General Studies and Engineering Aptitude

For

ESE-2021
Material Science and Engineering
By- Rahul Verma
(IES officer)

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according to IES -2021and GATE-2021syllabus.
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 CONTENTS
S. No. Topic
1. Introduction and Chemical Bonding
of Materials
2. Electric And Electronic Properties of
Materials
3. Magnetic Properties of Material
4. Ceramic Materials
5. Polymers
6. Composites
7. Nano Materials
8. Meta Materials
9. Mechanical Properties of Material

Extra Topics:
S. No. Topic
1. Crystal structure
2. Crystal Imperfections
3. Phase Diagram
4. Heat Treatment
5. Ferrous Metal
6. Non-Ferrous Metal
7. Powder Metallurgy
 1. Introduction and Chemical Bonding of Materials

Material

Solid Liquid Gas

Atoms – Atom is the smallest which con exist independently

Electron Proton Neutron

Charge Mass
Electron -1.6 ×10-19 C 9.1 ×10-31kg
Proton +1.6 ×10-19C 1.67×10-27kg
Neutron 0 1.6 x 10-27kg

1
▪ Mass of electron = 1850 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛.
▪ ISO tope- Elements having the some atomic number but difference atomic mass.
35 37
Ex- 17𝑐𝑙 17𝑐𝑙
▪ ISO 𝐛𝐚𝐫 - Elements having same atomic 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 but different numbers are called isobars.
Ex- 𝑆 40 & 𝐶𝑎40
Atomic no = No. of proton = of 𝑒̅

Q- Why different materials have different properties?

Ans- The 𝑒̅ proton and neutrons in atoms of various elements are identical, thus it fallows that
these are fundamental particle of universe.
Various elements behave defiantly because of difference in no. of arrangement of 𝑒̅
+ 𝑜
,𝑃 𝑛 𝑜𝑓 which each atom is composed.
Electron energies.
𝑬𝟏
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭 = 𝟒𝝅𝜺 𝒓𝟐 𝑬𝟐 ] 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
𝟎
P+N 𝑬𝟑
𝑭
𝑬=𝒒
−𝒅𝒗
𝑬= 𝒅𝒏
𝑾 = 𝒒𝒗
- 𝑬 = 𝑷. 𝑬 + 𝑲𝑬

For hydrogen atom

−13.56
Electron energies 𝐸𝑛 = 𝑒𝑣 n=1, 2, 3
𝑛2

Page 1
 ev = unit of energy
1ev = 1.6x10-19joule.
For other atom

−13.56
𝐸𝑛 = 𝑍 2 𝑒𝑣 Z→ atomic number
𝑛2

As per Bohr’s model

▪ For hydrogen atom

▪ Atomic Radius = 0.529x10-10 n2 meter 𝑅𝑛 = 0.529𝑛2 𝐴°

For other atoms

0.529𝑛2
𝑅𝑛 = 𝐴°
𝑍
Energy
____________________________________________En = 0.00ev
____________________________________________𝐸3 = −1.51𝑒𝑣
___________________________________________𝐸2 = −3.39𝑒𝑣
____________________________________________𝐸1 = −13.56𝑒𝑣
____________________________________________Edge of nuclear

1
𝐹∝
𝑟2
𝐸1 < 𝐸2 < 𝐸3

Q- The notices of the 1st Boars orbit of 𝒆̅ in hydrogen atom is 0.529 𝑨° what is the radius of
𝟐𝒏𝒅 𝑩𝒐𝒉𝒂𝒓′𝒔 in singles lonised helium atom.
n=2
0.529 × 22
𝑅2 = = 1.058𝐴°
2

▪ In any atom. The greater the distance of an e from the nucleus the greater is its total energy
(KE+P.E). (which is –ve)

Page 2
 ▪ An 𝑒̅ orbiting very close to the nuclides in the 1st shell is tightly bound to the nucleus and
posses very small amount of energy.
▪ It would be very difficult to knock out this 𝑒̅ from the orbit; on the other hand on e orbiting
bar from the nucleus is loosely bound and posses greater amount of energy. Hunce 𝑒̅ can
easily knock out from its orbit. This is why it is the valence e (The 𝑒̅ in the outer most orbit
having maximum energy) that take port in chemical reactions and in bonding atoms
together to make solids etc.

Chemical bonding- Banding force b/w atoms and molecules are known as chemical bonding.
Chemical Bonding

𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑

Inter atomic bond Inter molecular bond
Electrostatic bond Vander waals bond force
Strong & stable Weak and stable.

Ionic Covalent Metallic Dispersion Dipole Hydrogen

Bond Bond Bond Bond Bond Bond

Ionic bond- Elements in I,II , & III group have a tendency to release or gain the 𝑒̅ to stabilize
their outer shell electronic configuration.
Ex:- Na – 11 = 2, 8 , 1 = Na → 𝑁𝑎 + + 𝑒̅
̅ →𝑐𝑙
Cl - 17 = 2 , 8, 7 𝑒̅ + 𝑐𝑙 ̅

𝑁𝑎 + + 𝐶𝑙
_
→ NaCl
▪ Generally (I, ii, iii) with (v, vi, vii) group of element makes ionic bond.
▪ Ionic bonds generally results where the electronegative difference b/w the atoms is greater
than about 2.
𝑋𝑛 - 𝑋𝑏 ≥ 2.0
▪ Ionic bond is unidirectional or non- directional.
Properties- Electrostatic fare is present.
▪ Crystalline in nature.
▪ High strength.
▪ High hardness.
▪ High hardness
▪ High melting & boiling point due to strong electro-static force.
▪ How brittleness
▪ Non conducting of electricity due to absence of free
▪ Highly soluble in water.

Page 3
Covalent Bond – The bond formed by sharing of 𝑒̅ is called covalent bond. The covalent bonds
are formed b/w many non-metallic elements as the atoms of these elements, usually have
incompletely filled outer electron orbits.

Stable diatomic molecule

Cl
Cl

Cl-17 Electrostatic force of

Cl-17
attraction b/w two atoms

Covalent
bond
▪ 𝐻 +𝛿 - 𝐹 −𝛿 →Polar covalent bond as F is more electronegative than H. It has same ionic
character.
▪ % ionic character = 100[1 - 𝑒 −0.25 (𝑥𝐴− 𝑥𝐵 )2 ].
Where 𝑋𝐴 − 𝑋𝐵 = elecctronegativity difference.
▪ When covalent bond is formed b/w two dissimilar atom than this bond have certain ionic
character also. Because of the difference in electro negativity of atom. Such bond is called
polar covalent bond.
▪ Covalent bond is directional in nature.

Properties of covalent bond-

▪ Like ionic bond, produce compounds having high strength.
▪ Atomic movement within the crystal (material) is not possible without breaking bond,
hence, covalent compound are characteristically brittle.
▪ Melting points are high.
▪ Electrical conductivity depends upon the bond strength , ranging from conductive tin
(weak covalent bond) through semi conductive silicon and germanium to insulating
diamond
▪ Not soluble in water but soluble in certain organic.
▪ Covalent solid do not pack close pack structure because directional nature of covalent
bond.

Metallic bond - A metallic bond is formed by the partial sharing of valance 𝑒̅ by the neighboring
atoms.
▪ The atoms in metals and alloys are held together by such bonds.
▪ Metallic bonding constitutes the electrostatic attraction forces b/w the delocalized
electrons. And positively charged metal ions.

Page 4
 ▪ Ionic bond is the strongest while metallic bond is the weak among the primary bonds.
▪ Light is reflected by the sea of delocalized electron, there by metal shines is. i.e. It has
lusted.
▪ Metallic bonding is non directional, so malleable & ductile.
▪ Attraction b/w cation and electron cloud is strong.
▪ Cations are closely packed in a 3-D network, so high density.
▪ High melting & boiling point.

Secondary Bonding

(1) Dispersion bonds - In a symmetrical molecules, the 𝑒̅ are distributed uniformly around the
nucleus and the electrons are constantly rotating about nucleus, In a symmetrical molecules, the
centers of positive charges and negative charges coincide with each other.

(Same centre of +ve & -ve charged)

++ h
t
t
▪ However, In molecule where thep distribution of electron is not symmetrical about their
s between the centers of positive & negative charges.
nuclei, This cause the displacement
:
/
/
+
w
+ (Different centre of +ve & -ve charged)
w
w
▪ It creates electronic imbalance of the charge and this is called polarization. This
.
polarization fluctuates with motion of electrons and is known as dispersion effect.
y
▪ Dispersion effect produces a weak force of attraction b/w two molecules of the same
o
element and this bonding is called dispersion bond. Such bond is found in noble gases like
u
– argon, helium and neon.
t
▪ Dispersion bond are temporary in nature i.e. Where applied field is removed than bond
u
gets break.
b
e
. Page 5
c
(2) Dipole bond - The unequal sharing of electrons creates opposite charges on the molecules; as a
result permanent dipole is produced. These dipoles attract each other, there by forming dipole
bonds.

H + H
F
F
(Molecule of HF)
▪ Dipole bonds are weaker than primary bonds but they are stronger than dispersion bonds.

(3) Hydrogen bonds- Hydrogen bond is a special type of dipole bond and it is produced b/w
covalently bonded hydrogen atoms & oxygen atoms.
▪ The oxygen atoms have higher affinity for the shared electron pairs than hydrogen atoms.
The shared electron pair shifts towards the oxygen atom, The shifting of 𝑒̅ pair produces a
dipole, similar dipole are produces in other water molecules. These deals attract each other
& forming hydrogen bunting.
+𝛿

+𝛿 −𝛿 +𝛿 −𝛿

𝐻 O ⃡𝐷𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑 H O −𝛿

𝟏𝟎𝟓°
H

Page 6
 2. Electric & Electronics properties of materials

Energy bond in solids: There are millions of 𝑒̅ belonging to the 1st orbit of atom in the solid ,
Each of them has slightly different energy, since there are millions of 1st orbit elections so the
closely spaced energy level differing very slightly in energy from a band. Parallel the second orbit
and higher orbit 𝑒̅ from bands. Thus we have now 1st energy bond, 2nd energy bond-etc.

▪ For classification of materials, internal energy level are not important, only valence energy
band is taken in to account and then there are only three energy bands are important to
understand the behavior of solids. Valence band, conduction band, for bidden band.

Ec – 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑚 energy level of C.B

Ev- 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚 energy level of V.B
𝐸𝐺 - forbidden energy gap.
𝐸𝐺 = 𝐸𝐶 - 𝐸𝑉 V.B

Ex- Na-11 1𝑠 2 , 2𝑠 2 , 2𝑝6 , 3𝑠1 , 3𝑝0 C.B

1. Valence bond, - The energy band formed by a series of energy levels containing valence 𝑒̅ is
called valence bond. It is the highest energy bond in which 𝑒̅ are still pre-dominantly attached to
their parent atom.
▪ The bond is fully or practically filled by valence ̅𝑒.
▪ Electrons in this bond need thermal energy to free them self from the grip of their atoms.
▪ Electrons in this band are not capable of gaining energy from external electric field, hence
it is not possible to have current flow from the 𝑒̅ of valence bond.

2. Conduction band – It is the 1st highest energy band above the valence band and is called empty
band of 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑚 energy.
▪ It is partially filled by 𝑒̅ .
▪ The 𝑒̅ in this band are free to move anywhere in material that’s why also known as free 𝑒̅ .
▪ Conduction band 𝑒̅ can gain energy from external electric field and hence the movement of
this 𝑒̅ results to into flow of current.

Page 7
3. Forbidden energy gap - Energy gap b/w conduction band and valence band is called forbidden
energy gap.
▪ No free 𝑒̅ can exist in forbidden energy gap.
▪ Width of forbidden energy gap depends on nature of material. In case of metal forbidden
energy gap is almost negligible where as insulator this is large.
▪ As the temperature increases, the width of forbidden gap decreases but slightly.

𝐸𝐺 (T) = 𝐸𝐺𝑂 - βT

𝐸𝐺 (T) = Forbidden gap at temp (T)

𝐸𝐺0 = Forbidden gap at 0 K
𝛽 = Material constant.
Si ─ 𝐸𝐺300 = 1.1ev Ge ─ 𝐸𝐺300 = 0.72ev
𝐸𝐺0 = 1.12𝑒𝑣 𝐸𝐺0 = 0.78ev

Classification of material based on energy band gap –

Ohm’s law & Electrical conductivity – R

R
R – ohm , V – volt , I – ampere
VαL I

V= R L
𝛿𝑙
R= Where, 𝛅 = Resistivity. V
𝐴
V
L = length of conductor. V
A = Area of cross section.
▪ Conductivity denotes the ability of material to conduct electricity or current. It is given by
the reciprocal of resistivity.
1
Conductivity 𝜎 = 𝛿 Resistivity
𝜌𝑙
V=RI = 𝐴 𝐼

Page 8
 𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸 - Ohm’s law in another form
J= Current density (A/m2)
E= Electric field intensity (V/M)
▪ Let us assume 𝜁 is average colloision time of electron.
1
𝜍𝛼 𝑇 → 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝
√𝑡
Assume drift velocity of electron in 𝑉𝑑
Force on an electron F = 𝑒E
At steady state, 𝑒E = ma
𝑒𝐸
a= 𝑚
𝑉𝑑 = a.𝜁
𝑒𝐸
= .𝜁
𝑚
𝑒𝜁
𝑉𝑑 = ( )E 𝑉𝑑 = µ E
𝑚
▪ Mobility denotes the quickness with which an 𝑒̅ is moving into the material.
▪ Suppose ‘n’ electron/𝑚2 are available in the material then.
J = ne𝑣𝑑
Then, j = neµE
J = 𝜎E = neµE.
→ 𝜎 = 𝑛𝑒µ .
▪ Any type of defect in materials decreases the mobility of materials.
▪ Conductivity of a material depend on two factory-
(1) No. of free 𝑒̅ present in material.
(2) Mobility of 𝑒̅ .
𝜎 = neµ.
ℓ𝜁 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜁
= ne ( 𝑚 ) . → 𝜎= 𝑚
𝜎 = n𝜁
𝑛
𝜎 𝛼 √𝑇 ← for metal conductor.
As temp- increase → collision time↓
Therefore for metals as Temp ↑ => conductivity ↓

Electrical resistivity of metals- The crystalline defects serve as scattering points in the
conduction of 𝑒̅ in metals, There by any increase in no. of defects result in to increase in
resistivity. The concentration of the defects deports on-
1- Temperature.
2- Composition of materials (impurities presents).
3- The amount of cold working while fabrication. Hence total resistivity of the
metal is sum of contribute from temperature, composition of materials & plastic
deformation.
ℓTotal = ℓthermal + ℓimpurities + ℓ deformation

Page 9
Factors affecting electrical resistivity-
(1) Temp- If T↑⇒ 𝜎 ↓⇒ 𝜌𝑛
𝜌𝑇2 = 𝜌𝑇1 (1+∝ ∆𝑇)
∆𝑇 = 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 , ∝= 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑅=
𝜌𝑙
⇒𝑅∝𝜌 𝜌 alloy 𝜌 alloy
𝐴 aAallou
𝑅𝑇2 = 𝑅𝑇1 [1+∝ ∆𝑇] y
(2) Impurities / Allaying-
Alloys generally have less regular structure than pure metal.
The electrical conductivity of solid solution
Debge temp
Alloy drop rapidly with increase in alloy content. Temp

(3) Plastic deformation – plastic deformation leads to its- location formation in the material
which leads to increase no. of 𝑒̅ scattering by dislocations. Hence plastic deformation increase
electrical resistivity of the material.

(4) Cold working or storing hardening- A ductile material becomes harder and stronger as is
plastically deformed. The strain hardening leads to localized strain interface which impede the
movement of 𝑒̅ there by increasing the electrical resistivity
A hard drawn copper wire has higher resistivity than annealed copper wire.

(5) Pressure- As permissions increaser it neediest the amplitude of vibration, t here by

reducing conductivity and increasing resistivity.

Thermal conductivity of metals- Weidman Franz law

𝑑𝑡
𝐽𝑄 = -K 𝑑𝑥
Thermal conductivity
𝐿𝑇
K=𝜎𝐿𝑇 = , 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐿 → 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑧 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 T2 T1
𝜌

Thermoelectric effect-

(1) Seeback effect- when two dissimilar metals are joined at their end and one end is kept
at higher temp and another end is keep at lower temp there across to the junction.

Metal A
Hot Junction Cold Junction
Metal B

𝐸𝑀𝐹 ∝ (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

Page
10
 (2) Peltier effect- It is the converse effect of see back effect. When two dissimilar metals
are joined at their end and current is flowing through the metals then one end has high
temp, and another junction at low temp.
Peltier effect is the opposite of see back effect & used in thermo electric refrigeration.

Semiconductors- Semiconductors are the material which has conductive more than the insulator
but less than the conductor. Eg- Si, Ge, Ax etc.

Intrinsic semiconductor- Semiconductor in its purest form is known as intrinsic semiconductor.

A semi conductor is not truly intrinsic unless its impurity contain less than 1 part impurity in
100 million part of semi conductor.

All the four valance 𝑒̅ of Si atom participate in covalent bond formation with neighboring atom
hence at ‘O’k valance band is completely filled but conduction band is empty.

• At absolute zeros intrinsic semiconductor behaves as perfect insulator.

Page
11
 • At room temp. (300k)
n= p = ni CB

Intrinsic carrier
concentration

V.B

𝑒̅
n= No of free 𝑚3 = 𝑒̅ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
P= No of hole / m3 = hole concentration
𝑒𝜏
U=𝑚
𝜇ℎ < 𝜇𝑒
▪ At room temp. of the 𝑒̅ acquire sufficient energy and they more to the conduction bond
where an e most to the conduction band. Covalent bond is broken and deficiency of 𝑒̅ move
to the concentration bond covalent bond is broken and difference of 𝑒̅ is created in valence
band. This deficiency of 𝑒̅ is known as hole.
▪ 𝑒̅ & holes are generated always in pairs due to increase in temp. At any temp.
Concentration of 𝑒̅ is equal to the concentration of hole and it is known as intrinsic carries
concentration.
▪ Although hole is not a particle but all particle purpose it is assumed as a particle having
positive charge quall to the 𝑒̅ charge and mass greater than the mass of 𝑒̅ mass.
▪ In semiconductor both 𝑒̅ and hole participle in current conduction.
▪ Mobility of 𝑒̅ is always greater than mobility of hole.
▪ At room temp intrinsic carrier concentration of Ge is greater than that of Si because Ge has
less energy gap than silicon.

Recombination- 𝑒̅ and holies movies in crystal in the random manner, there is a possibility of on
𝑒̅ meeting a hole. When this hopping both 𝑒̅ and hole disappear and this is known as
recombination.
The average time the 𝑒̅ or a hole remain free before its recombination is know as its carries
lifetime.
▪ In semiconductor, conductivity increases with increase in temp because increase in carries
concentration dominates over the decrease in mobility.
𝑇
𝜎 𝛼 𝑒 −𝐸𝐺𝑂 /2𝐾𝑇 𝐸𝐺𝑂 = Energy gap at ok
K= Boltzmann const.
▪ Conductivity varies non-lineally with temp.

Extrinsic semiconductor – Intrinsic semiconductor are of little use. They can be used as heat or
light sensing resistor.
▪ Practically all the semiconductor devices are made of a semiconductor material to which
certain amount of imparts has been added.

Page
12
 ▪ The process of deliberately adding the imparities to a semi conductor material is called
doping.
▪ Doping is done after the semi conductor material has been refined to a high degree of
parity.
▪ A doped seemed semiconductor is called an extrinsic semiconductor.

1. N- type semiconductor-
▪ 5th group impurity is added.
▪ Pentavalent impurity eg- P, As, Sb and Bi.
▪ Donor type impurity
▪ Majority carriers are 𝑒̅
▪ Iniquity carriers are holes
▪ Representations of n –type S.C

2. P- type semiconductor-
▪ 𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑟𝑑 group impurity is added
▪ Trivalent impurity eg- B, At , Ga In

▪ Acceptor type impurity.

▪ Holes are majority charge carriers
▪ Electrons are minority charge carriers
Page
13
 Mass action law- In an extrinsic semiconductor at thermal equilibrium product of 𝑒̅
concentration and hole concentration is constant . And it is independent of amount of doping.
Mathematically - 𝑛. 𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
This law is primarily used to calculate minority charge carries concentration.

Charge neutrality principle-

n → no. of electron / 𝑚3 .
p → no. of holes / 𝑚3 .
𝑁𝐷 → No. of doners / 𝑚3 .
𝑁𝑎 → No. of acceptors / 𝑚3 .
Semiconductor as a whole is electrically neutral when total positive charge = Total negative
charge
. 𝑃 + 𝑁𝐷 = 𝑛 + 𝑁𝐴 => Charge neutrality principal
We have, n.p = 𝑛𝑖 2 1
P + 𝑁𝐷 = n + 𝑁𝐴 2
N – Type Semiconductor- 𝑁𝐴 = 0
P + 𝑁𝐷 ≠ n
But n>>p , n ≈ 𝑁𝐷
𝑀𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ≅ 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
We have n.p = 𝑛𝑖 2
𝑛𝑖 2
𝑁𝐷 p = 𝑁
𝐷
1
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝛼 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
→ Conductivity of N – type semiconductor
𝜎 = ne𝜇𝑛 + Pe𝜇𝑝
𝜎𝑁 = ne𝜇n = 𝑁𝐷 𝑒𝜇𝑛
𝜎𝑁 𝛼 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
P – type semiconductor - 𝑵𝑫 = 0 ∴ P >> n
P = n + 𝑁𝑎 P ≅ 𝑁𝐴

𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ≅ 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑡 𝑛

We have, n.p = 𝑛𝑖 2
n.NA = 𝑁𝑖 2
𝑛𝑖 2
𝑛= 𝑁𝑝
1
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝛼 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑛

→ Conductivity of p – type semiconductor -

𝜎 = ne𝜇𝑛 + pe. 𝜇𝑃
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14
 𝜎𝜌 = 𝑁𝐴 𝑒𝜇𝑃
𝜎𝜌 𝛼 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Fermi Dirac distribution 𝑭𝒖𝒏𝒏 → Fermi Dirac distribution 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑛 is used to calculate carrier
concentration in semi- conductors, It gives the probability of finding an 𝑒 ̅ at any energy level at a
given temp.
1
F(E) = 𝐸−𝐸𝑓
1+𝑒 ( )
𝐾𝑇

where f(E) = probability of finding an 𝑒̅ at energy level ‘E’ at temp ‘T’

Ef = fermi energy level.
K = Boltzmann constant.
→ fermi Energy level (𝐸𝑓 at E =𝐸𝑓
1 1
F(𝐸𝑓 ) = 1+𝑒 0 = (or) 50%
2
▪ Fermi level is an energy level where probability of an 𝑒̅ is 50%

C.B 𝐸𝑙
Fermi energy
𝐸𝑓𝑛 .
level fur n-type
semiconductor 𝐸𝑓𝑖
→ 𝐹𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟
𝐸𝑡𝑝 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Fermi energy 𝐸𝑣
level for p-type
semiconductor

PN - Junction or semiconductor diode – When a p-type semiconductor is joined with n-type

semi-conductor such that crystal continuity remains same then a PN - Junction is formed.

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15
Since holes are in majority at the p-side and. In minority at the n-side so there is a concentration
difference from P to n side, Due to concentration difference majority charge Carrier flow from
either side initially. They meet at the junction and recombine with each other. Near the junction a
reason is created where the mobile charge carriers are absent. Only immobile lons are present, this
region is known as depletion region. This immobile charge carrier created a built in electric field,
As a result a Barrier potential is created. This Barrier potential now restrict or oppose the further
movement of majority charge carrier across the junction but it helps in the movement of minority
charge carrier.

Forward Bias PN junction-

When diode in F.B i.e P side is kept is potential then the n-side. If applied voltage is greater than
the cut in voltage than a current flow in the diode due voltage to majority charge carrier
movement.
This current increase exponentially with applied
F.B voltage.
𝑉
( )
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 ( 𝑒 𝜂𝑉𝑇
− 1)

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16
Reverse Bias PN junction-

𝑻𝟐 −𝑻𝟏
𝑰𝑶〖(𝑻〗 ) = 𝑰𝑶〖(𝑻〗 ) . 𝟐 ( )
𝟐 𝟏 𝟏𝟎

▪ When p-side is kept at lower potential than n-side the junction is said to be reverse bias. In
this case the depletion region width increase and majority charge carrier cannot cross the
junction. Hence current due to majority carrier is zero but a small amount to current flows
in the opposite direction of majority carrier current due to the movement of minority
current, this current is known as reverse saturation current or leakage current.
▪ Leakage current is independent of applied reverse bias voltage but it is strong fraction of
temp-
App –(1) As a switch
(2) Used in rectifier ckt (also known as rectifier diode)

Some special diode-

(1) varactor diode or vari-cap diode-It is a PN junction diode which when reverse bias function
as a voltage variable capacitors.

(2) Tunnel diode- doping 1: 103

It is a heavily doped PN junction diode which shows negative resistance region in its forward bias
characteristics.
Tunnel diode are used in microwave oscillations (wave form generated) circuit.

(3) Zener diode- Zener diode are specially designed diode with little bit higher doping
concentrations. When reverse bias, this diode function as a constant or reference voltage source or
battery Zener diode is used in stabilizer or regulator circuit. IN forward bias, zener diode function
as a normal PN- junction diode.
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17
(4) Light emitting diode (LED)- It is an PN -junction diode made up of direct band gap semi
conductor material. When this diode is FB i.e. current flowing through the diode then a light is
emitted from this diode, the color of emitted light depends upon the energy band gap of material
used far making diode.
1.24
𝜆(𝑖𝑛 𝜇𝑚) = 𝐸
𝐺( 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑣)

Eg. Ga As → IR light .
(5)Photo diode- It is a PN - junction diode made up of indirect band gap semi conductor material.
When this diode is reverse biased are light is incident upon junction then the current flows through
the diode. This current dependes upon the intensity of light incident.

Bi – polar junction transistor -

▪ A transistor consists of a thin piece of one type of semi conductor material b/w two thicker
layer of opposite type.
▪ In transistor flow of charge carrier from emitter to collector can be controlled by applying
proper voltage at base, so transistor is used in application where controlled flow of charge
carrier & current is required such as in amplification .

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18
Hall effect- If a specimen (metal S.C) carrying a current ‘1’ is placed in a transverse magnetic
field ‘ B ’ an electric field ‘E’ is induced in the direction to both I & B. This phenomenon is
known as Hall Effect.

▪ It the semiconductor is n- type material, then all the free electrons will accumulate on side
‘1’ and so lower surface become (-ve) charged with repect to ‘2’ hence a potential called
the hall voltage (𝑉𝐻 ) appears b/w surface ‘1’ & ‘2”
▪ On other hand if terminal ‘1’ become charge positively with respect to terminal ‘2’ the
semiconductor bar must be p-type.

Applications of hall effect

-Use to determines whether a semiconductor in n – type or p- type
-Use to determine-
(1) Carrier concentration
(2) The mobility
(3) The drift velocity
(4) The conductivity of specimen.
(5) The field ‘B’
It is also used in manufacturing of magnetic – flux meter and hall effect multiplier.

Direct and indirect band gap semiconductor -

Direct band gap S.C Indirect band gap S.C

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19
2. When minim energy level of conduction 2. If mimm energy level of C.B and maxim energy
bond & maxm energy level of valence band level of V.B occurs level of V.B occurs for different
occur for some value of momentum vector value of momentum vector then material is known
then material is known as direct band as indirect bond gap S.C.
group S.C.
3. When an 𝑒̅ makes a transition from C.B to V.B,
3. When an 𝑒̅ makes a transition from CB to
change in momentum vector takes place and
VB, no change in momentum vector takes
energy is liberated in from of heat.
place and energy is located in the form of
light. 4. For faster recombination material like gold is
4. No recombination agent is required.
use as recombination agent.
5. Carrier life time is shorter.
5. Carrier life time is greater.

6. These material are used in

Education of light emitting devices 6. These materials are used in fabrication of
such as LED, lazer etc. ordinary S.C devices such as BJT etc.

Q- Why Si preferred over Ge?

▪ It is abundant in nature.
▪ During IC fabrication, SiO2 which can be use as an insulator while Ge do not form any such
oxides.
▪ Si has less reverse saturation current then Ge.
▪ Si can with stand high temp. (up to 165°c ) Ge (upto 165° c).
▪ To calculate minority charge, mobility and conductivity shocked experiment is used.

Thermostats - There are S.C with – ve coefficient of resistance,

R= Ro (1+ α △ 𝑇 ) where α= ─ ve,
S.C with +ve coefficient of resistance called seniors they are having doped S.C.
▪ Metals also have +ve of resistance so as the temp ↑, resistance ↑, because mobility of 𝑒̅ ↓.
▪ Thermostats used in Thermal relay, Control devices.
▪ Si & Ge cannot use as thermostats because their properties are too sensitive to impurities.
Ex – NIO, 𝑀𝑛2 𝑂3 & 𝐶𝑂2 O3
▪ Photo conductors- when semi conductors have both acceptor and dozen imparities. Two
type of transition is possible.
▪ Intrinsic excitation - (1) In this excitation an 𝑒 ̅ - hole pair can be created by a high –
energy photon.
▪ Extrinsic excitation – (2) where a photos may excite a donor electron into the conduction
band or 3 a valance electron may go in to an acceptor state.
Conduction
Spectral response
Bond Donor
1.24 2
𝜆𝑐 = 𝐸𝑔
level
1
When 𝜆𝑐 in microns & Eg in ev. Acceptor
Photo conductor is a frequency selective device. level
3
V.B
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20
Super conductivity – state of zero resistance called super conductivity, at this state material show
diamagnetic property.
▪ Mercury (Hg) was first super conductor.
▪ Transition from normal state to super conductivity occur over very narrow range of temp.
of the order of 0.05 K. This temp. called critical or transition temp.

Mossier effect- In expulsion of magnetic flax from

the intercom of a piece at super conducting
material as material undergoes the transition to the
B B
super conducting phase is known as messier effect”
=
▪ Meissonier effect is not consequence of zero
0
resistance a and lenz’s Law.
▪ Meissonier effect is a symbol of (T>Tc) (T<Tc)
superconductivity.

Effect of magmatic field (H) – Removal of the super- conducting state does not occur by raising
the temp. But also by subjecting the material to a magnetic field (H), lf a super conductor is cooled
in a magnetic held to below the critical temp tc, then the lines of induction are pushed out.
Inside specimen B= o in super conducting state.
𝐵 = 𝜇0 (𝑯 + 𝑀)
0 = 𝜇𝐻 + 𝜇0 𝑀
𝑀
𝐻𝑚 = = −1
𝐻
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐻𝑚 = 𝜇𝑟 − 1
𝜇𝑟 = 0
▪ Super conductor exhibits perfect diamagnetism them because of diamagnetic nature, super
conducting mattering strongly repel external magnets.
▪ The minimum applied magnetic held necessary to destroy super
conductivity are nest are the normal raise trinity is called critical field Hc”

▪ The critical value of magnetic field for the destruction (𝐻𝐶 )

of superconductivity (𝐻𝐶 ) is a function of temp.
𝐻𝐶
At T=𝑇𝐶 , 𝐻𝐶 = 0 with only small deviations, the critical
Field 𝐻𝐶 varier with temp according to the paretic law. 𝐻𝐶
Super
condu
T 2
𝐻𝐶 = 𝐻0 [|− (𝑇 ) ] ctiny T
𝐶 state
When 𝐻0 is the critical field at absolute zero temp. and 𝑇𝐶 is transition temp. T
C
• Silsbee’s rule- The magnetic field which causes a super conductor to become normal form
a super conduction state is not necessarily an external applied field /is may arise as a result
of electric current flow in the conductor in general.

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21
 ∫𝑐 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝐻 .2𝜋𝑟 = 𝐼 r
𝐼
𝐻 = 2𝜋𝑟 𝐼
Ax H↑, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐼 ↑ 𝐼
When 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑐 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐻 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝐻𝐶 H
Cond
𝐼𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑟. 𝐻𝐶
uctor
▪ It is called Silsbee’s rule when 𝐼 < 𝐼𝑐 – super conductivity
𝐼 > 𝐼𝑐 – Super conductivity destroys
▪ It limits the use of superconductor wire in strong electromagnets.
▪ Other properties of superconductivity-
(1) Frequency effect- Superconducting observed only for dc and up to radio frequencies
▪ Not observed for higher frequencies.
▪ As frequency ↑ renstance of material ↑ due to skin effect
▪ At infrared frequency (1013 𝐻𝑧) super conductivity is destroyed and it becomes normal
conductor.
(2) Entropy – Entropy ↑ then super conductivity decreases.
(3) Thermal conductivity- Thermal conductivity ↓ when super- conductivity set in.
(4)Isotrope effect- critical temp () of super conductor varies with isotropic mass. (m).
1
𝑇𝐶 ∝
√𝑚
• Type of super conductor – based on their magnetic properties
Super conductor type – 1 Super conductor type – 2
▪ Soft or Ideal super conductor ▪ Hard Super conduction
▪ Lead & Indium ▪ High transition temp
▪ Critical field is low ▪ High transition temp
▪ Low melting point. ▪ High Critical field
▪ Obey silsbee’s rule ▪ In complete meissner effect
▪ Show Meissner effect. ▪ Break down of silsbee’s rule.
▪ Low value of 𝐻𝐶 & 𝑇𝐶 ▪ Broad transition region
▪ Ex – Hard material & allow

-M Idel behaviour
-M up to 𝐻𝐶𝑖

𝐻𝐶 𝐼+ 𝐻𝐶2
HC 𝐻𝐶1
𝐻 𝐶1 𝐼+

▪ M.E incomplete in b/w

▪ Transition from normal to super 𝐻𝐶1 & 𝐻𝐶2, This region is known
conductivity is sharp. as vortes region (Mixed – state)
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22
 Application of super conductor-
▪ Used for generation of strong magnetic field.
▪ Design of modulations, Rectifiers
▪ Used in electronic switching device “CRYOTRNS’

Super conducting magnets find applications in area of –

(1) Magnets for nuclear fusion.
(2) Generator & motors
(3) Super conducting magnets for energy storage.
(4) Magnetically levitated transportation.
(5) Magnet & for high energy physics.
(6) Magnetic resource imaging (MRI).

Insulators- In ideal insulator, all valence electron are occupied in bond formation.
▪ It is a non metallic material, that has filled valence bond at OK and wide energy band gap.
▪ Good insulator may have a resistivity as high as 1014 𝑔𝑚
▪ Common electrical insulating materials are poly ethylene, Bakelite, Lucite, Mica, PVC,
and Porcelain.
▪ Most polymers are ceramics are insulating material at room temp.
▪ The materials which are insulators at ok but develop significant conductivities at room
temp become semi- conductor.
▪ Electrically the insulating material how.
(1) High resistivity to reduce leakage current.
(2) Small dielectric lose
(3) High dielectric strength so that it may with stand higher voltage with punctured or
broken
▪ The main function of non-conducting material is to provide electrical insulation.

Dielectric- It the function of non – conducting material is to store charge then material is calls
Dielectric.
▪ Material in which polarization effects are important is called dielectric
▪ Dielectric is a non- conducting material which can be polarized by electric field.
▪ Insulators are used on the basis of volume and not weight hence low density proffered.
▪ To prevent mechanical damage, insulators should also haves small thermal expansion, It
should be non- ignitable.

Dielectric Constant-
𝑞
𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉, 𝐶 =
𝑉
𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒃
𝑭𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒂𝒚 =
𝟏 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕
Now for vacuum inside the plate

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23
 𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶𝑜 = , 𝜀0 = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑑
Now if dielectric material is filled
𝜀𝐴 𝜀𝑟 .𝜀𝑜 𝐴 +
𝐶= =
𝜕 𝜕
𝜀
Where 𝜀𝑟 = 𝜀 = 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 Voltag 𝜕
0
Or e
Relative dielectric cont. of material differe
−
𝜀 = Dielectric const nce V
Or
Permittivity of material
10−12 𝐹
𝜀0 = 8.84 × 𝑚

The value of dielectric 𝜀𝑟 of a material can be determined by measuring the capacitance of a

capacitor with vacuum as dielectric and the material with dielectric
𝜀𝑟 = 1 (for vaccum) 12 (silicon)
𝜀𝑟 =1.0006 (air) 16( Ge)
▪ The capacitance of a capacitor is directly proportional to the relative dielectric constant.
▪ The energy stored in a capacitor of a given volume at a given voltage is increased by the
factor of the dielectric constant when the dielectric pretrial is present.
▪ By using material with high dielectric constant, very small capacitor with high capacitance
can be produced.
Dielectric strength- It is the ability of a dielectric material to hold energy at high voltage.
▪ Thicker material posser lower dielectric strength than thinner materials.
▪ Fundamental breakdown mechanism in solid.
(1) Intrinsic break down
(2) Thermal breakdown
(3) Discharge breakdown
(4) Electrochemical breakdown

Electric dipole – Two equal and opposite charges Sedona by a distance constitute an electric
dipole. Its dipole moment is given by the product of magnitude of charge and distance of
separation b/w the charges
• It is a vector quantity and vector direction is from +ve charge to –ve) charge.
• Under the influence of electric field, a dielectric gets polarized and dipoles are formed.

Electric dipole moment 𝒑 =q. 𝒅

Page
24
 Unit (1) C-m (Columb meter)
(2) Debye

1 Debye= 3.3*10−30 c-m

Polarization – It is defined as the average dipole moment per unit volume.

Avg .dipole moment
Polarization 𝑝̅ = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Suppose N no of dipoles /m
P= dipole moment of each dipole
𝑷=N. 𝒑
Unit C/𝑚2
D Electric flux density(C/𝑚2 )
E Electric field intensity (V/m)
D =𝜀𝑟 . 𝜀𝑜 𝑬

Total electric flax density inside a dielectric material due to

(1) Applied external field
(2) Polarization inside dielectric
D = 𝜀𝑜 E+P (i)
But we have D =𝜀𝑟 . 𝜀𝑜 𝑬 (ii)

𝜀𝑜 E+P =𝜀𝑟 . 𝜀𝑜 𝑬
P = 𝜀_𝑜 (𝜀𝑟 -1) 𝑬
P =𝜀𝑜 𝑥𝑒 𝑬
Where 𝑥𝑝 =𝜀𝑟 − 1 (𝑥𝑝 Electric susceptibility of material)

Type of polarization –
(1) Electric polarization – Exist when electric field present it result from a displacement of
the centre of the negatively charged electron cloud relative tothe +ve nuclease of an atom by
electric field.

𝐸≠0
++ ±↕
E + ±No dipole
= dipole P≠0
0 P=0
(2) Ionic polarization – occurs only in ionic materials, in presence of electric field .
Applied field displace cation in one direction and anion in opposite direction which give rise
to net dipoles moment.

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25
(3) Orientation polarization –It is found in substance that posses permanent dipole moments.
Polarization result from a rotation of the permanent movement in the direction of applied
field. These polarization decrease with increase in temp.

(4) Space charge polarization – this type of polarization is the result of lattice vacancies and
impurity centers present in the material.
▪ It occur due to defects in the material
▪ In dielectrics some free charge carriers are also available that can migrate from one end to
another end of dielectric.
▪ Frees charge crane migration through the dielectric under the Influence of electric field can
be obstructed by lattice vacancy and impurity centers.

𝑉 𝑉<𝜃1
R =𝐼 , Z = =|𝑍| < ∅ Complex
𝐼<𝜃2

Polarization decreases with ↑ in frequency

Total polarization is only due to electronic polarity
𝜀𝑟 𝑑𝑐 Real
𝜀𝑟 𝐴𝐶 Complex.
𝜀𝑟 =𝜀𝑟′ −j’𝜀𝑟 "

𝛾𝜀𝑟
𝜀𝑟′ 𝜀_𝑟^"

𝜀𝑟
w w
tan 𝜕 = (𝜀_𝑟^")/(𝜀_𝑟^′ )

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26
 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡.
Power factor- power loss only and power factor depends upon –
(1) The nature of material
(2) Applied voltage
(3) Temp.
(4) Frequency

Other Electrical characteristics of materials-

1. Piezoelectric material – some materials get polarized when they are subjected to mechanical
stress, such materials are called piazza electric material and this property of material is called pries
electricity.
▪ When these materials are subjected to electric field, material gets strained and produced
strain is proportional to the applied electric field.
▪ These are two effects in piezoelectricity
Direct effect – charge generated by applied mechanical Stress.
Eg. – micro phone.

2. Inverse effect- generation of strain by applied electric field.

Eg. – quartz watcher.
Both these effects are linear effects
Ex – quartz, Rochelle salt, barium titanate ( Ba TiO3)
Lead titanate’s ( Pb TiO3 ) lead Zicronate ( Pb ZrO3)
Ammonium dihydnoger phosphate (ADP)
Potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KDP)

▪ Voltage generate across piezoelectric material- (V)

V=𝑝𝑔𝑡
volt
𝑁
p= stress/pressure (𝑚2 )
𝑉−𝑚
g = voltage sensitivity ( )
𝑁
t = thickness (m)

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27
 Electrostriction – some material get strained when electric field applied but converse effect
not observed this property of material called electro striation.
Produced strain ∝ 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 2
𝜀𝑜 ∝ 𝐸 2
Spontaneous polarization / residual polarization – certain dielectric exhibit non – zero
polarization even in absence of electric field, this residual polarization called spontaneous
polarization.
E =0 , P ≠0
Pyro electric material – ∆𝑃 = λ∆𝑇 piezoelectric coefficient it has (-ve) value)
A piezoelectric material is ore which exhibit the sonorous polarization and changes hs
polarization on heating.
If 𝑇 ↑⇒ 𝑃 ↓
𝑇 ↓⇒ 𝑃 ↑ ∆𝑃
1. Piezoelectric material include-
▪ Titanium of Barium & lead. ∆𝑇
▪ Zircon ate (𝑃𝑏 𝑍𝑛 𝑂3)
Piezoelectric material application –
▪ Frequency resonators
▪ Grams phone pileups.
▪ Filters
▪ ultrasonic flow detectors
▪ Under water sonar transducers
▪ Air transducer (Can phonier, micro phones etc. )

2. Ferroelectric material-
▪ The group of dielectric material which exhibits, spontaneous polarization (i.e. polarization
without electric field) called Ferro electric material.
▪ There material exhibit spontaneous polarization and hysteric carve phonetician.
▪ In this material eviction of polarization can be reversed by reversing the election of applied
electric field. (Polarized phase)
▪ Ferro electric material remain Ferro electric up to a contain temp called curio temp.
Above curie temp, this material behave like
Para electric material (Non Polarized phase)
Ex- Ro chellie salt, Type equation here.
Ferro electric domain and hysteresis curve
Virgin (fresh) ferroelectric material
E

Domain
wall
After applying E →
𝐸
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Domai
28
n
 P

(a) Hysteresis (1) P-E relation above curil temp

▪ The hysteresis loop of a ferro electric material Changes its shops as the temp is ↑
▪ The height & width of hysterias loop ↓ with inouase in temp. At a certain temp known as
curie temp (Tc) the loop merges to straight line and ferro electric behaviors disappears.

Anti Ferro electric material – In this material dipoles are align in arty paralleled direction but
they are equal in magnitude.

They remain anti Ferro electric material up to a certain temp called curie temp. Above certain
temperature they become Para electric.

Para electric material – In this there are permanent dipoles but dipoles are randomly oriented,
due to random orientation of dipoles spontaneous polarization is zero.
When we applied some electric field we get some non-zero polarization in the given direction
of field.

▪ All ferro electric material are piezo electric and para electric.
▪ All para electric material are piezo electric.

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 3. Magnetic Properties of Material

▪ Materials which can be magnetized are called magnetic materials.

▪ All materials show some magnetic effect, In many materials the effect is so week that the
materials are after considered to be non-magnetic.
However vacuum is the only true non-magnetic medium.
▪ Permeability – B- magnetic flax density (Wb/m2) or Tesla
H→Magnetic field intensity (A/m)
𝑩 = 𝝁 𝒓 𝝁𝟎 𝑯
Where 𝝁𝟎 = 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒓 𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒖𝒎
𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝑯
𝝁𝟎 = 𝟒𝝅 × 𝒎
𝝁𝒓 = 𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒐𝒓 𝑫𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒛𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏.
𝝁 = 𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝒓 Permeability of material

Magnetic dipole moment-

Y
Magnetic Dipole moment⇒ 𝑃 𝑚 = 𝐼. 𝐴. 𝑛̂
I Where 𝐼 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝
X 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝
R
𝑛̂ =
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐼 𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝.
𝑃̅𝑚 𝑃̅ = 𝐼 × 𝜋 𝑅 2 × 𝑎
̂𝑧
Z
Unit – A – m (or) Bohr magnetism

▪ Magnetic field produced by a small current loop is similar to electric field produced from a
small electric dipole, for this reason, a small current loop called magnetic dipoles.
▪ It magnetic dipoles moment is defined as the product loop area and current flowing through
the loop. It is a vector quantity and the vector direction of dipole moment is perpendicular
to the plane of loop and is along the direction of a sight hand screw rule when moved in the
direction of current in the loop.

Magnetization – all material affected by presence of magnetic field there by they aquere magnetic
moments.

𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐷𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

Magnetization of medium(M)= 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

M=N× 𝑃𝑚

N= No of dipole/𝑚3
𝑃𝑚 = Magnetic dipole moment of each dipole
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30
 Magnetic flux density (w/𝑚2 or tesla) inside a magnetic material due to
(1) Applied external magnetic field
(2) Magnetization.
B=𝝁𝟎 𝑯 +𝝁𝟎 𝑴

Flux density due to vacuum flux density due to magnetization.

Flux density- where a solenoid of lenth L area of Crosse section A No of turns N current through
𝑁𝐼
it( 𝐼) place in a vacuum then flux density of vacuum where H= , 𝐵𝑂 =𝜇𝑂 H
𝐿
𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝑯
𝜇𝑂 =Permeability of free space = 𝝁𝟎 = 𝟒𝝅 × 𝒎

If vacuum replaced by homogeneous magnetic medium with relative permeability 𝜇𝑟

flux density. B =𝝁𝟎 × 𝝁𝒓 ×H = 𝝁H

So B =𝝁𝟎 H+𝝁𝟎 M = 𝑩𝟎 + 𝝁𝟎 M
𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝒓 𝑯 =𝝁𝟎 H+𝝁𝟎 M

M=(𝝁𝒓 -1)H
M= 𝒙𝒎 H
𝑴
𝒙𝒎 = 𝑯 , 𝒙𝒎 =(𝝁𝒓 -1) Where 𝒙𝒎 Magnetic susceptibility of material

(+ve) material attracted by magnetic field

𝜒𝑚

(-Ve) material repelled by magnetic field

Magnetic susceptibility (𝜒_𝑚) depend upon the relative permeability (𝝁_𝒓) of the medium
It depend upon the nature of magnetic material and on its sate (temp).
▪ It may charge on cold working due on the material.
Ex - for copper it charges from (- ve) to(+ ve) on cold working
It may be determined by force exerted on magnetic material when placed in magnetic
field.
Origin of permanent magnetic dipole moment-
▪ Where ever a charge particle has angular movement the particle will contribute the
permanent magnetic dipole moment, in general there are three contribution of angular
momentum of an atom.
(1) Orbital 𝑒 angular momentum
(2) 𝑒 spin angular momentum
(3) Nucleus spin angular momentum.

▪ Properties of magnetic material are affected by 𝑒 spin angular momentum.

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 Electrum spin dipole moment- Elements having completely filled orbit has zero
resultant 𝑒 spin dipole moment.

A group of element having in completely filled inner orbits are known as transition element.
Ex – Fe, Mo, Ni, G, etc.
𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑚 = 𝕫𝑃𝐵
𝑍 → 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 3𝑟𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑖𝑡
𝑃𝐵 → 𝐵𝑜ℎ𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛.
2,2𝑃6 3𝑆2
Ex- 𝐹𝑒 26 = 1𝑆 2,2𝑆 , 3𝑃6 3𝑑 6 , 4𝑆 2
↿⇂ ↿ ↿ ↿ ↿
𝑧 = 4(𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑒̅)
𝑃𝑚 = 4𝑃𝐵
6 2
2,2𝑆 2,2𝑃 3𝑆
𝐹𝑒 2+ = 1𝑆 , 3𝑃6 3𝑑6 ,
↿⇂ ↿ ↿ ↿ ↿ 𝑍 = 4
𝑃𝑚 = 4𝑃𝐵
6 2
2,2𝑆 2,2𝑃 3𝑆
𝐹𝑒 3+ = 1𝑆 , 3𝑃6 3𝑑5 ,
↿ ↿ ↿ ↿ ↿ 𝑍=5
𝑃𝑚 = 5𝑃𝐵
Classification of magnetic material-
The origin of magnetism lies in
(1) Orbital & spin magnetism lies in 𝑒
(2) How electron interact with one another
In some material there are very strong interaction b/w atomic moments but in other there is no or
small interaction of atomic magnetic moments.

According to magnetic behaviors 5 magnetic material

(1) Diamagnetic 𝜒𝑚 = -ve
(2) Paramagnetic
(3) Ferromagnetic 𝜒𝑚 = (+ve)
(4) Anti ferromagnetic
(5) Ferri magnetic

(1) Diamagnetic material –

▪ Do not show permanent dipole
▪ small and -ve value of 𝜒𝑚
B
▪ This material repelled away from applied =
0
magnetic field or vice versa.

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 . Type equation here. +𝜒 𝜒 = Const

𝑥𝑚 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝 T

+M -𝜒

𝑀
-M − 𝑥𝑚 = = -1 (-ve , small)
𝐻

(-ve slope )

Inside diamagnetic material B=0

But B= 𝜇0 𝐻 + 𝜇0 𝑀
𝜇0 (𝐻 + 𝑀) = 0
𝑀
𝑛𝑚 = = −1
𝐻
𝜇𝑟 − 1 = 𝑥𝑚
𝜇𝑟 = 0 ⟹ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑚.
▪ In this material diploes induced in the substance that is aligned opposite to magnetic field.
H=0 𝐻
𝑂 𝑂 𝑂 ← ← ←
𝑂 𝑂 𝑂 ← ← ←
𝑂 𝑂 𝑂 ← ← ←

No dipole Dipoles induced &

when H=0 aligned opposite
to applied field

Dia magnetic substance include

▪ Metals solid - (gold, silver, copper)
▪ organic solid – (Benzene , Napthalene)
▪ Rare gases – ( He , Ne , Ar)
Super conductors exhibit perfect diamagnetism.
I.e. Magnetic flux density (B) inside a super conductive material is zero.

2. Paramagnetic material-

▪ Magnetic lines of forces are attracted weakly by the paramagnetic materials.

▪ These materials contain permanent dipole but dipoles are randomly oriented, because of
random orientation dipole spontaneous magnetization is zero.
▪ It external field is applied we get some non-zero magnetization in the direction of held. So
this have small value of 𝑥𝑚 but +ve( dipoles are free to rotate)
▪ It we increase the temp randomness in dipoles will increases as the net magnetization in
the direction of field will decrease.
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33
 ▪ Hence and T inversely related
1
𝑆𝑜 𝜂𝑚 ∝ 𝑇
𝑐
𝑛𝑚 = 𝑇 𝐶 → 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
M

1
𝑥𝑚 M
𝑥𝑚

T T
𝑀
𝑥𝑚 = = +𝑣𝑒
𝐻
𝑥𝑚 = (𝜇𝑟 − 1) = +𝑣𝑒
𝜇>1

Ex- Al, Ca, Cr, Li, Mg, O2, Pt.

▪ Both diamagnetic & paramagnetic materials are considered non-magnetic, because they
exhibit magnetic suction in presence of external field.
▪ Both substance Para and dia-magnetic material , on magnetization can have small flux
density B within which is possible to show in free space or vacuum

3. Ferro magnetic materials- important characteristic of these materials is that, they are very
strongly attracted by a magnet, ↑↑↑↑↑
▪ Name based on iron (Ferro)
▪ Lines of magnetic forces of
external field are attracted
Very strongly by Ferro magnetic Substances.
▪ These materials are characterized by the presence of parallel alignment of permanent
dipole moment in a single direction.
▪ These materials get magnetized in the direction of applied field and remain magnetized
even after the removal of field. This property is called spontaneous magnetization.
▪ These materials remain ferromagnetic up to a temp called curie temp. Above curie temp
they start behaving like paramagnetic materials.
▪ Permanent magnetic moment in ferromagnetic materials results from atomic dipoles
moment due to uncontrolled electron spin.
▪ Each spinning electron can be considered to be equivalent to a moving charge
(current) there by forming a magnetic dipole moment ( A small magnet )
▪ In ferromagnetic substance, more electron spin in one direction than in other, there by
resulting in net magnetic moment in their atoms.

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34
 ▪ In material such as 𝛼 -iron, cobalt. & nickel the magnetic dipole moment is quits strong
which help atomic dipoles to align them in parallel direction as atoms are sufficient close
to interact with each other.
▪ Hence ferromagnetic material shows spontaneous over magnetization even in the absence
of external magnetic field.
Two distinct characteristic of ferromagnetic material
(1) Spontaneous magnetization
(2) Existence of spontaneous magnetization accrued only below caris temp.
▪ Above curie temp ferromagnetic material have same behavior as paramagnetic material
(i.e. small magnetization and above curie temp) Below curie temp the magnetization of
Ferro-magnetic increase rapidly to high value called saturation magnetization.

Which is maximum induced magnetic moment that can be obtained in a magnetic field. Beyond
this magnetization no further increase in possible as show in fig.
M

(Magnetisations)
↑
𝑆𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

“Saturation magnetization is the maxim the induced magnetic moment”

▪ In addition to curie temp and saturation a magnetization, ferromagnetic materials can retain
a memory of an applied field once it is removed.
▪ Magnetic flux intensity (Remenance) which still persists even when the magnetization
field is removed. This property is called retentively.
▪ Saturation magnetization is an intrinsic property and is indecent dent of particle size but
dependent or temp.
Retentivity (remenance)- The maximum value of residual flux density is known as retentively.
Coerievity – The maxim value which a coercive field can attain is known as coercivity.

Domain theory – According to Weiss domain theory - Ferro magnetic material consists of a large
no. of regions or domains which are permanently magnetized.
▪ The magnetic moments in the individual domains are all aligned parallel to one another,
when temp is lower than curie temp.
▪ Each domain in magnetic ally saturated and it has net magnetic moment.
▪ The direction of net magnetic moment in each domain varies, there by resulting in the
overall magnetic moment or magnetization of the material to be negligible or zero.
▪ Above curie temp. The one directional alignment of magnetic moment in different domains
may disruption and the material may lose its ferro-magnetisation on disruption of orderly
aligned domains.

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35
 Domain with different Random Aligned
Directions of magnetic Magnetic Magnetic
Moments Moments Moments

How saturation of magnetization take place- Consider Ferro magnetic specimens having four
domains with fibered election of magnetic moments which give resultant magnetization.

Domain Configuration giving Magnetization by preffered

Zero resultant magnetization Domain growth

▪ This is the reason why steal is ferromagnetic but it is not a magnetic in absence of
magnetic field.
▪ Where external magnetic field it is applied on the material the domains having alignment
of magnetic moment parallel to the applied magnetic field grow is size.
The size of domain grows at the expense of reduction in size of other domain and
motion of domain wall. A stage is reached when the whole material consists of saturations of
magnetization inside material.

Saturation of magnetization occur due to

(1) Motion of domain walls
(2) Rotation of existing magnetic moment in the direction of the field.

▪ The coercive force to neutralize the spontaneous magnetization in force magmatic material
can be understood in term of mobility of domain walls, which depends
(1) Impurities (2) lattice imperfection

Magnetization curve and magnetic hysteresis loop-

▪ Magnetic hysteresis means that the magnetization of a ferromagnetic material depends not
only on the present magnetic field but also on its post subjection to magnetic field.

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36
▪ The relation b/w magnetic field strength (H) and magnetization (M) in the material is non-
liner and hay plotted as B-H accrue called magnetization curve.

▪ In fresh or virgin material centre rises up in `1st region of,

OC – const slope
CD – decreasing slope.
▪ From A to D material attained saturation of magnetization (Bs), The amount of
magnetization does not increase further from here even when magnetic field H is an
increase.
▪ If the magnetic field is reversed, the magnetization slowly at 1st and Its residual value
remain Br. Even when the magnetic field (H=d).
▪ When the alternating magnetic field is applied and the B-H curse makes a hysteresis loop.
Energy equal to the area of the loop is dissipated as heat.
▪ The power loss due to hysteresis in devices such as the transformer is dependent on the no.
of times the field hysteresis loop is made / second.
▪ Slope of H.C =B/H = M/H = Xm
▪ Ax the temp increases of hysteresis loop above curie temp. This loop merger into a straight
line.
B

T> 𝜃

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37
 4. Anti ferromagnetic materials

▪ These materials are characterized by

an anti parallel arrangement of
dipoles so the net spontaneous
magnetization is zero.

▪ These materials remain anti

ferromagnetic up to a critical temp
called need’s temp, above Neel's
temp they behaved as paramagnetic
materials.

▪ 𝑥𝑚 of these materials are small & +ve.

𝑥𝑚 Maximum 𝑥𝑚
𝐶
𝑥𝑚 =𝑇+𝜃 𝜃𝑁 = Neel’s temp
𝑁
C =Curie temp
Susaptibility

T in K
▪ At Neel's temp maxim susceptibility
▪ Neel’s temp occurs much lower than room temp.
▪ Below Neel temp, 𝑥𝑚 ↑within ↑temp above Neel temp 𝑥𝑚 ↓with temp ↑.
▪ In anti ferromagnetic material anti-parallel alignment of electron spins which are equal.
Ex – Cu. Zn, oxides of iron, cobalt & management.
(MnO, MnO2, Fe2O3, CaO)

5. Ferromagnetic material-
▪ These are anti ferromagnetically couples
(Dipole of neighboring atoms aligned in
opposite direction) but the neighboring
have a different value of magnetic
moments.
▪ So total cancellation of dipole moments
does not take place. So posses net
spontaneous magnetization in are the
direction.
▪ These materials remain ferromagnetic
up to curie temp. Above curie temp, it
behaves like paramagnetic substances.
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38
▪ These are preferred above ferromagnetic material because they have high resistivity (good
electrical insulator) to prevent eddy current losses in high-frequency transformers.
▪ Ferrimagnetisms occurs mainly in ferrites which are oxides of various metals.
▪ These are used for construction care of high-frequency transformer and inductors.
▪ Most versatile ferromagnetism can be obtained from the ‘ rare earth iron garnets
▪ Ferrites are brittle and power machine ability.
▪ Magnetic hysteresis loop ferrite varies from very narrow to very wide.

Ferrites having narrow hysteresis loop are suitable for the soft magnetic application.
1. Audio transformer
2.Television transformer
3.Gyrators
4.Cores of induction coils
5.Memory cores of computer (Mn-Mg ferrite)
Ni-Zn ferrite – used in audio transformer
YIG (Yttrium Inon garnets ) used in microwaves ferrite.

Properties of ferrite-
1.High resistivity
2.Low eddy current loses
3.Extremely low dielectric losses
4.High curie temp
5.High permeability.
▪ Barium ferrites are used for fabrication of permanent magnets.

Curie temp – The temp at which the alignment of magnetic moments vanishes in magnetic
materials, which is called curie temp & curie point.

Magnetic

T
𝑇𝑂 Type equation here.
▪ Below curie temp, the magnetic moments in magnetic materials remained aligned in one
direction.
▪ Above curie temp, magnetic moments get randomly oriented due to more thermal energy
far ferromagnetic material.
▪ Below curie temp th e susceptibility of material ↓ with↑ in temp.
▪ Curie temp for ferromagnetic and paramagnetic materials is different.
▪ Saturation magnetization of material vanishes or become zero at curie temp alloying.
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39
 ▪ For maintain the magnetic property, the materials should have curie temp higher than the
temp at which they are subjected.
▪ Magnetic material used in (1) transformers (2) motors (3) alternators (4) relays (5)
permanent magnets, should have higher curie temp so that magnetism remain so.
▪ The material used in (1) spectrometers (2) cathode ray tube (3) compose bearing should
have lower curie temp so that the material not get magnified.

Magnetostriction – when magnetic materials are magnetized charge in dimension are generally
observed. This property called magnetostriction.

Vellari effect – It is converse of magnetostriction, the longitudinal deformation leads to charge

magnetic permeability in the direction of applied mechanical stress.

▪ Curie law – preferred magnetic material

▪ Curie weins law – paramagnetic & Ferromagnetic
▪ Need law – Anti ferromagnetic.
Soft magnetic material Hard magnetic material
The material which is easy to magnetize and Material retains their magnetism and
Demagnetized. difficult to demagnetized

Domain wall motion is easier in this. Domain wall motion is prevented

in these materials

Suitable for making temporary magnets. Suitable for making permanent magnets.

These materials should not posses any voids
or importers to that domain wall move easily.
𝑥𝑚 and μ𝑟 are high.
Coercive force and retentively are less.
Prepared by heating the materials and this
quenching impurity increases Strength of
hard magnetic material as domain wall con
not move
𝑥𝑚 and μ𝑟 are low.
Coercive force and retentively are more.

Does not store magnetic energy Magnetic energy stored is high

Eddy current losses are small due to high Eddy current losses are high.
resistivity
High saturation magnetization High saturation magnetization
Low hysteresis loss. High hysteresis loss.
Easily demagnetized. Hard to demagnetized.
Because of high retentively and high coactivity, hard material is used for permanent magnets.
Ex – hard materials.
Carbon steel – used for the compass needle
Tungston steel- used for magnet for DC motor.
Alnico (al+Ni+Ca)- used as electromagnets.
Cunife (Cu+Ni+fe).

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 4. Ceramic materials
▪ Ceramics are inorganic, non metallic material; consist of metallic and non metallic
elements.
▪ Inter atomic bonds are either totally ionic or predominantly ionic but having covalent
characters.
▪ The ceramic word derived from “Keramiko” (means Burnt stuff).
▪ Desirable property achieved by high-temp treatment process called firing’
Ceramics are hard and brittle with low tough rues and ductility.
▪ High melting temp and high chemical stability.

Ceramic

Traditional Engg/technical ceramics

Clay 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3

Silica (flint) Basic compounds 𝑆𝑖3 𝑂4 SiC

Fledspar SiC Silicon Nitrate

𝑆𝑖3 𝑁4
Ex- Bricks
Tiles
𝑍𝑟2 𝑂2 𝑍𝑟2 𝑂2 Zirconia

Ex- SiC in high temp

Automotive Gas turbine

Traditional ceramics –
1. Clay- clay consists of mainly hydrated aluminium silicate (𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 . 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 . 𝐻2 𝑂)with a small
amount of other oxides such as 𝑇𝑖𝑂2, 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3, 𝑀𝑔 𝑂, 𝐶𝑎 𝑂, 𝑁𝑎2 𝑂 and 𝐾2 𝑂
In traditional ceramics, clay provides workability of before fining hardness its and constitute the
major body material.
It plastically deformed even at room temp.
2. The silica has high melting temp and is the refractory condition of traditional ceramics.
3. Potash fledspar- which is the basic composition of (𝐾2 𝑂. 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂2 . 𝐻2 𝑂) has a low melting temp
and makes a glass when the ceramic mixture is fired, it bounds the atomic companies together

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Engineering ceramics-
1. Alumina (𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3)
2. Silicon nitride (𝑆𝑖3 𝑁4 )
3. Silicon carbide(SiC)
4. Zirconia(𝑍𝑟2 𝑂2)

(1) Alumina (𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3) – Developed for refractory tubing and high purity variables for high temp
used. Quality electrical appliances where low dielectric and high resistivity are needed. (Spark
plugged insulator).

(2) Silicon nitrate (𝑆𝑖3 𝑁4 ) – among all engineering ceramics, has must useful engineering
properties.
▪ At 1800 degre celceus dissociates & cannot be sintered
▪ 𝑆𝑖3 𝑁4 Processed by reaction bending in which a compact of Si powder is nitrated in the
flow of 𝑁2 gas .This process produce a micro parus 𝑆𝑖3 𝑁4 with moderate strength.
▪ Higher-strength non-porous 𝑆𝑖3 𝑁4 can be made by hot pressing with 1 to 5 % MgO.

(3) Silicon carbide (SiC) – This is a hard refractory carbide with outstanding resistance to
oxidation at a high temp.
▪ SiC at high temp forms a skin of 𝑆𝑖𝑂2that to protect the main body of the material.
▪ SiC is commonly used as fibres reinforcement for material matrix and ceramic composites.
(4)Zirconia (𝑍𝑟2 𝑂2 ) – Pure zirconia is ploy morphic and transferred from the cubic
monoclinic structure at about 1710 ℃ with on expansion volume and hence it is subjected
to cracking.
▪ However it we combine 𝑍𝑟2 𝑂2 with other refractory oxides such as𝑀𝑔 𝑂, 𝐶𝑎 𝑂 and
1
𝑂3,The cubic structure can be stabilized, We can produce a partially stabilized 〖
2
(𝑍𝑟〗2 𝑂2 ) combining ( 𝑍𝑟2 𝑂2) with 9% 𝑀𝑔 𝑂 which has high fracture and toughness
strength leading to several new ceramic application.

Silicate ceramics:-
▪ Silicate are materials primarily of silicon and oxygen ( most abundant element in the earth
crust)
The bulk of solid , rocks, clays and some come under the silicate classification-
▪ 𝑺𝒊𝑶𝟒−𝟒 has tetrahedron structure, each atom of silicon-bonded to 4 oxygen atom
which are situated at the corner of a tetrahedron, it is negatively charged entity .
▪ the SiO bond in 𝑺𝒊𝑶𝟒−𝟒 is 50% covalent and 50% ionic.
▪ Each oxygen of silicate tetrahedron has one 𝑒̅ , available for bonding hence many different
structures of silicate.
▪ When +ve ions bond with the oxygen of 𝑆𝑖𝑂4−4 tetrahedral, Island silicate structure are
produced.
Ex- 𝐹𝑒 +2 and 𝑀𝑔+2 ions combine with 𝑆𝑖𝑂4−4 to from olivine ,(〖𝑀_𝑔 𝐹_𝑒)〗
_2 〖𝑆𝑖𝑂〗_4
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 ▪ When two corners of each 𝑆𝑖𝑂4−4 tetrahedron are bonded with the corners of
tetrahedron, a chain or structure having formula 𝑺𝒊𝑶𝟒−𝟐 results

The mineral enstatite (𝑀𝑔 𝑆𝑖𝑂3) chain silicate structure.

Mineral Beryle (𝐵𝑒3 𝐴𝑙2(〖〖𝑆𝑖𝑂〗_3)〗_6) Ring Silicate structure
When 3 corners in same plane of silicate tetrahedron bonded to corners of 3 other silicate
tetrahedron silicate shat structure formed.
(-ve)
𝑆𝑖2 𝑂5 −

( +ve) X 𝐴𝑙2 (𝑂𝐻)4 𝑆𝑖2 𝑂5

𝐴𝑙2 (𝑂𝐻)4 +2

Kaolinite ( electrically neutral)

1. Silica – when all four corners of 𝑺𝒊𝑶𝟒−𝟒 tetrahedral share oxygen atoms, an network called
silica is produced.
Quartz, tridymite and cristobalite are three basic silica structures and each of these has two or
thee modifications.

2. Feldspars – In the feldspar silicate structures network some 𝐴𝑙 +3 ions replace some 𝑆𝑖 +4 ions to
form a network with a net negative charge, this negative charge is balanced with large ions of
alkali and alkaline earth ions such as 𝑁𝑎 +2, 𝐶𝑎+2 , 𝐵𝑎+2, which fit into interstitial positions.

Silicate Mineral Composites

1. Silica – quartz, tridymite, cristo balite

2. Alumina silicate.
kaolinite (China Clay) - (𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 . 2𝑆𝑖𝑂2 . 2𝐻2 𝑂)
Pyrophyllite - (𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 . 4𝑆𝑖𝑂2 . 𝐻2 𝑂)
Meta kaolinite -(𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 . 2𝑆𝑖𝑂2 )

3. Alkali alumina silicate

Potash feldspar - (K2O. 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 . 6𝑆𝑖𝑂2)
Soda feldspar - ( 𝑁𝑎2 𝑂 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 . 6𝑆𝑖𝑂2 )
(Muscovite) mica – (K2O. 3𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 . 6𝑆𝑖𝑂2 . 2𝐻2 𝑂)
Leucite- (K2OAl2O3.4SiO2)

4. Magnriam silicate
▪ Steatite- 3𝑀𝑔 𝑂. 4𝑆𝑖𝑂2
▪ Talc- 3𝑀𝑔 𝑂. 4𝑆𝑖𝑂2
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 ▪ Chrysotite (Asbestos)- 3𝑀𝑔 𝑂. 2𝑆𝑖𝑂2. 2𝐻2 𝑂

Ceramic crystal structure-

▪ Ceramic has ionic bonding; crystal structure of ceramic consists of electrically charged
ions instead of atoms.
▪ Two characters of compound ions in crystalline ceramics materials influence crystal
structure.

(1) The magnitude of electric charge on each of the component.

The crystal must be electrically neutral i.e. all cation (+ve) charge must be balanced by
the equal anion –ve charge.

𝐶𝑎+2 (+2) =+2

𝐶𝑎𝐹2
𝐹 − 2(-1) =-2

(2)The relative sizes of cations and anions.

𝑟𝑐 = Cation radius , 𝑟𝑎= anion radius
Cation< anion

▪ Stable ceramic crystal is formed when the anions surrounding a cation are all in direct
contact with that cation.
▪ The co-ordination no. (no. of nearest anion neighboring for a cation) is related to the
cation-anion radius ratio.
▪ For specific coordination no. there is a critical or minimum ratio Rc/Ra for which cation-
anion contact is established, the ratio may be determined from pure geometrical consideration.

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 ▪ The most common co-ordination no. for ceramic materials are 4, 6, and 8
▪ For radius ratio greater than unity, the C-N is 12 .Type equation here.
▪ The relationship only approximate & hence there are exceptions also.

AX type crystal structure-

1. Rock salt type crystal structure- this is must common crystal structure
C.N = 6
𝑟𝑐
=0.414 to 0.732
𝑟 𝑎
Ex- 𝑁𝑎 𝐶𝑙, 𝑀𝑔 𝑂, 𝑀𝑛 𝑆,𝐹𝑒 𝐷
Simple cubic structure .Type equation here.

2. Cesium, chloride structure- the anions are located at each of the corner of a cube where as a
cube centre is a single cation.
▪ Center is a single Cation
▪ C.N=8
▪ This is not a B.C.C. structure because ions of two different kind are involved.

3. Zin blendge (ZnS)-

ZnS Mineralogical term sphalerite.
C.N=4
Atomic bonding is highly covalent.
ZnS, Zinc Telorite (ZnT) and SiC
Four atoms of different shaper located at the tetrahedron

𝑨𝒎 𝑿𝒑 type crystal structure-

If the charge on the cation and anion are not some a compound can exists with 𝐴𝑚 𝑋𝑝 structure.
Ex - 𝐶𝑎𝐹2 (Calcium Fluoride) Type equation here.
𝑟
In , 𝐶𝑎𝐹2 , 𝑟𝑐 =0.8 , C.N=8
𝑎

𝑨𝒎 𝑩𝒎 𝑿𝒑 type Crystal structure

More than two type of cation(+)
ex- 𝐵𝑎 𝑇𝑖𝑂3 having two type of cation 𝐵𝑎+2 and 𝑇𝑖 +4 is an example of AmBmXp type C.S
𝐵𝑎+2at 8 corners
𝑇𝑖 +4 at centre of cube
𝑂2− at center of each face

Ex- 𝑴𝒈 𝑨𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟒 − Spiral structure

𝑂−2 - From FCC lattice
𝑀𝑔2+ - tetrahedral position

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 𝐴𝑙 +3 - fill Octahedral position

Material preparation
1. Dry pressing – simultaneous uniaxial compaction and shaping along with water or organic
binder in die.
2. Isostatic pressing – hydraulic fluid used, pressure applied uniformly in all directions – sintering
done- for refactoring, bricks, spark paly, insulator radomes. Carbide tools, crucibles and
bearings.
3. Hot pressing – combining pressing and firing operation, uniaxial and Isostatic method is used
4. Slip casting – ceramic shapes can cost.

5. Extrusion- for refractory brick, sewer pipes hollow tiler, technical ceramics, electrical
insulators.

Thermal treatments-
▪ Drying and binder removal
▪ Sintering
▪ Verification – The glass phase liquefies and fils the pore spaces in the material

Properties of the material of ceramic-

▪ Hard, dance and strong.

▪ High corrosion resistance ( due to using of refractory materials)
▪ High compressive strength
▪ Excellent dielectric properties
▪ High thermal insulation and works at head barriers
▪ Withstand high thermal shock without cracking
▪ Available in abundance
▪ Provide good sanitation
▪ Cost-effective.

Electrical properties-
▪ The high value of dielectric strength & dielectric constant.
▪ The low value of a dielectric loss.
▪ Suitable for charge storage insulation purpose.

Mechanical properties- (fail under brittle mode)

1) Strength- ceramics strength in compression than in tension so bricks used in building.
2) Brittleness, ductility & malleability -ceramics are brittle with low ductility and
malleability
3) Ceramics are very hard
4) Elasticity– linear elastic behaviour, so stress cure is a straight line.
5) Melting point- ionic & covalent bond so high melting point, zirconia – 3200℃
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6) Crack propagation under tensile load not under compression load.
7) Low thermal conductivity.
8) Less expansion better insulator
9) Less water absorption.
10) Does not fail under creep.
11) Crack propogation under tensile load not under compression load.

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 5. Polymers
▪ Polymer’ means many parts.
▪ Polymer consists of small units ( mers), joined together either naturally or synthetically
▪ Polymers consists of gaint or macromolecules chain-like molecules bonded chemically.
▪ Having avg – molecular weight ( 10.000 gm/mole)
▪ Molecular weight is the sum of the atomic mass of each molecule.
▪ Natural polymers ( protein, carbohydrate silk, wool cotton rubber, leather)
▪ Man-made (PVC, ploytheylens, PAN, synthetic rubber)
▪ Most polymers based network.
▪ Repeating units are covalently linked.
▪ Proper ties polymers are different from monomers.
Mer - A unit group of atoms and molecules that defines a characteristics arrangement of
polymers.
Monomer – It is simple molecules with two or more binding sites, which covalently bond to
form polymer,
Ex – alkenes vinyl chloride, adipic Acids, having two binding sites.
Simple molecules 𝑁𝐻3 ,𝐻2 𝑂 ethanol , can not act as a monomer.
Polymerization – A chemical reaction in which monomers in presence of initiator under
specific condition covalently bonded to form a polymer (or) macromolecules.

Monomer + Initiator required pressure Polymer

Mechanism of Polymerization-
Addition Polymerization Condensation Polymerization

Large no. of monomer (same) are added Here Condensation of two (or) more monomer
chemically to ↑ avg. weight and size without (same or deferent) with elimination of molecules
Any wastage. Like (〖𝑁𝐻〗_3, 𝐻𝐶𝑙 , 𝐻_2 𝑂, 𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑎𝑙)
The double bond of carbon breaks in Here monomer are different from, that in
monomer during polymerization. addition polymer.
Copolymerization Here addition of different Two characteristic of monomer
monomer takes place. 1. Monomers have functional group like alcohol ,
Amine COOH , instead = bond
2. Two reaction sites means two functional group
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Molecular Structure of polymers -
1. Linear chain structure-Mers are joined together end to end in single-chain units held together
by weak secondary bonds.
Ex. Polyethene, thermoplastic has a liner chain structure.

2. Branched-chain structure-

▪ Here a side atom is removed from main chain and replace by C-C bond.
▪ Polymer is more stronger and less ductile.
▪ Polymer is efficiency of main chain reduced so lower density, Due to the branching chain.

3. Cross-linked structure-

▪ The polymer has interlinking chains connecting adjacent linear chains.

▪ Movement of adjacent chains restricted due to interlinking chains.
▪ Crossed links strength increases, plasticity decreases
▪ Thermosetting polymers have cross-linking b/w chain
▪ Once hardened and set thermosetting plastics do not soften with an application of heat,

Characteristics of polymers-
▪ Polymers have long-chain structure.
▪ All polymers have one thing common ( carbon)
▪ Generally, polymers has non-simple materials
▪ Polymers pass through viscous stage during formation.
▪ Polymers have lightweight and can be easily fabricated & shaped.
▪ Low electrical & thermal conductivity.
▪ Resistance to chemical attaches & decay.
▪ Polymers materials are strong than steel according to weight to weight ratio (steel backet,
plastic backet)
▪ Used to repair kidney or heart damage.
▪ Act as an adhesive.
▪ Lining water tents using (silicon film) which alloy dissolved oxygen to move inside.

Degree of polymerization-
Molecular weight of Polymer 𝑀
▪ DOP= Molecular weight of monomer
=𝑀 𝑃 > 1
𝑚

Ex – styrin (𝐶8 𝐻8 ) is polymerized to DOP = 9000, molecular weight of polymer.

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 9000=Mp/(8*12+8*1)
Mp =936000

Classification of plastics-
Thermoplastics
▪ Have long chain of polymers which are
not cross-linked.
▪ Soft on heating
▪ Molded on heating and under pressure
▪ Can be removed on heating
▪ Reused & recycled polystyrene,
▪ polycarbonate nylon,
PAN (Poly acryo nitrated Perspex glass)
Thermo setting plastics
▪ Have long chain of polymers which are
cross limited
▪ Soft on heating
▪ Molded on hating and under pressure.
▪ Can not be remolded on heating
▪ Can't be reused or recycled
▪ Bakelite ( phenal + formelding )
Melamine ( Urea + formeldehyde)
( Urea + formeldehyde) polyester.

Thermoplastic materials-

1. Polyethene line-
(a) Low density (LDPE)- early malted, plastic film- wrap, plastic bags.
(b) High density (HDPE) – for blow moulding, linear structure with no branching, more strength
& resistant.

2. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)-One of the hydrogen of ethylene replaced by chlorine which

provides rigidity.

▪ Cable jackets
▪ Fiber coating, lead wire insulation
▪ Pipe & fittings. Flooring & ceiling.

3. Teflon (poly tetra fluoro ethylene) (PTFE)

▪ non-flammable, good electric insulator
▪ High corrosion-resistant, low coefficient of friction.

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 ▪ Blaring bushes, anti crushing seals
▪ Piston. Rings, chemical pipes.
▪ Gaskets of IC engine.

4. Polystyrene –

▪ Hard, transparent, brittle.

▪ Corrosion resistance, low dielectric const. free from taste.
Used in- electrical insulation, food containers, house water – packaging, lences-

Thermosetting materials-

1. Phenol formaldehyde – (Bakelite)

Bakelite is strong, rigid and dimensionally stable resistant to heat, chemicals & solvents.
Used in – Electrical parts, paints & adhesion, lavatory seats, thermal insulators, handles & knobs
for utemils

2. Polyester –
Di-carboxylc acid +Di-hydric alcohol Condensation polyester +𝐻2 𝑂
Polymerization
Ethylene glycol +Adipic acid- components of automobiles, helmets, paints, jointing.

3. Melamine – condensation of urea’s (melamine) with for formaldehyde.

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 Melamine has a high resistance to chemicals, heat and moisture, it is also hard and scratch-
free, it has good electrical properties
Used for – surface coating, points, crockery items- doors & plays, switches & buttons.

4. Epoxies – they are obtained by condensation polymerization of epichlorohydrin and hydroxyls

compound.

(Epoxies)

▪ They are transparent tough material chemical resistant.

▪ Used as an insulating material for cable & transformers who used as adhesive.

Poly amid (Amid bond)- Crystalline

1. Nylon -6: 6 Carbon atom

2. Nylon 6, 6-

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Synthetic rubber-
1. Buna-S (Butadiene-Styrene)

2. Neoprene- Produce by polymerization of 2-chlorobuta-1,3-diene (chloroprene)

3. Buna -N

Butadiene Nitryle

Natural rubber – CiS 1-4 –polysoprene (coil like stracture)

Thermo plastic Thermosetting

Inaction moulding Compression moulding

Blow moulding Transfer moulding
Extrusion ( screw extrusion)

Line (Transparent film)

Polyethylene

Branched (Film for packaging)

Nylon wire

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 6. Composites

▪ A composite is a non-homogeneous material which has two or more distinct constituent

material or phases on a scale longer then atomic.

▪ These are usually 2 phase called as matrix phase and reinforcement, visually matrix phase
is continuous and reinforcement phase is discontinuous,

▪ At after a variety of advantages in comparison with other homogeneous material,

considerable control over material property can be achieved by combining suitable
different material, it is possible to obtain shift.

▪ Strong and lightweight material from certain constituent and also a very highly resilient
material from some component.

Classification of composites-
1. Agglomerated or particle reinforced composite-
A composite formed by mixing agglomerate with binding material is called agglomerated
composites. Concrete is an agglomerated composite in which cement is the binding material
while sand & aggregate are at agglomerated.

2. Laminated composite- these composite are formed by glueing or binding alternate lagers of
different materials and these layers are placed in different, orientation to the active fairly high
strength of the composite.
Ex – plywood.

3. Fiber-reinforced material – In this a law dense and soft matrix is reinforced with shift fibers,
this type of strengthen composite then composite is used for producing aircraft part.

The strength of composite depends on the fire length and its orientation in the matrix material as
well as on their interfacial bonding. In order to have efficient strength stiffness of the composite
material, some critical fiber length is essential. The critical length etc. is dependent on the fiber
diameter’ and its alternate strength of and fiber matrix bond strength as per relation given by the
properties of fiber reinforced composite depend upon the following factors.

𝜎𝑓 ∗ ×𝑑
𝑙𝑐 = 2𝜏𝑐
The Properties of fiber reinforced composite depend upon the following factors.
I. The size, shape and distribution of fiber
II. Aspect ratio (length to dia. ratio) of the fiber.
III. The relative orientation of the axis of fiber w.r.t to the direction of external load.

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4. Polymer matrix composites- in this the matrix of polymer is to be reinforced by other suitable
material, this type of composite in cloud-
(a) Glass fiber reinforced material which and force making component and bodies.
(b) Carbon fiber reinforced polymers composites are used for fishing rods and aircraft
components.
(c) Aramid fiber composites having textile fibers as reinforcement, they are used for bulletproof
jacking, tires, breaks and clutch linking etc.

Note – they are a number of Aramid material. Trade name of two of these most common materials
is Kevlar (bulletproof jacket) and Nomex.

5. Sandwich panels – in this light core matrix is bonded with few strong and stiff sheets to obtain
a strong honeycomb structure, a sandwich panel of these types are used in roof of building.

6. Surface coated material – In this the surface of materials are coated.

▪ To protect the composite from corrosion.

▪ To decorate the surface
▪ To improve any other desirable property.
▪ The surface coating can be metallic ceramic, inorganic, organic etc.
▪
7. Rein forced cement concrete (RCC)-
▪ Concrete (cement + Aggregate + sand) has high compressive strength but it has poor
tensile strength, it is likely to crack when subjected to tensile load.
▪ In order to provide sufficient tensile strength to concrete reinforcement in the form of
steel, rod are provided inside the material.
▪ The combination of concrete + steel rods gives strength to the material which is called
RCC.
Steel is used as reinforcing material as it has-
▪ High tensile strength
▪ Ductility
▪ Low cost
▪ Coefficient of thermal expansion at most equal to concrete
Advantages of RCC-
▪ It is termite-proof
▪ It is fire resistant
▪ It is almost impermeable to moisture
▪ It is durable
▪ It is good insular
▪ It is a good insulator
▪ The structural member can be made of any desired shape and strength.
▪ It is maintenance-free.

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Disadvantages-
▪ Involved additional work in way of the framework.
▪ Skilled supervision and workmanship is required
▪ Heavier then steel construction.
▪ High initial cost due to framework etc.
▪ RCC is commonly used for- slabs, lintels, beams, columns etc.
▪ Concrete hammer test or rebound hammer test or Schmit hammer test is a non-
destructive test to determine concrete resistivity and compressive strength of concrete.

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 7. Nano Materials
▪ 1nm =10−9 m
▪ Nano science and nanotechnology primarily study with the synthesis, characterization,
exploration and exploitation of nono materials.
▪ Nano-materials characterized by at least one dimension in the nanometer range.
▪ Nano-material structure constitute a bridge b/w molecule and infinite bulk system
▪ Carbon is the key element of nanotechnology, that’s why some times it is also known as
carbon nanotechnology.
▪ ‘C’ is the only element in the periodic table which has allotropes from zero dimension to the
there dimension.

Demand – Demand is a metastable carbon polymorph at room temp & atm pressure.
▪ Its crystal structure is a variant of the zinc blende in which carbon atoms occupy all portions
(both Zn and S)
N= 1/8 *8+1/2 *6+4 =8 Atoms/cell
C.N=4
APF =34%
▪ It is extremely hard has a very low electrical conductivity.
▪ It has covalent bonds.

Fullerens- It is a polymer of carbon, it was discovered in 1985.

▪ It has discrete molecular form and consist of a hollow spherical cluster of bo carbon atom in a
hollow spherical cluster of 60 carbon atom in a single molecule denoted by 𝐶60 .
▪ Each molecule is composed of a group of C-atom that are bonded to one another to form both
hexagons are bonded to are another to form both hexagon and pentagon geometrical
conflagration.
▪ In the structure of C-60, there are 20 hexagons and 12 pentagons such that each pentagon is
insulated by a hexagon.
▪ 𝐶60 .has a unique property of being able to carry something inside it, for eg- when it is doped
with alkali metal atom C60 fullerene molecule exhibit superconductivity.
▪ 𝐶60 .molecules show wave-particle ductility and it is a truly quantum mechanical system.

Graphene- Graphene refers to a monolayer of the 2-D lattice of sp^2 bonded C-atom with a bond
length approximately 0.14 nm arranged in a honey com lattice with bonding similar to graphite
▪ It could be produced in 2004 by micromechanical classes of graphite.
▪ Graphite is a layered structure with strong 2D bond and very weak interlayer coupling. This
property of graphite is used to cleave graphite crystal and 2D grapheme is produced.
▪ Grapheme exhibit ballistic transport of charge carrier and quantum hall effect only in 2D.
▪ It is truly a 2D crystal and is a grapheme semiconductor.
▪ It is bound to be very promising to make ballistic field-effect transistor.
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▪ The electronic structure of graphene is quite special and can be used for the development of
carbon transistor.

Carbon Nano tubes (CNT)-

▪ It is a new allotrope of carbon.
▪ It structure consist of a single sheet of graphite rolled. In to a tube, both ends of which are
capped with 𝐶60 . Fullerene hemisphere. Or grapheme.
▪ Each nanotube is a single molecule moposed of millions of atoms, the length of this
molecule is much greater than its diameter.
▪ These nanotubes are extremely strong, stiff and relatively ductile, farther more, nanotubes
have relatively low density, on the basis of this property the C-nanotube has been termed as
ultimate fibre and is extremely promising as reinforcement in composite materials.
▪ Carbon nano tubes also have unique and structure sense. The electrical characteristic
depending on the orientation of the hexagonal unit in the graphene plane with the tube axis
▪ The nanotube may behave electrically either a metal or Semiconductor.

Quantum dot:-
▪ These are the zero-dimensional structure, 3 – 60 mm in size in which the carriers are
confined in all 3- directions.
▪ The size of a quantum dot depends upon the application for which it is synthesized.
▪ The energy states of the quantum dot are quantized in all direction is represented by the
series of describing energy levels resembling that an atom the basis of this composition
quantum dot can be labeled as an artificial atom.
▪ A quantum dot is at least 10 times larger in size than atom.
▪ A quantum dot emits an only specific wavelength of electromagnetic radiation depending
on its size.
▪ Quantum theory predict that with decrease in size of quantum dot there will be a
corresponding increase in energy of emitted light.

Nono wire – A nanowire or a quantum wire is a one-dimensional structure that has the diameter of
the under of few nanometers.
▪ The length to width ratio (aspect ratio) for typical nano is about 1000 or more.

Properties of nanomaterials-
▪ Very different physical loves dominate the nano scale materials, properties of a material
change.
▪ Nano scale materials have large sunface area available for interaction compare to bulk
material equal valume.

3. Optical properties- confining e−, to small geometry give rise to particle a box energy level,
this quantum confinement create new energy state and result in the up to electronic
properties of materials.
▪ Optical properties such as the colour of the materials depend on its electronic structure.
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 ▪ At the nano scale,, this depends upon the size of a quantum dot.
▪ The separation of energy state can be varied by varying the size of the quantum dot, hence
the colour of emitted light can be changed at the nano upscale.
Ex– A piece of gold is absorbed to change its colour at nano-size level, depending on the
size of quantum dot it can turn red, blue or some other colour.

2. Electric properties-
▪ Nano material can store considerably more energy than the conventional material
due to their larger surface area.
▪ This property finds useful application in high energy density batteries.

3. Chemical properties –
▪ The electronic structure of nano materials depends on their size and therefore their ability
to react chemically depends on their size.
▪ The higher surface to volume ratio is also responsible for far high chemical reactivity.
▪ Gold is fairly inert when in the bulk form but at the nano scale it is highly reactive.

Application – transportation, computer, Military energy, environment, medicine.

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 8. Meta materials
▪ Artificial material called meta material is an artificial electromagnetic medium whose
physical properties has been engineered by assembling microscopic and nano scopic
structure in unusual combination.

▪ Meta material is an artificial periodic structure with a lattice constant that is much smaller
than the wavelength of incident radiation.

▪ Some of this material demonstrates the property of negative permittivity of –ve

permeability if both have at some time, the composite exhibit on effective –ve refractive
index and the material is referred to as a left-handed meta material.

▪ Generally, e and μ both are positive in ordinary in ordinary material while e is –ve in some
material but no natural material is found having both –ve.

▪ However for certain structure like an array of metallic wires forming split ring resonator
has both effective permittivity and effective permeability –ve, in such material refractive
index is less than zero, therefore phase and group velocity is opposite phase can propagate
in opposite direction, such that the direction of propagation of wave is reused with the
direction of energy flow.

𝜖 < 0 ,𝜇 > 0
Type equation here. 𝜖 > 0 , 𝜇 > 0
Epsilon negative material (ENM) Double +ve materials (DPM)

Ex- Plasmas Ex- Dielectric

𝜖 < 0 ,𝜇 > 0 𝜖 > 0 ,𝜇 > 0

Double -ve materials (DNM) Mu- negative materials (MNG)

Ex- no such naturally occurring
Material is found Ex-some gyroscopic magnetic
materials

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Meta material types-
1. Electromagnetic meta material- They are usually defined as an artificial effectively
homogeneous structure with specific properties which cannot be observed with natural
material with e <0 and μ <0.

2. Tera hertz meta materials- They are the combination of an artificial material that interact at
terahertz frequency and are still under development.

3. Photonic or optical metal materials-

▪ These materials are used to interact with optical frequency; the internet feature of such
material is the existence of freq. bonds inside which wave propagation is not allowed.

4. Tuneable meta materials-

▪ These are the meta materials that has ability to randomly charged the frequency of refractive
index, An incident electromagnetic wave gives variable response with these materials.
▪ The structure of tuneable meta material is changed in real-time that makes possible to
reconfigure a device during operation.

Advantages of meta materials-

▪ Directivity enhances
▪ Greater BW is achieved
▪ Low power loss.

Application –
▪ In hyper lenses design
▪ In meta material transmitted lines
1) In meta material cloaking

Q – consider the following statement regarding metamaterial

1.They do not naturally occurring material
2.Electromagnetic metamaterial may show –ve refraction index
3.They can be used to designed planer lense
3.Optical metamaterials may show –ve refraction index.

Ans- All statement are correct

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 9. Mechanical properties of materials

Strength – The mechanical strength of the material may be defined as the ability to sustain load
w/b distraction or follow.

Stiffness- It is the property of material due to which its rust its deformation, it is also called
rigidity. The degree of stiffness of materials is specified by its module of elasticity which is the
ratio of stress to strain.

Ductility – it is the property of material due to which it can be drawn in to wire w/o follow and
w/o losing much strength.

Brittleness- it is a lock of ductility i.e. material cannot stretch, in brittle material, fracture takes
place immediately after elastic limit with a relatively

Malleability – it is the property of metal due to which a piece of metal can be converted into a
thin sheet by compressing its.

Hardness – it is the property of a metal due to which it resists permanent indentation or scratch.
It is the surface property and can be increased in metals by certain heat treatment and work
hardness process.

1. Brinell hardness test-

Applied load P
BHN = Area of the indentation made by indenter on the surface of thespecimen

▪ During the test, a hardened steel boll of diameters ‘D’ is pressed for about 10 to 15sec into
the surface of a specimen by applied gradual load ‘P’ the diameter of indentation is
measured by microscope.
Type equation here.

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 𝑃
BHN = 𝜋𝐷
( )(𝐷−√𝐷 2 −𝑑2 )
2

d average measured diameter of indentation in mm

Type equation here.
𝟐. 𝑽𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒓’𝒔 𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒕 – Vickers is hardness test is similar to Brinell hardness test but the
drawback of flattering the steel ball which testing is eliminated, in this a diamond square-based
pyramid indenter with angle of 136° b/w opposite face is used which provides square indentation,
the hardness is given by Vicker's hardness no or diamond pyramid number.

load applied
VHN = Area of identation

3. Rockwell hardness test – this is a widely used method for determining hardness as testing m/c
is simple to operate and the procedure does not require a microscope for measuring indentation
diameter.

▪ There are nine scales on m/c dial but B– scales and ( scale are mainly used)
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 ▪ B scales is used for soft material in which steel boll indenter is used for testing.
▪ C scale is used for the soft metal in which diamond core indenter is used for testing.

Toughness – it indicates the amount of energy which can be absorbed by the metal before it
fails.
▪ This peroperty has a vital role in the selection of metal far manufacturing apart subjected to
shock or impoct loading. This property enables a metal.
▪ A metal having high strength but lower elastic & plastic deformation may have lower
toughness as composing to other metal having lower strength but higher elastic & plastic
deformation.

Impact test – The impact testing is used to find out materials ability to with stand impact
load’ and this property to with impact load is called toughness
▪ The impact test is performed to know absorb property of the material. Measured by two tests.

Izod test Charpy test

1. Specimen is kept as the vertical cantilever. 1. Specimen is kept at the simple supported
beam.
2.notch is kept facing hammer blow 2.notch is kept opposite to hammer blow

3. Specimen is to held in the anvil 3. Specimen is supported at end.

4.larger specimen is used 4. Specimen is shorter

Elasticity – It is the property of a metal due to which metal resist a permanent deformation
uander tensile loading, hence elasticity is the property which enables the metals to regain its
original shape and size as the external load is removed.

Plasticity – it is the property of metal due to which it can undergo permanent deformation w/o
failure or rupture. Due to this property, various metals can be transformed in to the different
property of required shapes.

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 Resilience – The property indicates capability of material to withstand impact and shock load.

▪ This is the measurement of the capability of the material to absorb energy with an
inelastic limit
▪ The maximum energy stored up to the elastic limit is called proof resilience, the proof
resilience, the proof resilience per unit volume is called modulus of resilience.

Fatigue- The strength of the material is lower when it is subjected to a fluctuating load, the
phenomenon. Of the failure of material under smaller & fluctuating load is called fatigue.

Creep- the property of material due to which material deform progressively at a slow rate stress
rat with time at a constant loading is called creep failure.
The creep failure is failure occurring not but it occurs due to continuous adding of deformation and
wreaking of materials with loading for a long period of time.

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