potential
§  Some transport processes affect electrical gradients membrane §  Ion concentration gradient
§  Electroneutral carriers §  Concentration gradients formed by active transport
§  Ion diffuses down its concentration gradient
§  Transport uncharged molecules or exchange an equal §  Two main functions
number of particles with the same charge §  Eion is the Vm at which the ion is at electrochemical
§  Provide energy for membrane transport equilibrium
§  Electrogenic carriers
§  Changes in membrane potential used by cells in cell-
§  Transfer a charge §  Depends upon the size of the concentration gradient
to-cell signaling
§  For example, Na+/K+ATPase à exchanges 3Na+ for §  Eion can be calculated using the Nernst equation
2K+ §  Assumes electrochemical equilibrium
4
Equilibrium Potential (Eion) Membrane Potential (Vm) Changes in Membrane Potential (Vm)
§  Cell membranes are not at equilibrium Changes in membrane permeability cause changes in
§  Varying permeability membrane potential
§  Multiple ion gradients §  Depolarization
§  Goldman equation §  Cell becomes more positive on the inside
§  Accounts for permeability and multiple ions §  For example, if Na+ ions enter
§  Vm is most dependent upon Na+, K+, and Cl– §  Hyperpolarization
§  Na+/K+ ATPase maintains Na+ and K+ gradients §  Cell becomes more negative on the inside
across membrane §  For example, if K+ ions leave
Figure 2.50
Depolarization and Hyperpolarization Cellular Structures Mitochondria
§  Eukaryotic cells share many common cellular §  Produce most of the cell’s ATP
compartments §  Intricate network of internal membranes
§  Large surface area
§  Compartmentalization allows for regulation of
§  Mitochondrial reticulum
specific processes
§  Network of interconnected mitochondria
§  Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
§  Some mitochondrial proteins
§  Required for mitochondrial biogenesis
§  Most genes for mitochondrial proteins are in the nucleus
Figure 2.51
5
Mitochondria Cytoskeleton Functions of the Cytoskeleton
Network of protein-based fibers §  Maintains cell structure

§  Microfilaments §  External cell shape
§  Flexible chains of actin
§  Organization of intracellular membranes
§  Microtubules
§  Tubes of tubulin §  Cellular processes
§  Intermediate filaments §  Movement
§  Composed of many types of monomers §  Motor proteins
Maintains cell structure §  Signal transduction
§  External cell shape
§  Organization of intracellular membranes
Cellular processes
For example, movement, signal transmission
Figure 2.52
Cytoskeleton Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Apparatus Intracellular Traffic
§  Membranous organelles

§  Proteins are made on the ER
§  Proteins are modified and packaged into vesicles by the
Golgi apparatus
§  Vesicles carry proteins between compartments
§  Vesicles are carried throughout the cell by motor proteins
moving on cytoskeletal tracks
§  Contents of vesicles can be released from the cell via exocytosis
§  Extracellular substances can be taken into the cell via
endocytosis
Figure 2.23a,b Figure 2.54

6
Extracellular Matrix Extracellular Matrix Extracellular Matrix
§  Gel-like “cement” between cells Molecules of the extracellular matrix

§  Cell membranes are bonded to the matrix §  Proteins
§  Insect exoskeleton, vertebrate skeleton, and mollusc §  Glycoproteins
shells are modified extracellular matrices
§  Glycosaminoglycans
§  Molecules of the matrix are synthesized within the
§  Proteoglycans
cells and secreted by exocytosis
Figure 2.55
Extracellular Matrix Extracellular Matrix Physiological Genetics and Genomics
Cells can break down the extracellular matrix with Physiological diversity resides in genes
matrix metalloproteinases §  How genes differ between species
Cells can move through tissues by controlling the §  How genes are regulated in individual cells
production and breakdown of the matrix Homeostatic regulation depends upon having
§  For example, blood vessel growth and penetration §  the right protein,
§  in the proper place,
§  at the proper time,
§  with the appropriate activity
Figure 2.56
7
Nucleic Acids Nucleic Acids DNA
Two types: §  DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides §  Double-stranded α-helix
§  DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid §  linked by phosphodiester bonds §  Two strands of nucleotides linked by hydrogen bonds
§  Genetic blueprint §  Complementary strands
§  Nucleotide
§  Genes in nucleus §  Antiparallel
§  Nitrogenous base
§  RNA – ribonucleic acid §  Nucleotides can form bonds with only one other
§  Cytosine, Adenine, Guanine,Thymine (DNA only), Uracil
§  Read and interpret DNA to make protein nucleotide
(RNA only)
§  Three main forms §  A + T: two hydrogen bonds
§  Transfer RNA (tRNA)
§  Sugar
§  Deoxyribose (DNA), ribose (RNA) §  G + C: three hydrogen bonds
§  Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
§  Messenger RNA (mRNA) §  Phosphate
Structure of DNA Histones DNA Organization
§  Mammalian DNA is several meters long §  Genome

§  Entire collection of DNA within a cell
§  DNA is compressed by DNA-binding proteins
(histones) §  Chromosome
§  Separate segments of DNA
§  DNA in this form is referred to as chromatin
§  Genes
§  Advantages of compression by histones §  DNA sequence within a chromosome
§  Large amounts of DNA fit into small volumes §  Used to produce RNA
§  Reduces damage caused by radiation and chemicals §  Exons
§  Must be uncompressed for DNA and RNA §  Segments of DNA that encode RNA
synthesis §  Introns
§  Interspersed DNA sections between exons
Figure 2.57
8
DNA Organization Genome Size Transcription
Synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA)

§  DNA is wrapped by histones
§  Must be unwrapped to allow transcription
§  Transcription regulators form regulatory complexes
at promoter
§  Region of the gene where transcription begins
§  mRNA synthesis begins
Figure 2.58 Figure 2.59

Transcription Mature mRNA Protein Synthesis (Translation)
§  Primary mRNA transcript §  Ribosomes

§  Exons – sequences that will code for the protein §  Made of rRNA and proteins
§  Introns – noncoding sequences
§  Bound to endoplasmic reticulum
§  Introns are removed and exons are spliced together
§  Catalyze the formation of peptide bonds between
§  mRNA is polyadenylated
amino acids
§  200+ adenosines are added to the 3´ end
§  poly A+ tail §  Transfer RNA (tRNA)
§  mRNA is exported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm §  Carry the amino acids that bind to a codon (three
§  mRNA is ultimately degraded by nucleases (RNases) nucleotides on mRNA)
Figure 2.60
9
Protein Degradation Protein Isoforms Origins of Protein Isoforms
§  Proteins may have structural changes that result in §  Variations in protein structure
dysfunction §  Genetic rearrangements
§  Structural changes recruit enzymes that mark the §  Alternative splicing of exons
protein with a small protein called ubiquitin §  Alleles
§  Ubitquitin-labeled protein is then bound by a large §  Gene duplications
enzyme complex called a proteasome §  Subsequent mutation of some copies
§  Enzymes degrade the protein to amino acids
Figure 2.61
Genome Duplication
Figure 2.62
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Cellular Membranes Membrane Structure: Two Main Roles

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CHAPTER Cellular Membranes Membrane Structure

2 Two main roles

PowerPoint® Lecture Slides prepared by

Lipid Profile Membrane Properties of Cholesterol Membrane Heterogeneity

§ Lipid bi-layer More PE and PS phosphoglycerides in inner leaflet

§ Environmental conditions affect membrane fluidity

Figure 12.45 Figure 2.46

Membrane Proteins Membrane Proteins Membrane Transport

§ Lipid-soluble molecules § Hydrophilic molecules

Facilitated Diffusion Ion Channels Active Transport

Three main types of protein carriers: § Protein transporter is needed

Electrical Gradients Membrane Potential (Vm) Equilibrium Potential (Eion)

Depolarization and Hyperpolarization Cellular Structures Mitochondria

Network of protein-based fibers § Maintains cell structure

Cytoskeleton Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Apparatus Intracellular Traffic

§ Membranous organelles

Figure 2.23a,b Figure 2.54

§ Gel-like “cement” between cells Molecules of the extracellular matrix

Extracellular Matrix Extracellular Matrix Physiological Genetics and Genomics

Structure of DNA Histones DNA Organization

§ Mammalian DNA is several meters long § Genome

Synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA)

Figure 2.58 Figure 2.59

Transcription Mature mRNA Protein Synthesis (Translation)

§ Primary mRNA transcript § Ribosomes

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§  Lipid bi-layer More PE and PS phosphoglycerides in inner leaflet

§  Environmental conditions affect membrane fluidity

§  Lipid-soluble molecules §  Hydrophilic molecules

Three main types of protein carriers: §  Protein transporter is needed

Network of protein-based fibers §  Maintains cell structure

§  Membranous organelles

§  Gel-like “cement” between cells Molecules of the extracellular matrix

§  Mammalian DNA is several meters long §  Genome

§  Primary mRNA transcript §  Ribosomes