Cognition

Piaget’s Stages of Development

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Sensorimotor stage, Preoperational stage,

Concrete operational, Formal operational
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Sensorimotor Stage Development

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Object permanence, Primary circular reactions,

and Secondary circular reactions
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Sensorimotor Stage Age

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Ages 0 to 2
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Object Permanence
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The understanding that objects continue to exist

even when out of view
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Primary Circular Reactions

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Repeated movements where the child interacts

with themselves
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Secondary Circular Reactions

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Repeated movements where the child interacts

with their environment
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Preoperational Stage Development

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Pretend Play, Egocentrism, Centration, Concrete

Operational Development
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Preoperational Stage Age

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Ages 2 to 7
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Pretend Play
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The ability to pretend, play make-believe, and have

an imagination
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Egocentrism
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The inability to imagine what another person may

think or feel
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Centration
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The tendency to focus on only one aspect of

phenomenon, or inability to understand the
concept of conservation
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Concrete Operational Development

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Conservation
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Concrete Operational Stage Age

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Ages 7 to 11
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Conservation
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The ability to tell that changing the form of a

substance or object does not change its amount,
overall volume, or mass
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Formal Operational Stage Age

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Ages 11+
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Schema
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Includes concepts, behaviors, or sequences of

events
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Adaptation
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The processing of information according to Piaget

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Assimilation
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The process of classifying new information into

existing schemata
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Accommodation
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The process by which existing schemata are

modified to encompass newinformation
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Trial and Error

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Various solutions are tried until one is found that

seems to work
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Algorithm
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A formula or procedure for solving a certain type of

problem
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Heuristics
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Simplified principles used to make decisions

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Means-End Analysis
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The problem solver begins by envisioning the end,

or ultimate goal, and then determines the best
strategy for attaining the goal in his current
situation
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Working Backwards
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A method of problem solving in which an individual

imagines they have already solved the problem
they are trying to solve. By imagining the problem
is solved they can then work backwards in their
mind and eventually visualize a solution to the
problem
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Availability Heuristic
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Decisions are based on how easily similar

instances can be imagined
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Representativeness Heuristic
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Categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit

the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative
image of the category
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Base Rate Fallacy

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Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while

ignoring actual numerical information
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Conjunction Fallacy
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Occurs when it is assumed that specific conditions

are more probable than a single general one
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Intuition
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The ability to acquire knowledge without proof,

evidence, or conscious reasoning, or without
understanding how the knowledge was acquired
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Inductive Reasoning
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Seeks to create a theory via generalization

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Overconfidence Bias
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The tendency to erroneously interpret one’s

decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible
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Belief Perseverance
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The inability to reject a particular belief despite

clear evidence to the contrary
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Confirmation Bias
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The tendency to focus on information that fits an

individual’s beliefs, while rejecting information that
goes against them
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Functional Fixedness
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Limits a person to using an object only in the way it

is traditionally used
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Type I Error
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The incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis (a

"false positive")
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Type II Error
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Incorrectly retaining a false null hypothesis (a

"false negative")
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Framing Effects
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People react to a particular choice in different ways

depending on how it is presented
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Fluid Intelligence
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In novel situations, the ability to recognize and

reason relationships between objects or ideas
independent of previous experience; Helps one
see patterns, organize and identify feature and
spatial relationships to solve complex problems
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Crystallized Intelligence
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The ability to retrieve and acquire knowledge;

Based on fact, experience, prior learning and
accumulates as one ages
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Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

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Differentiates intelligence into specific 'modalities',

rather than seeing intelligence as dominated by a
single general ability. Gardner proposed eight
abilities that he held to meet these criteria,
musical-rhythmic, visual-spatial, verbal-linguistic,
logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic,
interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic
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Spearman’s Theory of General Intelligence

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Refers to the existence of a broad mental capacity

that influences performance on cognitive ability
measures; Also known as “G factor”
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Galton’s Theory of Hereditary Genius

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The belief that intelligence is genetic

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Binet’s Theory of Mental Age

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Refers to the child’s current ability compared to

other children of different ages
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Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
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A conflict in which one has to choose between two

equally unattractive options
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Approach-Approach Conflict
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A conflict in which one must choose between two

equally attractive options
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Approach-Avoidance Conflict
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A conflict in which there are both appealing and

negative aspects to the decision to be made