GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

THE CELL CYCLE

 Learning Objective
• To discover and understand the
processes involved when cells divide
and replicate themselves
TYPES OF CHROMOSOME

• Sex chromosomes

• Autosomes
- Chromosomes other than the sex
chromosomes
 Parts of Chromosome
1. Centromere
- structure in a chromosome that
holds together the two chromatids.
- point of attachment of
kinetochore.
2. Kinetochore
- sites where the spindle fiber
attach.
3. Telomere
- a region of repetitive nucleotide
sequences at each end of chromatid.
- Protection
4. Satellite
- Bulge on the telomeric end.
- The satellites are nonsense
sequences that are lost during
replication.
 Centromere Location
•Metacentric
- A chromosome that has a centrally placed
centromere
• Submetacentric
- A chromosome whose a centromere is placed close
to one end than the other.
• Acrocentric
- A chromosome whose centromere is placed very
close to, but not at, one end with satellite.
• Telocentric
Chromosomes types according to the
location of centromeres
Human Chromosomes
 CHROMOSOME 1-23
CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES LOCI POSITION
CHRM. # 1
 What Is the Cell Cycle?

The cell cycle consists of sequential phases

of events wherein the parent cell divides and
replicates DNA materials to produce two
daughter cells.
Why Do Cells Have to Undergo
Cell Cycle Processes?
• For growth
• For cell differentiation
• For repair and healing of damaged tissues
• For replication of genetic materials
• For reproduction of species
 CYTOGENETICS

A branch of biology that deals

with the study of heredity and
variation through cytology
and genetics
TYPES OF CELL DIVISION
Summarize the characteristics of the cell cycle: interphase
(called G1, S, G2); the phases of mitosis (called prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase); and plant and
animal cytokinesis.

The cell cycle is a repeated pattern of growth and division

that occurs in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.
This cycle consists of three phases: G1, S, G2
The first phase represents cell growth while the last two
phases represent cell division.
The cell cycle has four main stages.

The cell cycle is a

regular pattern of
growth, DNA
replication, and
cell division.
•The main stages of the cell cycle are gap 1, synthesis, gap 2, and
mitosis.
– Gap 1 (G1): cell growth and normal
functions
– DNA synthesis (S): copies DNA

– Gap 2 (G2): additional growth

– Mitosis (M): includes division of the

cell nucleus (mitosis) and division of
the cell cytoplasm (cytokinesis)
• Mitosis occurs only if the cell is large enough and the DNA undamaged.
Arresting
phase
 Types of Cell Division
1. Mitosis
A five-stage process of cell division solely for
eukaryotic cells wherein the replicated traits
of the chromosomes separate into two new
nuclei
Mitosis
In mitosis the four strands (two
sister chromatids) have to break
apart so that each new cell only has
one double-stranded chromosome.
Mitosis is divided into four phases. Each
phase is characterized by specific
processes involving different structures.

1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
 a. Prophase
This starting stage of the
mitotic phase sees the
chromatin of the nucleus
condensing to form
Image credit: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitosis#/media/File:CONDENSING_CHROMOSOMES_2.jpg
chromosomes.
Chromosomes condense at the start of
mitosis.
DNA wraps around proteins (histones) that condense it.

DNA double DNA and Chromatin Supercoiled

helix histones DNA
 b. Prometaphase
It is the transition stage
wherein the nuclear envelope
breaks down causing
interaction of the spindle and
the chromosomes to form
spindle fibers that will then
Image credit: Kelvinsonghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prometaphase#/media/File:Prometaphase.svg
bind with the kinetochore of
the centromere.
 c. Metaphase
Occurs after the spindle
fibers have attached to
the kinetochores, from
whence they begin
moving to the center poles
to eventually align with
Image credit: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphase#/media/File:Metaphase.svg

the metaphase plate

Metaphase (the shortest phase of mitosis)
is characterized by two events:

1. Chromosomes line up across the

middle of the cell.
2. Spindle fibers connect the centromere
of each sister chromatid to the poles of
the cell.
Mitosis divides the cell’s nucleus in four phases.
– During metaphase, chromosomes line up in
the middle of the cell.
 d. Anaphase
Involves the replicated
chromosomes called
daughter chromatids
splitting apart and moving
towards the opposite poles
Image credit: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaphase#/media/File:Anaphase_IF.jpg of the cell
Anaphase is characterized by three events:

1. Centromeres that join the sister

chromatids split.
2. Sister chromatids separate becoming
individual chromosomes.
3. Separated chromatids move to opposite
poles of the cell.
•Mitosis divides the cell’s nucleus in four phases.
– During anaphase, sister chromatids separate to
opposite sides of the cell.
 e. Telophase
Sees the shortening of
the microtubules of the
kinetochores thereby
pulling the pair of
chromatid sisters towards
the opposite poles
Image credit: http://study.com/cimages/multimages/16/anaphase_photos.png
Telophase (the last phase of mitosis) consists of
four events:

1. Chromosomes (each consisting of a single

chromatid) uncoil.
2. A nuclear envelope forms around the
chromosomes at each pole of the cell.
3. Spindle fibers break down and dissolve.
4. Cytokinesis begins.
• Mitosis divides the cell’s nucleus in four phases.
– During telophase, the new nuclei form
and chromosomes begin to uncoil.
Cytokinesis

•Cytokinesis is the division of the

cytoplasm into two individual cells.
•Differs somewhat in plant and animal
cells.
•In animal cells the cell membrane forms a
cleavage furrow.
Animal Cell
Telophase/Cytokinesis
•Cytokinesis differs in animal and plant cells.

– In animal cells,
the membrane
pinches closed.
– In plant cells, a
cell plate forms.
Plant Cell Telophase/Cytokinesis
Cells divide at different rates.
The rate of cell division varies with the need for those types
of cells.

• Some cells are unlikely to divide (G0).

DNA plus proteins is called
chromatid
chromatin.
• One half of a duplicated telomere

chromosome is a
chromatid. centromere

• Sister chromatids are held

together at the centromere.
• Telomeres protect DNA and
do not include genes.
telomere
Condensed, duplicated chromosome
2. Meiosis
• It is a two-round set of cell division stages
occurring solely among eukaryotic cells
with gametes.
• Its end result shall be the reduction of
chromosome number into half.
Meiosis
•4 daughter cells produced

•Each daughter cell has half the

chromosomes of the parent

•2 sets of cell division involved

a. Meiosis I
Involves the sorting and pairing up of
homologous chromosomes (genes with
similar traits) from both male parent and
female parent resulting to a thick four-
strand tetrad of two diploid cells
 a.1. Prophase I
Sees homologous
chromosomes from both
parents pairing up into
tetrads (synapsis) and
exchanging DNA
(homologous
Image credit: https://qph.ec.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-890c1bc2159aeb37ac037cab0dad6a72?convert_to_webp=true recombination) resulting
in crossovers of new
combination of alleles
Prophase 1
•Leptotene
-Visible chromosomes
(chromatids)
• Zygotene
• homologous
chromosomes begin to
pair
• Pachytene
- Crosssing over of different
chromatids.
• Diplotene
- the paired chromosomes
begin to separate into two
pairs of chromatids.
•Diakenesis
- Nuclear membrane
disintegrate
 a.2. Metaphase I
• It consists of
homologous pairs
moving together and
aligning with the
metaphase plate.
• This stage also sees a
protein substance
called cohesin binding
Image credit: https://taksreview.wikispaces.com/file/view/metaphase.gif/138796915/metaphase.gif

the replicated sister

chromatids.
 a.3. Anaphase I
During this phase,
the homologous
chromosomes move
to opposite ends of
the cell.

Image credit: http://study.com/cimages/multimages/16/anaphase_photos.png

 a.4. Telophase I
• It sees the pair of
chromosomes reaching the
opposite poles with their
chromosomal number halved.
• The spindles disappear, two
new nuclear membrane is
Image credit: http://www.aboutthemcat.org/images/biology/telophase1.png

formed encasing each of the

haploid daughter cells, and
the cell also divides into two.
b. Meiosis II
• These stages are very similar to mitosis.
• The final output shall yield four daughter
cells from the pair of haploid cells
produced in Meiosis I.
 b.1. Prophase II
Sees the disappearance of
both the nuclear envelope
and the nucleoli while the
chromatids condense and
the centromeres move to
Image credit:
http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/Resources/Botany/Meiosis/Lily
%20Microsporogenesis/Prophase%20II.jpg the poles and assemble
spindle fibers for the next
cell division
 b.2. Metaphase II
Involves the two
kinetochores of the
centromeres attaching to
the spindle fibers of the
centrosomes of the
Image credit: http://f.tqn.com/y/biology/1/S/l/h/meiosis_metaphase_2.jpg
opposite poles to align at
the metaphase plate
 b.3. Anaphase II
Consists of the
centromeres breaking up
and the sister chromatids
moving to the opposite
poles and thereby
Image credit: http://f.tqn.com/y/biology/1/S/S/n/meiosis_anaphase_2.jpg
becoming unreplicated and
individual chromosomes
 b.4. Telophase II
Is similar to Telophase I
but instead of two
daughter cells four will be
produced

Image credit: http://f.tqn.com/y/biology/1/S/n/h/meiosis_telophase_2.jpg

3. Interphase
Describes the cell’s daily functions of
growth, metabolism, and the copying of
DNA in preparation for either mitosis or
meiosis
 a. Gap 1 (G1) Stage
Sees the cell preparing for
DNA replication by
increasing its metabolism,
proteins, and available
organelles
Image credit: http://www.news-medical.net/image.axd?
picture=2016%2F6%2FCell_division_shutterstock_137897120.jpg
 b. Synthesis (S) Stage
Involves the actual
replication of DNA materials
leading to the doubling of
the cell’s chromosomal
number
Image credit: http://www.news-medical.net/image.axd?
picture=2016%2F6%2FCell_division_shutterstock_137897120.jpg
 c. Gap 2 (G2) Stage
Sees the cell continuing
to grow in preparation
for mitosis or meiosis

Image credit: http://www.news-medical.net/image.axd?

picture=2016%2F6%2FCell_division_shutterstock_137897120.jpg
4. Cytokinesis
In eukaryotic cells, it sees the nuclear
membrane dividing into two and will produce
two daughter cells with inherent traits similar to
the parent cell.

Image credit: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytokinesis#/media/File:Unk.cilliate.jpg

5. Binary fission
In prokaryotic cells, it is very much similar to
cytokinesis except for the absence of a
nucleus and spindle fibers.

Image credit: https://s-media-cache-

ak0.pinimg.com/564x/62/28/8d/62288da33b272d6248a37fc3b86140c6.jpg
 Activity
Research and create a table about the different
meiotic chromosomal numbers of various cellular
organisms. Identify at least 15 of them.
HAPLOID TOTAL
ORGANISM CHROMOSOME CHROMOSOME
NUMBER NUMBER
Man 23 46