Copyright © Ann Wong Science . Form 4 .

Chapter 3

CHAPTER 3: HEREDITARY AND VARIATION

3.1 Cell Division

A. Genes, DNA and Chromosome

1. Gene – basic unit of inheritance

• Carry inherited characteristics
• Exists in pairs – one from the father, the other from the mother
2. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) – substance that made up gene
3. Chromosome – fine-thread like structure present in the nucleus
• Different organisms have different number of chromosomes
• Human has 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) – one set from the father, the other from the mother
• Cat – 38 chromosomes (19 pairs)
• Dog – 78 chromosomes (39 pairs)
• Mango tree – 40 chromosomes (20 pairs)

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 Copyright © Ann Wong Science . Form 4 . Chapter 3

B. Mitosis
1. Process by which a mature cell divides into two new cells.
2. Type of cells involved:
a) In animals and human – somatic cells (all body cells except reproductive cells)
b) In plants – occurs actively at tips/ends of the shoots and roots
3. Daughter cells produced have the
a) same number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
b) similar characteristics as the parent cell.
4. Process:
a) d)
The chromosomes
Chromosomes
arrange / align
thicken, shorten and
themselves at the
become clearly
equator / centre of
visible.
the cell.
b) Chromosomes e)
duplicate / replicate
Chromatids separate
themselves to form
and move to the
two chromatids
opposite poles.
attach at the
centromere.
c) f)
Nuclear membrane
Nuclear membrane
forms again.
disappears.
The cell divides and
Fibrous spindle is
forms two daughter
formed.
cells.

5. Importance of mitosis:
a) To produce new cells for growth / replacing old or damaged cells.
b) Enables organisms to reproduce themselves by asexual reproduction.
c) Ensures that new cells produced have the same number of chromosomes as the parent cells.

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 Copyright © Ann Wong Science . Form 4 . Chapter 3

C. Meiosis
1. Process of cell division for the formation of gametes (reproductive cells)
2. Type of cells involved: gametes / reproductive cells (ovum and sperm)
3. Place of occurrence:
a) Animals and human – testis (male) and ovary (female)
b) Plants – anther (male) and ovary (female)
4. Daughter cells produced have
a) half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
b) different combination of chromosomes as the parent cell
5. Number of chromosome in parent cell – Diploid / 2n chromosomes / 46 (human)
Number of chromosome in daughter cell – Haploid / n chromosomes / 23 (human)
6. Cell division occurs twice in meiosis:

First division Second division

a) Chromosomes thicken, shorten and g) Nuclear membrane disappears.
become clearly visible. Fibrous spindle is formed.
b) Chromosomes duplicate / replicate h) The chromosomes
themselves to form two chromatids arrange / align
attach at the centromere. themselves at the
c) Nuclear membrane disappears. equator / centre of
Fibrous spindle is formed. the cell.
d) Crossing over takes i)
place.
Chromatids
The chromosomes
separate and move
arrange / align
to the opposite
themselves at the
poles.
equator / centre of
the cell.
e) j) Nuclear membrane
Chromosomes
forms again.
separate and move
The cell divides and
to the opposite
forms four
poles.
daughter cells.
f) Nuclear membrane i)
forms again.
Four gametes are
The cell divides
formed.
and forms two
daughter cells.

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 Copyright © Ann Wong Science . Form 4 . Chapter 3

7. Crossing over:

Importance of crossing over:

To produce variation

Exchange of genes between chromatids

8. Importance of meiosis:
d) To produce gametes
e) Reduce chromosome number in gametes
f) Maintain chromosome number in somatic cells

Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis
• Both processes are cell division.
Similarities:
• Duplication of chromosomes occurs once.
Type of cells involved Somatic cells Reproductive cells
Animal Plant Animal Plant
Place of occurrence Whole body except Tips/ends of Male – Testis Male – Anther
reproductive cells shoots and roots Female – Ovary Female – Ovary
Number of daughter cells
Two Four
produced
Number of cell division Once Twice
Number of chromosomes • Same as parent cell • Half of parent cell
in daughter cell • 46 (human) • 23 (human)
Occurrence of crossing
No Yes
over
Combination of
Same Different
chromosomes
Causes variation No Yes

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 Copyright © Ann Wong Science . Form 4 . Chapter 3

3.2 Principles and Mechanism of Inheritance

Terms Description
• Powerful and can mask the effect of recessive gene in a pair.

1. Dominant gene • Represented with capital letter

• Example: Tall – T
• Weak and cannot show its effect if paired with a dominant gene.

2. Recessive gene • Represented with small letter

• Example: Short – t
• Organism with two identical genes; either two dominant genes or two
3. Pure bred / recessive genes
Homozygous
• Example – TT (tall) / tt (short)
• Organism with two different genes; one dominant gene and one recessive
4. Hybrid / gene
Heterozygote
• Example: Tt (tall)

5. Phenotype Physical and physiological traits of a person; Example: Height

6. Genotype Genetic make-up or constitution of a person; Example: TT / Tt / tt

Dominant Traits Recessive Traits

Right-handed Left-handed
Tall Short
Black / curly hair Brown / straight hair
Black / brown eyes Blue eyes
With ear lobes Without ear lobes
Can roll the tongue Cannot roll the tongue

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 Copyright © Ann Wong Science . Form 4 . Chapter 3

1. Schematic diagram of crossing between two pure bred plants:

Pure bred tall Pure bred short
Parents cell
Meiosis
Gametes
Fertilisation
Offspring
Phenotype

2. Schematic diagram of crossing between two hybrid plants:

Hybrid tall Hybrid tall
Parents cell
Meiosis
Gametes
Fertilisation
Offspring
Phenotype
Phenotypic ratio 3:1

3. Incomplete dominance – occurs when some dominant genes are not completely dominant over their
recessive genes

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 Copyright © Ann Wong Science . Form 4 . Chapter 3

3.3 Sex Determination and The Occurrence of Twins in Human Being

A. Sex Determination
1. Sex chromosome
a) chromosomes which determine the sex of a person
b) consists of 2 sex chromosome (at the 23rd pair of chromosome)
c) two types of sex chromosome: X-chromosome
X and Y-chromosome
d) Y-chromosome is smaller than X-chromosome
X chromosome because many genes on the X-chromosome
X are not
found on it.
2. Autosomes
a) chromosomes which are not sex chromosome
b) determine the characteristic features of a person
c) consists of 44 autosomes (at the 1st to 22nd pair of chromosome)
3. Types of chromosome in male and female:

Autosomes Sex chromosome Total

Somatic cell 44 XX 44 + XX 46
Female
Ovum 22 X 22 + X 23
Somatic cell 44 XY 44 + XY 46
Male
Sperm 22 X or Y 22 + X or 22 + Y 23

4. Human karyotype shows the complete set of chromosome in human.

Sex chromosome Sex chromosome

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 Copyright © Ann Wong Science . Form 4 . Chapter 3

5. Schematic diagram for sex determination:

Meiosis

Fertilisation

Chances / percentage of getting a baby boy or girl is 50%.

6. Sex of a zygote depends on the sperm / father.

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 Copyright © Ann Wong Science . Form 4 . Chapter 3

B. Twins
Similarities: 2 foetuses develop in the uterus at the same time
2 babies are born at the same time

Identical Twins Differences Non-identical twins

Number of ovum and sperm
One ovum and one sperm Two ova and two sperms
involved
One Number of fertilisation Two
Yes Division of zygote No
One Number of placentas Two
Combination of chromosomes and
Same Different
genes
Same Gender / Sex Same or different
Same / identical Characteristic features Different

Siamese twins
1. Happens when a dividing zygote does not get to completely divide into two separate zygote.
2. These two linked zygotes are born with some parts of the body joining together.
3. Have the same characteristic as identical twins.

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 Copyright © Ann Wong Science . Form 4 . Chapter 3

3.4 Mutation
1. Mutation – spontaneous change in a gene or chromosome, resulting changes to the characteristic
features of the organism.
2. Types of mutation:

Gene Mutation Chromosome Mutation

Changes in the gene. Changes in the structure or the number of chromosomes.
Mutant genes are passed on to the future Mutant chromosomes are passed on to the future
generations. generations.
Genetic disorders can be inherited. Genetic disorders are not inherited.
Examples of genetic disorders: Examples of genetic disorders:
Sickle-cell anaemia Down’s syndrome
Albinism Klinefelter’s syndrome
Colour blindness Turner’s syndrome
Haemophilia
3. Gene mutation
a) Sickle-cell anaemia
• Genes responsible for haemoglobin production are mutated
• Red blood cell – sickle shaped, carry little oxygen
b) Albinism
• Genes responsible for skin colour is mutated
• Not able to produce pigment melanin in skin, hair, eye – becomes pink or white
c) Colour blindness
• Cannot differentiate between red and green – appear as grey
• Due to recessive gene on X-chromosome
X
• Sex-linked disease

Female Male Female Male

C C
Normal XX XY XX X CY
Colour blindness X’X’ X’Y OR Xc Xc Xc Y
Carrier XX’ - X CX c -
d) Haemophilia
• Blood from a cut or wound is hard to clot
• Due to recessive gene on X-chromosome
X
• Sex-linked disease

Female Male Female Male

H H
Normal XX XY XX XHY
Colour blindness X’X’ X’Y OR XhXh XhY
Carrier XX’ XHXh -
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 Copyright © Ann Wong Science . Form 4 . Chapter 3

4. Chromosome mutation
a) Down’s syndrome / mongolism
• Extra 21st chromosome
• Total of 47 chromosome
• Mental defects, weak heart, almond-shaped
eyes, protruding tongue

b) Klinefelter’s syndrome
• Male with an extra X-chromosome (XXY)
• Total of 47 chromosome
• Hinders development of secondary sexual
characteristics – small testes & penis
• Feminine characteristics – enlarged breast

c) Turner’s syndrome
• Female with one X-chromosome only (XO)
• Total of 45 chromosome
• Hinders development of secondary sexual
characteristics – small breast, no menstrual cycle

5. Causes of mutation
a) Radioactive substances (eg: alpha, beta, gamma, X-ray)
b) High intensity ultraviolet (UV) light
c) Chemical substances (eg: DDT in pesticide)
d) Changes in the environment (evolution of the species)
6. Advantages and disadvantages of mutation:

Advantages
Give rise to new species of plants and animals.
Give plants and animals better chance to survive in
response to adverse changes in the environment.
Produce better crops and livestocks.
Disadvantages
Cause genetic disorders.
Cause abnormalities or deformities in children.
Produce new species of dangerous organisms.

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 Copyright © Ann Wong Science . Form 4 . Chapter 3

3.5 Genetic Research

1. Genetic research – systemic study of genes, their functions, the traits they control and the diseases
they can cause.
2. Selective breeding – to produce new plants and livestock varieties which:
a) Mature faster
b) Produce higher yield
c) Supply better quality products
d) Have greater resistance to disease
e) Can withstand drought
3. Cross breeding – use of selected plants or livestock for crossing to produce new varieties with desired
characteristics
4. Cloning – duplicate animals and plants
5. Genetic engineering – process of joining together good genes from other cells
6. Arguments for and against genetic research:

For genetic research Against genetic research

Enable a mother to know whether her foetus is Cause a mother to abort her retarded foetus.
suffering from any hereditary disorder.
Enable us to identify individuals through DNA Cause criminals to destroy their victims
testing. completely.
Cloning to duplicate high quality plants and May lead to the cloning of human beings.
animals.
Clone highly capable people. Clone highly undesirable people.
Produce useful clones without any defects. May result in clones with serious defects and
cause social problems.
Produce bacteria which can make useful chemicals Make bacteria which are resistant to all known
for the treatment of diseases. antibiotics.
Quickly increase our crops and livestock, and so Encourage people to have large families and cause
avoid famine. social problems.

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 Copyright © Ann Wong Science . Form 4 . Chapter 3

3.6 Variation
1. Variation: natural differences among individuals of the same species
2. Types of variation:

Continuous Variation Discontinuous Variation

Shows clear-cut differences No Yes
Any in-between values Yes No
Influenced by Environmental factor Genetic factor
Can be passed on No Yes
Can be changed Yes No

Type of graph

• blood group
• Weight • type of ear lobe
• Height • tongue rolling ability
Examples • Colour of skin • thumbprint
• Colour of hair • sex
• Intelligence • colour of eyes
• left or right handed
3. Factors which cause variation:
a) Genetic factor – crossing over, mutation
b) Environmental factor – nutrition, climate, light
c) Adaptation
4. Importance of variation:
a) Enables us to identify the different individuals in a group of the same species
b) Give rise to large variety / diversity of plants and animals
c) Enables them to survive in the environment

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