MK NFDY@\J\JRJLKL
@DY_@^K_JKM
 Y_@^@H\KNJÞH
@s `vjl`ht` qu` efy `h läk, mks nfhljnjfh`s c`h`rkm`s l`m `htfrhf lfhl`
s` du`v`h mks `dpr`sks duneks v`n`s bkvfr`n`h f jhejo`h `m l`skrrfmmf
l` mk nfdp`tjtjvjlkl. Nfdf oj`h `s nj`rtf, kdoj`ht`s `stkom`s, `nfhfdäks
nr`nj`ht`s, foa`tjvfs nmkrfs, cfoj`rhfs `bjnj`ht`s, sfh bkntfr`s qu` c`h`rkh
nfhljnjfh`s jl`km`s pkrk `m l`s`hvfmvjdj`htf `dpr`skrjkm. Y`rf mk r`kmjlkl
l`du`strk tflf mf nfhtrkrjf, qu` kñh `h nfhljnjfh`s l` `htfrhfs bkvfrkom`s, hf
tflks mks `dpr`sks sfh nfdp`tjtjvks y sfh pfnks l` `mmks mks qu` s`
l`stknkh l`htrf l`m nkdpf
`dpr`skrjkm.

Yfr mf nukm s` ekn` `vjl`ht` qu` mks frckhjzknjfh`s l`o`h `stkr d`afr
pr`pkrklks pkrk ksudjr dfd`htfs l` ljbjnumtkl, l` frl`h sfnjkm, pfmätjnf,
`nfhþdjnf f m`ckm qu` hfrdkmd`ht` sfh bkntfr`s l` nrjsjs qu` tflf pkäs
ktrkvj`sk, pfrqu` l` tflks bfrdks ekomkhlf `h uh `htfrhf nfdp`tjtjvf
frckhjzknjfhkm hf s` pu`l` `xnmujr, qu` mks nfhljnjfh`s l`m `htfrhf l`sbkvfrkom`
pu`l`h kb`ntkr pfr jcukm k `dpr`sks nfdp`tjtjvks y hf nfdp`tjtjvks, nfh
mk ljb`r`hnjk qu` `h mks prjd`rks `m jdpkntf s`rë uh pfnf d`hfr, sjh `dokrcf,
mks kb`ntk ljr`ntkd`ht`.

Mfs nfht`hjlfs l` `stk uhjlkl ljlëntjnk mf frj`htkrëh eknjk mk jdpfrtkhnjk y mk

buhnjþh qu` ousnkh efy `h läk mks `dpr`sks pkrk dkrnkr ljb`r`hnjk
` jhnr`d`htkr su prfluntjvjlkl y pfr `hl` mk nfdp`tjtjvjlkl.
 FOA@\JRF^

➯  Jht`rpr`tkr `m nfhn`ptf l` nfdp`tjtjvjlkl jl`htjbjnkhlf mfs bkntfr`s

qu` mfs kb`ntkh, ksä nfdf mks prjfrjlkl`s nfdp`tjtjvks l` mk `dpr`sk.

➯  L`skrrfmmkr ekojmjlkl`s `h hu`strfs `stuljkht`s pkrk nfdp`tjr `h uh

kdoj`ht` nfdp`tjtjvf cmfokm.

➯  _`nfhfn`r mfs `m`d`htfs l`t`rdjhkht`s l` mk nfdp`tjtjvjlkl

`dpr`skrjkm.
 MK NFDY@\J\JRJLKL @DY_@^K_JKM

Nkpätumf J1 @m nfhn`ptf l` nfdp`tjtjvjlkl, Nfdp`tjtjvjlkl y `strkt`cjk `dpr`skrjkm,

mfs bkntfr`s l`t`rdjhkht`s l` mk nfdp`tjtjvjlkl, mjl`rkzcf nfdf bkntfr l`
v`htkak nfdp`tjtjvk pkrk êxjtf buturf l` mks frckhjzknjfh`s. 

Nkpätumf JJ1 Nr`knjþh l` vkmfr oksklf `h mk nkpknjlkl l` nfe`r`hnjk

frckhjzknjfhkm pkrk mk nfdp`tjtjvjlkl, nþdf ks`curkr `m l`s`dp`ûf y mk
nfdp`tjtjvjlkl l` mk frckhjzknjþh k trkvês l` uh mjl`rkzcf `b`ntjvf.

Nkpätumf JJJ1 Nkpknjlkl`s l` mk frckhjzknjþh, nkpjtkm eudkhf y mjl`rkzcf1

nfdf
`strkt`cjk nfdp`tjtjvk, prëntjnks l` mjl`rkzcf y su jdpkntf `h mk
`bjnj`hnjk frckhjzknjfhkm pkrk c`h`rknjþh l` nfdp`tjtjvjlkl.

Nkpätumf JR1 Mjl`rkzcf y nmjdk frckhjzknjfhkm1 eknjk uhk frckhjzknjþh nfdp`tjtjvk. 

 JH\_FLPNNJÞH

@h mk kntukmjlkl mks `dpr`sks s` `hbr`htkh k uh `htfrhf duy nkdojkht` y

kmtkd`ht` nfdp`tjtjvf k hjv`m cmfokm. Ykrk kbrfhtkr nfh êxjtf mfs nfhtjhufs
nkdojfs qu` s` prflun`h mks `dpr`sks ekh l` s`r ëcjm`s, bm`xjom`s y c`stjfhkr
kl`nuklkd`ht` sus prfn`sfs l` h`cfnjf. @m `hbfqu` l` prfn`sfs p`rdjt` k mks
`dpr`sks uhk dkyfr `bjnknjk `h mk tfdk l` l`njsjfh`s `strktêcjnks, mf

qu` bknjmjtk kmnkhzkr dkyfr`s hjv`m`s l` nfdp`tjtjvjlkl kntukm y buturk.

Mk nfdp`tjtjvjlkl `dpr`skrjkm `s uh t`dk l` crkh jht`rês pkrk mfs `dpr`skrjfs

qu` l`s`kh jhhfvkr `h `m d`rnklf7 `s pfr `stf qu` e`dfs `mkofrklf
`st` krtänumf nfh jdpfrtkht`s pkutks pkrk dkht`h`r ljnek nfdp`tjtjvjlkl.

L` mk `bjnknjk y `bjnj`hnjk nfh qu` `m `qujpf ljr`ntjvf l` uhk frckhjzknjþh

dkh`a` sus h`cfnjfs, l`p`hl` `m mfcrf l` r`sumtklfs qu` mm`v`h k uhk `dpr`sk
k nfhqujstkr hu`vfs d`rnklfs y l` `stk dkh`rk ckrkhtjzkr `stkojmjlkl `h
su
`nfhfdäk, `stk r`uhjþh l` p`rsfhks, l`o` s`r uh `qujpf ljspu`stf, ljhëdjnf,
jhhfvklfr, ks`qujom` k hu`vks t`nhfmfcäks y lfhl` tflfs mfs dj`dorfs l`
mk frckhjzknjþh s`kh nfhsjl`rklfs uh r`nursf jhljsp`hskom` pkrk mm`vkr kl`mkht`
`m pfsjnjfhkdj`htf l` uhk `dpr`sk `h `m ëdojtf l` mfs h`cfnjfs `h qu`
s` l`s`hvu`mv` k hjv`m hknjfhkm ` jht`rhknjfhkm.
 
PHJLKL H¹?1 MK NFDY@\J\JRJLKL @DY_@^K_JKM

Nkpätumf J1 @m nfhn`ptf l` nfdp`tjtjv jlkl,

Yfr nfdp`tjtjvjlkl s` `htj`hl` pfr pkrt` l` mk kutfrk1 "mk nkpknjlkl l` uhk
`dpr`sk u frckhjzknjþh l` nukmquj`r tjpf pkrk l`skrrfmmkr y dkht`h`r uhks

v`htkaks nfdpkrktjvks qu` m` p`rdjt`h ljsbrutkr y sfst`h`r uhk

pfsjnjþh l`stknklk `h `m `htfrhf sfnjf `nfhþdjnf `h qu` kntñkh. ^`
`htj`hl` pfr
v`htkak nfdpkrktjvk kqu`mmk ekojmjlkl, r`nursf, nfhfnjdj`htf, ktrjoutfs, `tn., l`
qu` ljspfh` uhk `dpr`sk, l` mk qu` nkr`n`h sus nfdp`tjlfr`s y qu`
ekn` pfsjom` mk fot`hnjþh l` uhfs r`hljdj`htfs sup`rjfr`s k `stfs—. Ykrk Yfrt`r,
`h su krtänumf ”Nþdf mks Bu`rzks Nfdp`tjtjvks m` lkh bfrdk k mk @strkt`cjk—
W;T, `sk v`htkak tj`h` qu` v`r `h mf buhlkd`htkm nfh `m vkmfr qu` uhk `dpr`sk
`s nkpkz l` nr`kr pkrk sus nfdprklfr`s y qu` `xn`lk km nfstf l` `sk
`dpr`sk pfr nr`krmf.

Mk nfdp`tjtjvjlkl `s uh nfhn`ptf r`mktjvf, du`strk mk pfsjnjþh nfdpkrktjvk l`

mfs sjst`dks (`dpr`sks, s`ntfr`s, pkäs`s) utjmjzkhlf mk djsdk d`ljlk l`
r`b`r`hnjk. Yfl`dfs l`njr qu` `s uh nfhn`ptf `h l`skrrfmmf, hf knkoklf
y sua`tf k duneks jht`rpr`tknjfh`s y bfrdks l` d`ljnjþh. L`p`hlj`hlf l`
mk
ljd`hsjþh k mk qu` p`rt`h`znkh mfs sjst`dks frckhjzktjvfs, s` utjmjzkrëh
uhfs jhljnklfr`s ljstjhtfs pkrk d`ljrmk. ^` pu`l` nfhsjl`rkr mk
nfdp`tjtjvjlkl
`dpr`skrjkm `h uh lfom` ksp`ntf7 nfdf nfdp`tjtjvjlkl jht`rhk y nfdf
nfdp`tjtjvjlkl `xt`rhk. Mk nfdp`tjtjvjlkl jht`rhk `stë r`b`rjlk k mk nfdp`t`hnjk
l` mk `dpr`sk nfhsjcf djsdk k pkrtjr l` mk nfdpkrknjþh l` su `bjnj`hnjk `h `m
tj`dpf y l` mk `bjnj`hnjk l` sus `strunturks jht`rhks (prfluntjvks y l` s`rvjnjfs.)
@st` tjpf l` khëmjsjs r`sumtk `s`hnjkm pkrk `hnfhtrkr r`s`rvks jht`rhks l`
`bjnj`hnjk p`rf pfr mf c`h`rkm s` m` nfhbj`r` d`hfs jdpfrtkhnjk qu` km khëmjsjs
nfdp`tjtjvf `xt`rhf, `m nukm `xpr`sk `m nfhn`ptf dës l`oktjlf, ljvumcklf y
khkmjzklf uhjv`rskmd`ht`.

@h l`bjhjtjvk, mk nfdp`tjtjvjlkl `dpr`skrjkm r`quj`r` uh `qujpf ljr`ntjvf

ljhëdjnf, kntukmjzklf, koj`rtf km nkdojf frckhjzktjvf y t`nhfmþcjnf, y
nfhsnj`ht` l` mk h`n`sjlkl l` nfhsjl`rkr k mfs dj`dorfs l` mk frckhjzknjþh
nfdf uh r`nursf l` prjd`r frl`h km qu` eky qu` nujlkr. ^jh `dokrcf, s`
pu`l` kbjrdkr qu` `st` su`m` s`r uhf l` mfs puhtfs lêojm`s l` uh `m`vklf
hñd`rf l` `dpr`sks qu` ek l`skpkr`njlf f tj`h`h prfom`dks l`
sup`rvjv`hnjk. Nfdf sko`dfs, `m `qujpf ljr`ntjvf l`t`rdjhk `h crkh d`ljlk mk
kntjtul l` mfs dj`dorfs l` mk frckhjzknjþh eknjk `m trkokaf. Mk `xp`rj`hnjk
l`du`strk qu` mks `dpr`sks qu` dkhtj`h`h `h
`m tj`dpf pfsjnjfh`s nfdp`tjtjvks sfst`hjlks l`ljnkh uhk crkh kt`hnjþh km
buturf, km tj`dpf qu` vjcjmkh nfhstkht`d`ht` su `htfrhf. Djnek`m Yfrt`r k pkrtjr
l` mk l`bjhjnjþh l` ”nkl`hk l` vkmfr—  jl`htjbjnk mks mäh`ks l` knnjþh qu` mk
`dpr`sk pu`l` tfdkr pkrk ljs`ûkr su `strkt`cjk nfdp`tjtjvk kl`nuklk k
sus h`n`sjlkl`s.
  
Nfdp`tjtjvjlkl y `strkt`cjk `dpr`skrjkm

Mk nfdp`tjtjvjlkl hf `s prfluntf l` uhk nksukmjlkl hj surc` `spfhtëh`kd`ht`7

s` nr`k y s` mfcrk k trkvês l` uh mkrcf prfn`sf l` kpr`hljzka` y h`cfnjknjþh pfr
crupfs nfm`ntjvfs r`pr`s`htktjvfs qu` nfhbjcurkh mk ljhëdjnk l` nfhluntk
frckhjzktjvk, nfdf mfs knnjfhjstks, ljr`ntjvfs, `dpm`klfs, knr``lfr`s, nmj`ht`s,
pfr mk nfdp`t`hnjk y `m d`rnklf, y pfr ñmtjdf, `m cfoj`rhf y mk sfnj`lkl
`h c`h`rkm. Phk frckhjzknjþh, nukmquj`rk qu` s`k mk kntjvjlkl qu` r`kmjzk, sj
l`s`k dkht`h`r uh hjv`m kl`nuklf l` nfdp`tjtjvjlkl k mkrcf pmkzf, l`o` utjmjzkr
kht`s f l`spuês, uhfs prfn`ljdj`htfs l` khëmjsjs y l`njsjfh`s bfrdkm`s,
`hnuklrklfs
`h `m dkrnf l`m prfn`sf l` "pmkhjbjnknjþh `strktêcjnk". Mk buhnjþh l` ljnef
prfn`sf `s sjst`dktjzkr y nffrljhkr tflfs mfs `sbu`rzfs l` mks uhjlkl`s
qu` jht`crkh mk frckhjzknjþh `hnkdjhklfs k dkxjdjzkr mk `bjnj`hnjk cmfokm.

Ykrk `xpmjnkr d`afr ljnek `bjnj`hnjk, nfhsjl`r`dfs mfs hjv`m`s l` nfdp`tjtjvjlkl,

mk nfdp`tjtjvjlkl jht`rhk y mk nfdp`tjtjvjlkl `xt`rhk. Mk nfdp`tjtjvjlkl jht`rhk s`
r`bj`r` k mk nkpknjlkl l` frckhjzknjþh pkrk mfcrkr `m dëxjdf r`hljdj`htf l` mfs
r`nursfs ljspfhjom`s, nfdf p`rsfhkm, nkpjtkm, dkt`rjkm`s, jl`ks, `tn., y mfs
prfn`sfs l` trkhsbfrdknjþh. Km ekomkr l` mk nfdp`tjtjvjlkl jht`rhk hfs vj`h` mk
jl`k l` qu` mk `dpr`sk ek l` nfdp`tjr nfhtrk sä djsdk, nfh `xpr`sjþh l` su
nfhtjhuf `sbu`rzf l` sup`rknjþh.

Mk nfdp`tjtjvjlkl `xt`rhk `stë frj`htklk k mk `mkofrknjþh l` mfs mfcrfs l`

mk frckhjzknjþh `h `m nfht`xtf l`m d`rnklf, f `m s`ntfr k qu` p`rt`h`n`. Nfdf
`m sjst`dk l` r`b`r`hnjk f dfl`mf `s ka`hf k mk `dpr`sk, êstk l`o`
nfhsjl`rkr vkrjkom`s `xþc`hks, nfdf `m crklf l` jhhfvknjþh, `m ljhkdjsdf l`
mk jhlustrjk, mk `stkojmjlkl `nfhþdjnk, pkrk `stjdkr su nfdp`tjtjvjlkl k
mkrcf pmkzf. Mk
`dpr`sk, uhk v`z ek kmnkhzklf uh hjv`m l` nfdp`tjtjvjlkl `xt`rhk, l`o`rë
ljspfh`rs` k dkht`h`r su nfdp`tjtjvjlkl buturk, oksklf `h c`h`rkr hu`vks

jl`ks y prfluntfs y l` ousnkr hu`vks fpfrtuhjlkl`s l` d`rnklf.

Ekomkdfs l` nfdp`tjtjvjlkl `dpr`skrjkm km ekn`r r`b`r`hnjk k mks ljb`r`ht`s
`strkt`cjks y dêtflfs qu` mks ljv`rsks `htjlkl`s nfd`rnjkm`s mm`vkh k nkof nfh
tkm l` hf sþmf fot`h`r mfs d`afr`s r`sumtklfs sj hf tkdojêh l` qu` `sfs
r`sumtklfs s`kh mfs d`afr`s `h `m ruorf. Ksä, mks `dpr`sks r`kmjzkh
ljb`r`ht`s nkdpkûks `h mks qu` k trkvês l` `m`d`htfs nfdf puomjnjlkl,
nkmjlkl l`m prfluntf f s`rvjnjf, nfhbjkhzk, `b`ntjvjlkl f trkljnjþh kp`mkh k
ljb`r`ht`s nmj`ht`s qu` pu`l`h yk `xjstjr f qu` pu`l`h c`h`rkrs` k pkrtjr l`m
dfd`htf.

Dj`htrks qu` uhk `dpr`sk sj`dpr` ousnk fot`h`r uh l`t`rdjhklf tjpf l`

r`sumtklf qu` m` p`rdjtk suosjstjr `h `m ër`k `h `m qu` s` jhs`rtk, mk jl`k
l`

n f d p ` tj t jv jl k l ` d p r ` s k r jk m su p f h `
p k rk u o j n k rs ` l ` m k d ` a f r d k h ` rk
 k l `d ë s q u m ks ` d p r s s n f d p jt ` h ` h t r `
p f s j om ` ` h `m d k r n f l ` km ` x js t` h n j k l ` u h
s ä
k
fb`rtk l` prfluntfs f s`rvjnjfs dkyfr f jcukm qu` mk l`dkhlk. Mk nfdp`tjtjvjlkl
`dpr`skrjkm pu`l`, sjh `dokrcf, `stkr tkdojêh mjcklk k mfs ljb`r`ht`s
d`nkhjsdfs qu` s` jhstkurkh l`htrf l` mk `htjlkl djsdk pkrk bkvfr`n`r `m ou`h
l`skrrfmmf y `m jht`rês pfr d`afrkr l` tflks mks s`nnjfh`s qu` mk nfdpfh`h, ksä
tkdojêh nfdf l` mfs jhljvjlufs qu` trkokakh `h `mmk, s`k nukm s`k su pu`stf. Mk
nfdp`tjtjvjlkl `dpr`skrjkm sj`dpr` `xjst`, `h dkyfr f d`hfr d`ljlk,
l`p`hlj`hlf l`m ruorf, l` mk `nuknjþh fb`rtk-l`dkhlk, l` mk jl`k l`
kutf`xjc`hnjk, `tn. \flfs `mmfs sfh mfs `m`d`htfs qu` pu`l`h ekn`r qu` vkrä` mk
kt`hnjþh qu` uhk `dpr`sk m` pr`stk k su prfluntf f s`rvjnjf y km
pfsjnjfhkdj`htf
qu` `st` tj`h` `h `m d`rnklf.

Mfs bkntfr`s l`t`rdjhkht`s l` mk nfdp`tjtjvjlkl

L` knu`rlf nfh Djnek`m Yfrt`r, nuktrf bkntfr`s pu`l`h s`r l`t`rdjhkht`s `h mk

nfdp`tjtjvjlkl1

;. Mk lftknjþh l`m pkäs , `h têrdjhfs l` nkhtjlkl y nkmjlkl l` mfs bkntfr`s

prfluntjvfs oësjnfs (bu`rzk l` trkokaf, r`nursfs hkturkm`s, nkpjtkm `
jhbrk`strunturk), ksä nfdf l` mks ekojmjlkl`s, nfhfnjdj`htfs y t`nhfmfcäks
`sp`njkmjzklfs qu` l`t`rdjhkh su nkpknjlkl pkrk c`h`rkr y ksjdjmkr
jhhfvknjfh`s.

?. Mk hkturkm`zk l` mk l`dkhlk jht`rhk `h r`mknjþh nfh mk fb`rtk l`m kpkrktf

prfluntjvf hknjfhkm7 `h pkrtjnumkr, `s r`m`vkht` mk pr`s`hnjk l` l`dkhlkht`s
`xjc`ht`s qu` pr`sjfhkh k mfs fb`r`ht`s nfh sus l`dkhlks l` krtänumfs
jhhfvklfr`s y qu` s` khtjnjp`h k sus h`n`sjlkl`s. 

>. Mk `xjst`hnjk l` uhk `strunturk prfluntjvk

nfhbfrdklk pfr
`dpr`sks l` ljstjhtfs tkdkûfs, p`rf `bjnj`ht`s `h `snkmk jht`rhknjfhkm,
r`mknjfhklks efrjzfhtkm y v`rtjnkmd`ht`, qu` kmj`ht` mk nfdp`tjtjvjlkl
d`ljkht` uhk fb`rtk
jht`rhk `sp`njkmjzklk l` jhsudfs, t`nhfmfcäks y ekojmjlkl`s pkrk sust`htkr uh
prfn`sf l` jhhfvknjþh c`h`rkmjzkom` k mf mkrcf l` nkl`hks prfluntjvks.

<.  Mks nfhljnjfh`s pr`vkm`nj`ht`s `h `m pkäs `h dkt`rjk l`

nr`knjþh, frckhjzknjþh y dkh`af l` mks `dpr`sks , ksä nfdf l`
nfdp`t`hnjk, prjhnjpkmd`ht` sj `stë kmjd`htklk f jhejojlk pfr mks
r`cumknjfh`s y mks kntjtul`s numturkm`s br`ht` k mk jhhfvknjþh, mk ckhkhnjk y
`m rj`scf. 

@h su nfhauhtf, `stfs nuktrf kntfr`s l`t`rdjhkht`s l` mk nfdp`tjtjvjlkl l` uhk

hknjþh bfrdkh uhk su`rt` l` sjst`dk ljhëdjnf qu` hf s` mjdjtk k mk sudktfrjk
l` sus pkrt`s, y qu` buhnjfhk nfdf uh tflf. @h mk kntukmjlkl, uhf l`
mfs nfduh`s l`hfdjhklfr`s dës hftfrjfs `htr` mk jhd`hsk dkyfräk l` mfs
pkäs`s
`h mks `sb`rks `nfhþdjnk y pfmätjnk `s qu` `h dkyfr f d`hfr crklf êstfs s`
ekmmkh `dp`ûklfs `h mks tkr`ks nfhn`ptukm`s, pfmätjnks
y
prfcrkdëtjnks pkrk r`l`bjhjr `m pkp`m l`m @stklf `h mk prfdfnjþh y r`cumknjþh l`
mk kntjvjlkl `nfhþdjnk.

^` h`n`sjtk bfrdumkr ` jhstrud`htkr uhk pfmätjnk jhlustrjkm qu` p`rdjtk k su

kpkrktf prfluntjvf c`h`rkr mks v`htkaks nfdp`tjtjvks r`qu`rjlks pkrk
uhk jhs`rnjþh `xjtfsk k mk ljhëdjnk l` mk `nfhfdäk duhljkm. Nfhvj`h`
ksjdjsdf,
`rrkljnkr `m dkm`ht`hljlf qu` jl`htjbjnk bfd`htf nfh prft`nnjþh. @h uh `htfrhf
l` prfbuhlfs r`zkcfs `strunturkm`s y l` hud`rfsfs prfom`dks l`
nfdp`tjtjvjlkl, mk nkr`hnjk l` d`nkhjsdfs l` bfd`htf ek sjlf uhk l` mks
prjhnjpkm`s l`bjnj`hnjks l` mk `strkt`cjk dfl`rhjzklfrk.

Mjl`rkzcf nfdf bkntfr l` v`htkak nfdp`tjtjvk pkrk êxjtf buturf l` mks

frckhjzknjfh`s

Mk kpkrjnjþh l` uhk `nfhfdäk cmfokm `xtr`dklkd`ht` nfdp`tjtjvk pr`s`htk k mks

frckhjzknjfh`s uh crkh r`tf qu` s` buhlkd`htk `h1 nfhs`cujr uhk v`htkak
nfdp`tjtjvk. Ejstþrjnkd`ht`, mks frckhjzknjfh`s sfmäkh nfhs`cujr su v`htkak
nfdp`tjtjvk r`uhj`hlf y ljstrjouy`hlf r`nursfs bjhkhnj`rfs y kntjvfs dkt`rjkm`s

l` nfst` okaf f nfhtrfmkhlf mk fb`rtk l` prjd`rks dkt`rjks nfdf tkdojêh

lfdjhkhlf uh d`rnklf hknjfhkm crknjks k mk prft`nnjþh l`m @stklf f l`
mfs
knnjl`ht`s c`fcrëbjnfs, lfhl` `m prfom`dk l` `stks bu`ht`s l` nfdp`tjtjvjlkl
`s qu` ekh p`rljlf `bjnknjk pfrqu`, kntukmd`ht`, r`sumtk bënjm nfpjkr uhks l`
ftrks. L` keä qu` mks frckhjzknjfh`s t`hckh qu` `hnfhtrkr hu`vks
v`htkaks nfdp`tjtjvks (Mkwm`r, @., ?992, p.?3).

Ykrtj`hlf l` êstk nfhn`pnjþh ejstþrjnk, mf qu` s` ousnk `s pfl`r jhvfmunrkr `m

mjl`rkzcf nfdf bkntfr l` v`htkak nfdp`tjtjvk pkrk `m êxjtf buturf l`
mks frckhjzknjfh`s, lfhl` s`k pfsjom` l`t`rdjhkr mks bu`ht`s qu` jhbmuy`h
pkrk ljnek knnjþh. Kht` mk h`n`sjlkl l` qu` mks `dpr`sks s`kh nfdp`tjtjvks, s`
ekn` jdpfrtkht` qu` mks djsdks t`hckh nkpknjlkl l` mjl`rkzcf yk qu` nfh
êst` s`
ekn` pfsjom` dkh`akr d`afr mk nfdpm`ajlkl `h uh `htfrhf nkdojkht`
y nfdp`tjtjvf, lfhl` `m mäl`r k pkrtjr l` nfdpfrtkdj`htfs y prëntjnks l`
mjl`rkzcf
sup`rjfr`s, pu`lk dkh`akr l` mk d`afr bfrdk `stks nfrrj`ht`s qu` kb`ntkh
km nr`njdj`htf nfdp`tjtjvf frckhjzknjfhkm vjêhlfmf nfh su `xp`rj`hnjk l`sl`
uhk p`rsp`ntjvk kmtkd`ht` ljr`ntjvk k trkvês l` dñmtjpm`s rfm`s qu` ksud`
l` uhk dkh`rk jht`crklk. Kl`dës, `s jdpfrtkht` `sp`njbjnkr qu` uh l`skrrfmmf
`b`ntjvf l` mjl`rkzcf km jht`rjfr l` mk frckhjzknjþh s`rë bu`ht` l` v`htkak
nfdp`tjtjvk, trklunjlk `h dkyfr`s r`hljdj`htfs pkrk mk `dpr`sk.

L` `stk dkh`rk, s` ekn` h`n`skrjf `xpmjnkr nþdf `m mjl`rkzcf pu`l` s`r bu`ht`
l` v`htkak nfdp`tjtjvk pkrk mk frckhjzknjþh, mf nuëm pu`l` s`r khkmjzklf k mk muz
l` tr`s ksp`ntfs buhlkd`htkm`s1
Nkpknjlkl`s frckhjzktjvks

@stks l`o`h v`rs` l`sl` mk p`rsp`ntjvk l` ekojmjlkl`s, lfhl` mk `dpr`sk t`hck

mk nkpknjlkl l` frckhjzkr r`nursfs prfluntjvfs. Ljnef l` ftrk bfrdk,
mk frckhjzknjþh pu`l` t`h`r r`nursfs ñhjnfs y vkmjfsfs, p`rf sj hf ljspfh` l`
mks nkpknjlkl`s pkrk pfh`r `h usf êstfs, m` s`rë ljbänjm nr`kr v`htkaks
nfdp`tjtjvks.

 Ksä pu`s, ljspfh`r l` nkpknjlkl`s qu` hjhcuhk ftrk `dpr`sk pfs`k, mk mm`vkrë k
ckhkr v`htkaks nfdp`tjtjvks k p`skr l` hf t`h`r r`nursfs ñhjnfs, pfrqu` `s jl`km
r`nfhfn`r km hjv`m l` `htfrhf frckhjzknjfhkm qu` duneks v`n`s mks nkpknjlkl`s
sfh ljbänjm`s l` jdjtkr, sfh pfnf nfduh`s y sfh bu`ht`s l` nfdp`t`hnjks
ljstjhtjvks nukhlf p`rdjt`h ekn`r mf qu` ftrfs hf pu`l`h.

^jh `dokrcf, nfdpr`hlj`hlf qu` mk `dpr`sk h`n`sjtk l` ou`hfs sjst`dks l`

frckhjzknjþh y `stjmfs l` ljr`nnjþh kprfpjklfs7 mks nkpknjlkl`s
frckhjzktjvks l`p`hl`rëh l` mk bfrdknjþh y l`m tkm`htf l` mfs `dpm`klfs,
lfhl` hf `s ksfdorfsf nfdpr`hl`r l`sl` yk qu` mks `dpr`sks jhsjst`h nklk
v`z dës `h mk jdpfrtkhnjk l`m nkpjtkm eudkhf qu` mm`v` k kud`htkr mk
nfdp`t`hnjk pfr d`ljf l` `strkt`cjks, nfdprfdjsf, kmtf s`htjlf l`
r`spfhskojmjlkl y `b`ntjvjlkl `h mks
tkr`ks, lfhl` êstks nkptkh efy `h läk k mfs dës nukmjbjnklfs. Yfr ftrf
mklf, nfdf mf d`hnjfhk Mkwm`r (?992), mks nkpknjlkl`s frckhjzktjvks
tkdojêh cukrlkh r`mknjþh nfh mfs dêtflfs qu` uhk frckhjzknjþh utjmjzk pkrk
pfh`r sus
prfluntfs y s`rvjnjfs `h `m d`rnklf l` bfrdk qu` prfpfrnjfh`h `h `m nfhsudjlfr
uh vkmfr dkyfr y ljb`r`hnjklf r`sp`ntf k su nfdp`t`hnjk.

_`hljdj`htfs sup`rjfr`s

Nukhlf ekomkdfs l` r`hljdj`htfs sup`rjfr`s s` ekn` h`n`skrjf ekn`r uh

okmkhn` `htr` mfs nrjt`rjfs l`1 r`hljdj`htfs `nfhþdjnfs y prfluntjvjlkl7 mk
nfhtjhujlkl y mk `bjnj`hnjk7 `m nfdprfdjsf nfh mk `dpr`sk7 `m nfdprfdjsf nfh
mfs
`dpm`klfs7 mk klkptkojmjlkl y mk jhhfvknjþh. Mfs nukm`s l`o`h pfh`rs` `h
prëntjnk okaf uh mjl`rkzcf `strktêcjnf lfhl` `stê ljstrjoujlf `htr` jhljvjlufs nfh
nfdp`t`hnjks ljb`r`hnjkm`s, nfh hjv`m l` pkrtjnjpknjþh ljb`r`ht`,
lfhl` nfdpkrtkh mk r`spfhskojmjlkl l` nr`kr uh buturf vjkom` y `xjtfsf
pkrk mk frckhjzknjþh.

Yfr `hl`, pkrk qu` s` mm`v` k nkof uh mjl`rkzcf `strktêcjnf `b`ntjvf, s` r`quj`r`
qu` mfs jht`crkht`s l`m crupf kn`pt`h r`spfhskojmjlkl pfr mfs r`sumtklfs,
`htj`hlkh `m sjchjbjnklf l` su trkokaf y su r`spfhskojmjlkl pkrk nfh mfs ftrfs, k
su v`z, r`nfm`nt`h y nfdpkrtkh nfhfnjdj`htfs ` jhbfrdknjþh dkht`hj`hlf
uh jhv`htkrjf l` `sfs djsdfs l`htrf l` mk `dpr`sk. _`nkmnkhlf `stf ñmtjdf, `h
`m s`htjlf qu` uh l`skrrfmmf l` nkpjtkm eudkhf pkrk kmnkhzkr mfs foa`tjvfs
l` nr`njdj`htf y hu`vks ër`ks l` h`cfnjf, jdpmjnk c`r`hnjkr
nfhfnjdj`htf, dfvjmjzkhlf `m nkpjtkm eudkhf yk qu` `h uh
duhlf nkdojkht`
mfs nfhfnjdj`htfs sfh uhk bu`ht` jdpfrtkht` l` v`htkaks nfdp`tjtjvks y kl`dës
l`o`rëh dkht`h`r `m rudof l` mk `dpr`sk `h `m buturf.

Ykrk qu` mk frckhjzknjþh kmnkhn` mk v`htkak nfdp`tjtjvk qu` ousnk7 nfdf mf

`stuljkdfs `h mk uhjlkl ;, nko` s`ûkmkr mk l`t`rdjhknjþh l` mk vjsjþh, l` bfrdk
tkm qu` sjrvk nfdf cuäk eknjk uh l`stjhf l`t`rdjhklf `h ousnk l` uhk
sfst`hjojmjlkl `dpr`skrjkm. L` mk djsdk dkh`rk, mks nfdp`t`hnjks pkrtjnumkr`s
l` mk `dpr`sk l`o`rëh fptkr pfr `m l`skrrfmmf `h `m nkpjtkm eudkhf, sfst`hj`hlf
uhk numturk frckhjzknjfhkm `b`ntjvk, nfh êhbksjs `h prëntjnks êtjnks y
`stkom`njdj`htf l` nfhtrfm`s frckhjzknjfhkm`s okmkhn`klfs.

Nfdp`t`hnjks nrätjnks
Mks nfdp`t`hnjks nrätjnks ekh sjlf trktklks `h mk mjt`rkturk
`strktêcjnk, jhjnjkmd`ht` pfr Yrkekmkl (?990), lfhl` oësjnkd`ht`
”trktk sfor` mks nkpknjlkl`s tênhjnks qu` p`rdjt`h k uhk frckhjzknjþh
ljs`ûkr y v`hl`r nfh êxjtf prfluntfs y s`rvjnjfs W…T `a`dpmf l` `stks
nfdp`t`hnjks sfh mk nkpknjlkl l` Efhlk pkrk ljs`ûkr y bkorjnkr dftfr`s l`
cksfmjhk, f `m lfdjhjf l` LuYfht sfor` nj`rtfs prfn`sfs quädjnfs f mk
t`nhfmfcäk l` mfs djnrfprfn`sklfr`s l` Jht`m— (Mkwm`r, @., ?992, p.?5).

Rkm` l`stknkr qu` mks nfdp`t`hnjks nrätjnks l` mk `dpr`sk r`quj`r`h qu`

`m l`s`dp`ûf l`m mäl`r `stê `hnkdjhklf eknjk mk oñsqu`lk y uh khëmjsjs
l`m kdoj`ht` `xt`rhf lfhl` s`k pfsjom` `vkmukr mk nfdp`t`hnjk nfh `m bjh l`
pfl`r jhhfvkr, l`skrrfmmkhlf `strkt`cjks qu` nfhmm`v`h k qu` mk vjsjþh
`strktêcjnk pmkht`klk l`sl` `m nfdj`hzf mfcr` pkrk mk frckhjzknjþh uhk pu`stk
`h dkrnek l`m l`skrrfmmf, nr`ktjvjlkl ` jhhfvknjþh `h sus prfluntfs y/f
s`rvjnjfs lfhl` ckrkhtjn` uh d`rnklf foa`tjvf qu` kyul` km
nr`njdj`htf frckhjzknjfhkm dkrnkhlf mk ljb`r`hnjk l`htrf l`m djsdf
nkdpf `dpr`skrjkm lfhl` mk nfdp`t`hnjk hf s` v`k nfdf uh rjvkm
h`cktjvf, sjhf qu` s`k pfsjom` sknkr o`h`bjnjfs pkrk mk djsdk frckhjzknjþh,
`sf sj hf nky`hlf `h jdjtknjfh`s f nfpjk kmcuhk7 nfdpr`hlj`hlf k su v`z
qu` `m nkpjtkm l`skrrfmmklf km jht`rjfr l` mk frckhjzknjþh s`rë uh kpfyf
prjdfrljkm pkrk `m nudpmjdj`htf l` ljnek vjsjþh nfhauhtk qu` mm`vkrë k qu`
`m mjl`rkzcf s` c`h`r` l` bfrdk `bjnkz `hdkrnklf okaf uhk v`htkak
nfdp`tjtjvk pkrk `m êxjtf buturf l` mks frckhjzknjfh`s.

@h l`bjhjtjvk pkrk r`sudjr `st` nkpätumf, `s h`n`skrjf r`nkmnkr qu` mks

frckhjzknjfh`s `xjtfsks pkrk fot`h`r mk v`htkak nfdp`tjtjvk qu`
l`s`kh kmnkhzkr, l`o`h `stkr `h nkpknjlkl l` nfdp`tjr nfh kmturk `h `m kntukm
`htfrhf
`dpr`skrjkm, lfhl` s`kh nkpkn`s l` ktrk`r `m nkpjtkm eudkhf kl`nuklf y
l`skrrfmmkr mks nkpknjlkl`s frckhjzktjvks y nfdp`t`hnjks nrätjnks
h`n`skrjks, lfhl` sus bfrdks y `strunturks frckhjzknjfhkm`s oks`h su êxjtf `h
mfs `qujpfs l` trkokaf, ljr`nnjþh pkrtjnjpktjvk ` jdpmjnknjþh l` mfs
trkokaklfr`s. @h ftrks

pkmkorks, s` pu`l` kbjrdkr qu` mfs tr`s ksp`ntfs nkdjhkh auhtfs nfh
`m l`skrrfmmf eudkhf, `h `m s`htjlf qu` `m dkht`hjdj`htf y pu`stk `h prëntjnk
l`
mfs djsdfs, sj`dpr` vkh k r`qu`rjr l` nkpjtkm eudkhf lfhl` mk `dpr`sk
l`p`hl` kquä l` mk bfrdknjþh y `m tkm`htf l` sus `dpm`klfs.

NKYÄ\PMF JJ1

N_@KNJÞH L@ RKMF_ OK^KLF @H MK NKYKNJLKL L@ NFE@_@HNJK

F_CKHJQKNJFHKM YK_K MK NFDY@\J\JRJLKL
^fh pfnks mks frckhjzknjfh`s qu` `h mk kntukmjlkl s` nfhn`htrkh `b`ntjvkd`ht`
`h mf qu` ”ekn`h d`afr— pkrk l`njljr sfor` mks fp`rknjfh`s `h nklk uhjlkl f
l`pkrtkd`htf l` h`cfnjfs y `h nklk mäh`k l` prfluntf y/f s`rvjnjf. Kñh dës
`stëh p`hskhlf tflf `m tj`dpf `h nþdf s`r nfdp`tjtjvks l`htrf l` su d`rnklf,
p`rf `s rkrk mk frckhjzknjþh qu` ek kmjh`klf sus nkpknjlkl`s
jht`rhks ljb`r`hnjklfrks nfh mk pfsjnjþh nfrr`ntk `h `m d`rnklf `xt`rhf. K `stf
ñmtjdf `s mf qu` l`hfdjhkdfs ”nkpknjlkl l` nfe`r`hnjk—, lfhl` v`dfs qu`
mk dkyfräk  l` mks frckhjzknjfh`s hf pksk mk pru`ok l` mk nfe`r`hnjk pfrqu` m`
pr`stkh dës kt`hnjþh k su pfsjnjfhkdj`htf `xt`rhf y hf mk subjnj`ht` k sus
nkpknjlkl`s jht`rhks. @h fnksjfh`s, s` rjhl`h kht` mk jht`hsk pr`sjþh
pfr mfcrkr `m
nr`njdj`htf l` mfs jhcr`sfs orutfs y vkh `h pfs l` h`cfnjfs l` d`rnklfs lfhl`
duneks v`n`s hf tj`h`h mfs ktrjoutfs pkrk uh êxjtf sfst`hjlf y uhk kmtk
nfdp`tjtjvjlkl.

^`cñh uh krtänumf puomjnklf `h Ekrvkrl Ousjh`ss _`vj`w <, uhk nkpknjlkl

`s kmcf qu` s` ekn` oj`h, qu` mfs nmj`ht`s vkmfrkh y qu` mfs nfdp`tjlfr`s
hf pu`l`h sup`rkr. @s dës qu` uhk kntjvjlkl f buhnjþh1 `s mk
jht`rnfh`xjþh l` p`rsfhks, nfhfnjdj`htfs, t`nhfmfcäks l` jhbfrdknjþh,
e`rrkdj`htks y prfn`sfs qu` m` p`rdjt`h k mk W`dpr`skT l`s`dp`ûkrs`
d`afr qu` sus rjvkm`s `h kmcñh jhljnklfr jdpfrtkht`. Nfdpm`d`htkhlf mf
kht`rjfr, pflräk s`r mk ekojmjlkl l` ks`curkr uh `spknjf `h `m d`rnklf s`cñh
s`k `m nksf k bjh l` l`skrrfmmkr hu`vfs prfluntfs y/f s`rvjnjfs, f kcrupkrmfs pkrk
sktjsbkn`r mks h`n`sjlkl`s nkdojkht`s l` mfs nfdp`tjlfr`s k mf mkrcf l`m tj`dpf.

@s pfr `stf, qu` s` ekn` h`n`skrjf qu` mks frckhjzknjfh`s y `h `sp`njkm

sus kmtfs ljr`ntjvfs, jl`htjbjqu`h y nfdpr`hlkh quê `s mf qu` ekn`h r`kmd`ht`
oj`h pkrk ksä l`spuês `htrkr nfh `m l`skrrfmmf l` `sks nkpknjlkl`s y
nfhn`htrkr su
`strkt`cjk `h kmjh`kr `s` sjst`dk l` nkpknjlkl`s ljstjhtjvks nfh
mks fpfrtuhjlkl`s pr`njsks l`m d`rnklf7 lfhl` êst` pr`djkrë nfh
r`tfrhfs
`xtrkfrljhkrjfs y `stk djsdk s` v`rë nfdf uhk frckhjzknjþh nfe`r`ht`, qu` `h
l`bjhjtjvk, `s kqu`mmk qu` s` `hbfnk `h mf qu` ekn` d`afr nukhlf tfdk
l`njsjfh`s `h tflfs sus h`cfnjfs.
Yfr nfhsjcuj`ht`, uhk frckhjzknjþh s` ekn` nfe`r`ht` sþmf nukhlf su sjst`dk
l` nkpknjlkl`s s` `mjc` l` dflf nfhsnj`ht`, s` jdpm`d`htk pkrk kpfykr
uh foa`tjvf `strktêcjnf `hbfnklf y s` kmjh`k nfh `m pfrtkbfmjf pr`njsf l`
prfluntfs y s`rvjnjfs lfhl` `s h`n`skrjf nu`stjfhkrs` mf sjcuj`ht` pkrk qu`
`stf s` nudpmk k nkokmjlkl1 ¶Nþdf `hbr`htkr `m d`rnklf6, ¶[uê nkpknjlkl`s
s` h`n`sjtkh pkrk nfdp`tjr6, ¶[uê s` vk k v`hl`r y k qujêh6. Ykrk lkr
r`spu`stk k `stks pr`cuhtks `s jdpfrtkht` qu` mk frckhjzknjþh `h ousnk
l`m êxjtf, `h prjd`rk

jhstkhnjk t`hck uhk nfdpr`hsjþh nmkrk l` nþdf nr`kr vkmfr pkrk mfs
nmj`ht`s, lfhl` mk bfrdk l` kntukr l` sus ljr`ntjvfs, c`r`ht`s, mäl`r`s f
`dpm`klfs, s`kh
mf subjnj`ht`d`ht` kdpmjks pkrk p`rdjtjr mk bm`xjojmjlkl y `m nr`njdj`htf, y mf
subjnj`ht`d`ht` mjdjtklks pkrk `hbfnkr mk `strkt`cjk y mk tfdk l` l`njsjfh`s.
@stf jhnmuy` pkrk `m mäl`r s`r jhhfvklfr, prfv``lfr l` okaf nfstf, `m qu`
fptjdjzk mk nkl`hk l` vkmfr, `htr` ftrfs. Nfdf s`cuhlk d`ljlk, pfh`r `h
dkrnek `m dftfr l` mk nr`knjþh l` vkmfr, kyulkrë k qu` `m sjst`dk l`
nkpknjlkl`s `h nfhauhtf p`rdjtk mk `htr`ck `bjnkz l` `sk prfpu`stk l` vkmfr `h
mk frckhjzknjþh. Yfr `hl`, sj mk djsdk numtjvk uh sjst`dk l` nkpknjlkl`s qu` s`
r`bu`rn`h dutukd`ht`, su v`htkak nfdp`tjtjvk s` ekrë dës pft`ht`.

@h ñmtjdks, mks frckhjzknjfh`s d`ljkht` uhk nkpknjlkl nfe`r`ht` y okaf uh

mjl`rkzcf `bjnj`ht`, nfhstrujrë su pfrtkbfmjf l` prfluntfs y/f s`rvjnjfs l` dkh`rk
tkm qu` nklk fb`rtk `stê kmjh`klk nfh `m sjst`dk l` nkpknjlkl`s y mk bfrdk l`
kntukr pfr pkrt` l`m mäl`r, ljr`ntjvf, c`r`ht` f `dpm`klf, hf l`akhlf l` mklf `m
d`rnklf `xt`rhf, yk qu` `st` l`o` s`r nfhtjhukd`ht` `xkdjhklf `h ousnk l`
hu`vks fpfrtuhjlkl`s qu` kpkmkhqu`h `m sjst`dk l` nkpknjlkl`s.

@h r`sud`h, mk nfe`r`hnjk nfdf nkpknjlkl frckhjzknjfhkm hf sþmf dfml`k

mk kc`hlk l`m mjl`rkzcf, sjhf qu` mf ekn` bkntjom`. Kmjh`k mk frckhjzknjþh `h
nklk hjv`m y `htr`ck e`rrkdj`htks k mfs `dpm`klfs pkrk tfdkr mks
l`njsjfh`s nfrr`ntks tflfs mfs läks. Nklk l`njsjþh, nklk `m`nnjþh l`
c`stjþh `h uhk fpfrtuhjlkl l`m d`rnklf, nklk `strkt`cjk, nklk sjst`dk l`
nkpknjlkl`s y uh pfrtkbfmjf l` prfluntfs y/f s`rvjnjfs kmjh`klfs, mm`vkrë k mk
frckhjzknjþh k lkr uh pksf eknjk kl`mkht` pkrk uhk nfdp`tjtjvjlkl austk,
prul`ht` y `b`ntjvk.

Nþdf ks`curkr `m l`s`dp`ûf y mk nfdp`tjtjvjlkl l` mk frckhjzknjþh

k trkvês l` uh mjl`rkzcf `b`ntjvf

Mk `b`ntjvjlkl l`m mjl`rkzcf ek sjlf uh nfhn`ptf kmtkd`ht` vumh`rkom` k mfs

nkdojfs sfnjf-ejstþrjnfs, y numturkm`s7 nfdf mf kbjrdk Nfht`rks, B. (?995),
`m nrjt`rjf l` `b`ntjvjlkl `stë vjhnumklf km `b`ntf qu` s` l`s`k mfcrkr k trkvês
l`m
`a`rnjnjf l` mjl`rkzcf. Kuhqu` pfr su pkrt`, mk `b`ntjvjlkl l`m mjl`rkzcf l`p`hl`
l` mk nkmjlkl l` mfs prfn`sfs y l` mfs r`sumtklfs kmnkhzklfs, qujzës mf
dës jdpfrtkht`, y qu` suoykn` k mf kht`rjfr, `s mk bfrdk êtjnk y r`spfhskom` l`
ljrjcjr, pu`stf qu` c`h`rk nfhbjkhzk ` jht`rês `h mfs l`dës. Rjstk l` `stk
bfrdk mk
`b`ntjvjlkl l`m mjl`rkzcf, l`o`dfs nfdpr`hl`r qu` l`p`hl` `h crkh
d`ljlk l` mks nkrknt`rästjnks, nrjt`rjfs y nfdp`t`hnjks l` mk frckhjzknjþh, su
nmjdk y l`dës vkrjkom`s qu` jhn`htjv`h `m l`skrrfmmf l` mfs mäl`r`s km jht`rjfr l`
mk frckhjzknjþh. Lfhl` êstfs, mfcr`h kokrnkr bkvfrkom`d`ht` mfs ljb`r`ht`s `a`s
l` mk
`dpr`sk l`htrf l` uhk `strunturk bm`xjom` pkrk ks`curkr ksä `m l`s`dp`ûf y
nfdp`tjtjvjlkl l` mk djsdk.

Nfdf mf e`dfs d`hnjfhklf nfhstkht`d`ht`, `h mk kntukmjlkl mks

frckhjzknjfh`s s` `hnu`htrkh jhd`rsks `h uh kdoj`ht` qu` nkdojk `h
bfrdk v`rtjcjhfsk, duy nfdp`tjtjvf, cmfokmjzklf, r`nursf eudkhf kmtkd`ht`
nukmjbjnklf
y kvkhn`s t`nhfmþcjnfs. Ksp`ntfs qu` `xjc`h nkdojfs jdpfrtkht`s `h `m mäl`r,
lfhl` hf sþmf l`o` kaustkrs` k `stks nfhljnjfh`s sjhf sknkr prfv`nef l` mks
djsdks. Ksä pu`s, s` ekn` `vjl`ht` r`nkmnkr mk jdpfrtkhnjk l` qu`
mk frckhjzknjþh nu`ht` nfh uh mjl`rkzcf `b`ntjvf.

@xjst` uh crkh nfhs`hsf r`sp`ntf k mk jdpfrtkhnjk l` `a`rn`r uh mjl`rkzcf

`b`ntjvf `h `m qu` mk jhbfrdknjþh y `m pfl`r s` nfdpkrtkh nfh mfs ljstjhtfs
hjv`m`s l` mk frckhjzknjþh y `m nþdf ks`curkr `m l`s`dp`ûf y mk
nfdp`tjtjvjlkl l` mk djsdk k trkvês l` mk `b`ntjvjlkl, lfhl` s` ekn`
h`n`skrjf r`sudjr `h nuktrf ksp`ntfs buhlkd`htkm`s mf qu` nfhmm`vk k
ks`curkr ljnef l`s`dp`ûf y
nfdp`tjtjvjlkl, mf nukm kokrnk `h1

Mk nkpknjlkl l` mk frckhjzknjþh pkrk kmnkhzkr d`tks.

pfr nfhsjcuj`ht`, fot`h`r uhk v`htkak nfdp`tjtjvk.

dähjdkd`ht`, k tflfs sus `m`d`htfs `strktêcjnfs nfhstjtutjvfs, jhnmuy`hlf

prfv``lfr`s, nfhsudjlfr`s, jht`crkht`s, `htr` ftrfs.

nfhn`lkh k mks p`rsfhks pfr `hnjdk l` mk frckhjzknjþh, k mk bm`xjojmjlkl pfr

`hnjdk l`m nfhtrfm, y k mfs d`ljfs pfr `hnjdk l` mfs bjh`s.

Nfdf oj`h `s nj`rtf, `stf s` pu`l` mfcrkr okaf uhk r`spfhskojmjlkl

sup`rjfr lfhl` mfs mäl`r`s y jht`crkht`s l` mk frckhjzknjþh ckrkhtjn`h uh
l`s`dp`ûf frckhjzknjfhkm7 `h `m nukm su nkpknjlkl l` nfduhjnknjþh nfh sus
nfdpkû`rfs, suokmt`rhfs, nfmkofrklfr`s f sup`rjfr`s, mk nkmjlkl l` mks
l`njsjfh`s qu` tfdkh y su nkpknjlkl pkrk trkokakr `h `qujpf7 nfhtrjouykh
km buhnjfhkdj`htf l` mk djsdk ckrkhtjzkhlf nfh `stf uh mjl`rkzcf `b`ntjvf,
lfhl` `ht`hl`r, `m`cjr mfs nfdpfrtkdj`htfs kprfpjklfs l` mks p`rsfhks y
oksëhlfs` `h uh `stjmf l` mjl`rkzcf `b`ntjvf7 r`sumtkrë `s`hnjkm pkrk mfcrkr
mk prfluntjvjlkl, sktjsbknnjþh, klkptknjþh y ftrfs r`sumtklfs `h o`h`bjnjf
l`m nr`njdj`htf y l`skrrfmmf frckhjzknjfhkm.

Y f r s u p r t` , s ` ek n ` h `n ` s k rj f q u `
mm` v ` k nk o f u h l j k c h þ s t jn f f r c k h jz k
l ` t rf l` m mj l ` rk z c f k mt k d ` h t` ` b ` n tj v s `
n j fh k m d jh u n jf s f , n f h ` m bj h l ` r ` n f h fn ` r
rëpjlkd`ht` mks kd`hkzks nfhtrk mk nfdp`tjtjvjlkl l` mk frckhjzknjþh, `vkmukr
mks utjmjlkl`s y l`s`dp`ûf l` mks djsdks pkrk sko`r sj êstks
l`nk`h lrëstjnkd`ht` f pfr ftrf mklf, sj s` r`quj`r` ekn`r dfljbjnknjfh`s `h
nukhtf k numturk, `strunturk y `stjmfs kldjhjstrktjvfs l` mk frckhjzknjþh. ^`
d`hnjfhkh
`stfs `a`dpmfs, yk qu` ekn`h pkrt` l` mfs bkntfr`s qu` jhbmuy`h `
jhvfmunrkh ljr`ntkd`ht` `m l`s`dp`ûf frckhjzknjfhkm `h oñsqu`lk l` mk
nfdp`tjtjvjlkl7 c`h`rkhlf l` êstk dkh`rk qu` mfs mäl`r`s l`skrrfmm`h
`strkt`cjks hu`vks y nr`ktjvks qu` r`spfhlkh k mks pr`sjfh`s l`m `htfrhf.

Yfr ftrf mklf, pkrk qu` `m mjl`rkzcf `b`ntjvf nfhtrjouyk k d`afrkr mk

nfdp`tjtjvjlkl y `m l`s`dp`ûf frckhjzknjfhkm, nfdf mf d`hnjfhk Dkxw`mm
(;::5), l`o`r nkrknt`rjzkrs` pfr mk ekojmjlkl l` quj`h ljrjc` pkrk km`htkr k mfs
ftrfs k jhvfmunrkrs` y pkrtjnjpkr `h `m prfn`sf l` mm`vkr k mk frckhjzknjþh km dës
kmtf hjv`m, mf nukm jdpmjnk nfdpkrtjr jhbfrdknjþh, lkr pfl`r, r`spfhskojmjlkl
y r`nfhfnjdj`htf k mfs ftrfs, c`h`rkhlf l`htrf l`m prfn`sf uh mjl`rkzcf `h
tflfs mfs hjv`m`s, qu` s` bfrtkm`znk l` dkh`rk nfhtjhuk k trkvês l` mk
prëntjnks nftjljkhks, nfhstjtuy`hlf uh närnumf sþmjlf l` p`rsfhks qu`
pu`lkh kpfykr km mäl`r y trkokakr n`rnk l` êm, pkrk jl`htjbjnkr d`tks `
jdpm`d`htkr `strkt`cjks.

 Ksä djsdf vkm` l`stknkr qu` kuhqu` mk `b`ntjvjlkl `s susn`ptjom` l` s`r

kpr`hljlk, hf pu`l`, l` hjhcuhk dkh`rk, s`r `hs`ûklk, yk qu` `s uhk
kutfljsnjpmjhk qu` efy `h läk nkrknt`rjzk k uh mäl`r pft`hnjkm. Kefrk oj`h,
kmcuhks nfhsjl`rknjfh`s qu` l`o` t`h`r `h nu`htk pkrk `vkmukr y djrkr su
l`s`dp`ûf l` `b`ntjvjlkl, l` knu`rlf nfh Dfht`s, J., (?999) s` `s `b`ntjvf sj1

•   _`cjstrk, khkmjzk y `vkmñk `m ljr`ntjvf su tj`dpf.  

•   Kyulk sus `sbu`rzfs `h mf `xt`rhf, `s l`njr, sj `stë `hbfnklf km ër`k

l` fpfrtuhjlkl`s nfhn`htrëhlfs` `h mk kmtk nfhtrjounjþh  

•   Ekn` prfluntjvk uhk bu`rzk, r`sp`tkhlf mk p`rsfhk prfpjk y ka`hk.

^j kpr`hl` d`ljkht` mk knnjþh l`skrrfmmklk k trkvês l` mk `xp`rj`hnjk
` jht`crk mfs bjh`s jhljvjlukm`s nfh mks h`n`sjlkl`s l` mk
frckhjzknjþh, mk nkpknjlkl prfpjk nfh mfs r`sumtklfs c`h`rkm`s y êxjtf
p`rsfhkm nfh mks fpfrtuhjlkl`s l` mk `dpr`sk.  

•   \fdk l`njsjfh`s `b`ntjvks d`ljkht` sjst`dk y khëmjsjs. ^j

klquj`r` nfhfnjdj`htfs y ekojmjlkl`s klfptkhlf hu`vfs dêtflfs
l` trkokaf k d`ljlk qu` kvkhzk, mfcrkhlf qu` mk c`ht` r`kmjn` tkr`ks
bu`rk l` mf nfdñh.
 

•   @s kutfljsnjpmjhklf y p`rdjt` su kutfl`skrrfmmf, sj`hlf êst` uh

vjcfr v`rlkl`rf l` su p`rsfhkmjlkl.
 

•   Bfd`htk `m l`skrrfmmf l` mfs l`dës, pfrqu` uhk frckhjzknjþh `s dës

`b`ntjvk, hf pfrqu` tj`h` `m d`afr p`rsfhkm, sjhf qu` êst` kl`dës bfd`htk
`m kutfl`skrrfmmf k trkvês l` sus hfrdks, sus eëojtfs y su nmjdk,
prfluntf l`m kutf`htr`hkdj`htf sjst`dëtjnf, nfhn`htrklf y l`bjhjlf l`
mks p`rsfhks qu` `sp`rkh s`r ljrjc`ht`s `b`ntjvfs.  
 •   @s `m`d`htf jht`crklf l` mks d`tks l` mk frckhjzknjþh y mks
h`n`sjlkl`s jhljvjlukm`s. 

•   Ousnk kl`dës l` su austk r`nfdp`hsk, fpfrtuhjlkl`s y êxjtfs `h

su nudpmjdj`htf jhljvjlukm y vkmfr`s sfnjkm`s.
 

Nfdf nfhsjl`rknjfh`s bjhkm`s `s jdpfrtkht` qu` ust`l nþdf prfb`sjfhkm y ljr`ntjvf

l`stknklf l`htrf l` mk frckhjzknjþh, nfhtjhñ` `stuljfs frj`htklfs eknjk
mk nkrknt`rjzknjþh l` mäl`r`s, lfhl` s` jl`htjbjqu`h mfs bkntfr`s l`
p`rsfhkmjlkl, vkrjkom`s nfchjtjvks, rkscfs l` p`rsfhkmjlkl, ekojmjlkl`s y
nfdp`t`hnjks, oksklfs
`h mk1 Kutf`bjnknjk, kutfnfhn`ptf, nfhtrfm p`rnjojlf, `stjmfs ktrjounjfhkm`s, nkmjlkl
l` vjlk p`rnjojlk, `stjmfs l` kbrfhtkdj`htf, frj`htknjþh km mfcrf y
ekojmjlkl`s sfnjkm`s. (Nfhtr`rks, B., ?995, p. 39). \flf `stf oksklf `h
p`rsp`ntjvks r`km`s l`m `htfrhf tkhtf jht`rhf nfdf `xt`rhf y su
jhbmu`hnjk ljr`ntk nfh mk frckhjzknjþh, lfhl` s`k pfsjom` prfdfv`r mk
bm`xjojmjlkl y p`rd`kojmjlkl l` mks djsdks pkrk l`s`dp`ûkrs` `h mks
nfhljnjfh`s kntukm`s, nkrknt`rjzklks pfr jdpfrtkht`s nkdojfs `
jhn`rtjludor`7 r`kmjzkhlf k su v`z kofrlka`s dës kdpmjfs, jht`crklfs `
jht`crkm`s, lfhl` s` mfcr` ksä c`h`rkr `strkt`cjks l` jht`rv`hnjþh k bkvfr l`
uh mjl`rkzcf dës `b`ntjvf, frj`htklf eknjk `m oj`h`stkr l` mfs jhljvjlufs, mk
nfdp`tjtjvjlkl y mk prfluntjvjlkl l` mk frckhjzknjþh pkrk uh þptjdf
l`s`dp`ûf.

NKYÄ\PMF JJJ

Nkpknjlkl`s l` mk frckhjzknjþh, nkpjtkm eudkhf y mjl`rkzcf1 nfdf

`strkt`cjk nfdp`tjtjvk.

@h têrdjhfs frckhjzknjfhkm`s, `m nkpjtkm eudkhf s` ek nfhv`rtjlf `h uh bkntfr

dës qu` dfl`rklkd`ht` r`m`vkht` `h mk kpmjnknjþh `bjnkz l` mk `strkt`cjk
`dpr`skrjkm, lfhl` mk `a`nunjþh l` êstk ñmtjdk klun` `h `m `sbu`rzf pfr kl`nukr
mfs puhtfs bu`rt`s l` mk frckhjzknjþh k mks `xjc`hnjks l`m êxjtf nfdp`tjtjvf. L`
jcukm dkh`rk, s` ekn` h`n`skrjf y tflf uh r`tf efy `h läk pkrk
`stks frckhjzknjfh`s, `hnfhtrkr mfs jhljvjlufs kl`nuklfs, uh nkpjtkm
jht`m`ntukm y nr`ktjvf l` su bu`rzk mkofrkm.

Yfr mf c`h`rkm, nukhlf mks frckhjzknjfh`s nfhstruy`h y bfrtkm`n`h sus

nkpknjlkl`s frckhjzktjvks lfhl` `stê jhvfmunrklf uh mjl`rkzcf `b`ntjvf,
qu` d`afr` sus pfsjojmjlkl`s l` mm`vkr k nkof uhk `strkt`cjk `bjnkz7 `m
l`skrrfmmf l` êstks `xjc` uhk dkhjpumknjþh y uh `hbfqu` nmkrf, nfhnjsf y
nfh uh rudof kn`rtklf, l` uhk s`rj` l` pkmkhnks l` kpmjnknjþh nfdf mf
l`hfdjhk Lkv`hpfrt,
\. (?992) `h su mjorf nkpjtkm eudkhf y mk nr`knjþh l` v`htkaks

nfdp`tjtjvks k trkvês l` mks p`rsfhks7 mks nukm`s r`sumtkh `sp`njkmd`ht`

nrunjkm`s y l`o`h
trkokakrs` nfhauhtkd`ht` pkrk `m mfcrf l`m êxjtf `sp`rklf, `stks pkmkhnks k mks
qu` ekn` r`b`r`hnjk `m kutfr s` l`snrjo`h k nfhtjhuknjþh1

•   Nkpjtkm Eudkhf1 _`nursfs jhtkhcjom`s l` nkpknjlkl`s, `sbu`rzf y

tj`dpf qu` mfs `dpm`klfs jhvj`rt`h `h su trkokaf.
•   @strunturk l` mk frckhjzknjþh1 @m dfl`mf l` r`mknjfh`s
`htr` uhjlkl`s f l`pkrtkd`htfs ` jhljvjlufs `h `m n`htrf l` mk
`dpr`sk.
•   Yrfn`sfs mkofrkm`s1 \flk mk s`rj` l` knnjfh`s y fp`rknjfh`s qu`
prfpfrnjfhkh prfluntfs y s`rvjnjfs.
•   \`nhfmfcäk1 @dpm`f l` d`ljfs d`nëhjnfs, `sp`njkmd`ht` nj`htäbjnfs
y r`mknjfhklfs nfh mk jhbfrdëtjnk, pkrk r`kmjzkr tkr`ks y c`stjfhkr
mk jhbfrdknjþh

Nfh `m bjh l` mm`vkr k nkof mk `strkt`cjk7 mk frckhjzknjþh l`o` nfhn`htrkr

sus nkpknjlkl`s frckhjzktjvks `h `m mfcrf l` uhk pfsjnjþh v`htkafsk `h `m
d`rnklf, lfhl` êstks sfh mks l`str`zks nfm`ntjvks l` mk uhjlkl f
l`pkrtkd`htf
`dpr`skrjkm (ljb`r`hnjklks l` mks nkpknjlkl`s jhljvjlukm`s qu` nfhstjtuy`h
`m nkpjtkm eudkhf). Ksä pu`s, l`o` pfh`r `h prëntjnk êstks pkmkhnks y
sko`r `h quê dflf dkh`aklks nfrr`ntkd`ht` mfcrkrkh uhks nkpknjlkl`s
nrunjkm`s y kpfrtkrëh pfr tkhtf k mk frckhjzknjþh `m hjv`m nfdp`tjtjvf qu` ousnk.

@h `st` s`htjlf, d`ljkht` mk c`stjþh l` `stfs nuktrf `m`d`htfs, mk frckhjzknjþh

k su v`z pu`l` nr`kr y `xpmftkr ftrks bfrdks l` nkpjtkm lfhl` hf sþmf
s`k jhtkhcjom` (nkpjtkm eudkhf), sjhf tkdojêh tkhcjom`s nfdf pfr `a`dpmf,
oj`h`s
`nfhþdjnfs f nfdpfh`ht`s hf bjhkhnj`rfs l` mk prflunnjþh (dkt`rjks
prjdks, dkqujhkrjk, oj`h`s rkän`s, `htr` ftrfs). L`htrf l` mfs oj`h`s jhtkhcjom`s
qu` yk e`dfs d`hnjfhklf, bjcurkh `m nkpjtkm jht`m`ntukm l` mk `dpr`sk y mks
r`mknjfh`s nfh nmj`ht`s y prfv``lfr`s, qu` hf `stëh k mk vjstk, p`rf qu`
k d`hulf r`pr`s`htkh tflk mk ljb`r`hnjk `htr` `strkt`cjks tkhtf
r`kmjzklks nfdf jrr`kmjzklks. Ksä pu`s, sj mk frckhjzknjþh tj`h` `h nu`htk `stks
bfrdks l` nkpjtkm, mfcrkrë mk `strkt`cjk nfdp`tjtjvk, c`h`rkhlf v`htkaks hf sþmf
pkrk êstk `h sä sjhf k hjv`m nfm`ntjvf su bkntfr eudkhf nfdf l`skrrfmmf
frckhjzknjfhkm.

N`htrëhlfhfs `h `m nkpjtkm eudkhf l`htrf l` mk frckhjzknjþh, s`cñh mfs

`xp`rtfs `h `m t`dk klvj`rt`h qu` ”ljv`rsks frckhjzknjfh`s pkr`n`h ousnkr
sj`dpr` mfs djsdfs tjpfs l` nkpknjlkl`s y nfdpfrtkdj`htfs— Jhnmusf
`xkdjhkhlf ljv`rsfs s`ntfr`s `nfhþdjnfs, mks s`d`akhzks r`sumtkh hftkom`s.—
(Lkv`hpfrt, \., ?992, p. 33). Ykrk `mmf, l` knu`rlf k uh `stuljf r`kmjzklf `h uhk
du`strk l` nukr`htk prfy`ntfs `h vkrjks frckhjzknjfh`s nfhn`htrklfs `h l`bjhjr
h`n`sjlkl`s l` uh nkpjtkm eudkhf `sp`näbjnf, s` `hnfhtrþ qu` nksj `h nukmquj`r
prfy`ntf, mk bknjmjlkl pkrk nfduhjnkrs` bjcurkok `htr` mks nfdp`t`hnjks dës k
d`hulf jl`htjbjnklks nmkv` `h `m nkpjtkm eudkhf, lfhl` `h mk crkh
dkyfräk kpkr`nj`rfh `m trkokaf `h `qujpf, mk nfhn`htrknjþh `h `m nmj`ht` y mk
frj`htknjþh eknjk mfs r`sumtklfs l`m nkpjtkm eudkhf l`s`klf.
 Kuh ksä, djrëhlfmf k hjv`m l` mjl`rkzcf `dpr`skrjkm, s` ekn` h`n`skrjf mm`vkr k
nkof ljneks nfdp`t`hnjks nfh `m bjh l` mfcrkr mfs r`sumtklfs `sp`rklfs qu` s`
ousnkh, sj`dpr` `hbfnkhlf êst` eknjk `m mfcrf nfdp`tjtjvf y l`skrrfmmf eudkhf
sfst`hjom` lfhl` mk frckhjzknjþh pu`lk s`r jht`crkm nfh uh `qujpf eudkhf
kmtkd`ht` nkmjbjnklf, uhfs mäl`r`s nfh mks d`afr`s nfdp`t`hnjks y
uhfs ljr`ntjvfs nfh uhk c`stjþh frckhjzklk y þptjdfs l`s`dp`ûfs buhnjfhkm`s.

 Kmcuhks pkrtjnumkrjlkl`s l`m dflf `h qu` mks frckhjzknjfh`s nfdpjt`h `h

ljb`r`ht`s s`ntfr`s y `dpm`kh `strkt`cjks ljv`rsks l`s`khlf mfs djsdfs tjpfs
l` nkpjtkm eudkhf, s` l`snrjo`h k nfhtjhuknjþh1

_`tfs nfdp`tjtjvfs s`d`akht`s `xjc`h r`spu`stks sjdjmkr`s

^` r`quj`r`h l` lfs ljd`hsjfh`s, mfs t`dks l` prfluntf/s`rvjnjf y l`m d`rnklf,

pkrk nkptkr mk `s`hnjk l` nukmquj`r `strkt`cjk frckhjzktjvk. Yfr mf nukm, mks
`dpr`sks sjtuklks l` uhk dkh`rk sjdjmkr s` `hbr`htkh nfh r`tfs s`d`akht`s l`
c`stjþh l`m nfst`, jhhfvknjþh l`m prfluntf, nkmjlkl y s`rvjnjf km nmj`ht`. Ksä pu`s,
`m jhnr`d`htf l` mks `xp`ntktjvks l` mfckr `m dëxjdf êxjtf `dpuak
fomjcktfrjkd`ht` k nksj tflks mks frckhjzknjfh`s k nfhn`htrkrs` `h mk dkh`rk l`
nfdpmkn`r km nmj`ht`, mf qu` sjchjbjnk qu`, êstks h`n`sjtkh p`rsfhks nfh
nfdp`t`hnjks duy frj`htklks km djsdf y h`n`skrjks pkrk nfhs`cujr qu` êst`
sjck sjêhlfmf.

Mfs l jr`ntjvfs qu` nkdojkh l` `dpr`sk mm`vkh nfhsjcf sus j l`ks

Yfr mf c`h`rkm mks frckhjzknjfh`s nfhtrktkh ljr`ntfr`s `xt`rhfs, lfhl` `s nfdñh

fos`rvkr qu` `stfs ljr`ntjvfs `htrkh hu`vfs k mk frckhjzknjþh skoj`hlf
duy pfnf l` mk numturk y l` mk pfmätjnk nfrr`spfhlj`ht` l` mk djsdk. ^jh
`dokrcf, mm`vkh nfhsjcf uhk r`s`rvk l` r`nursfs l` c`stjþh qu` klqujrj`rfh `h
kmcñh ftrf
muckr, lfhl` kpfrtkh tênhjnks qu` m`s r`sumtk `bjnkn`s `h pr`vjks
tkr`ks c`r`hnjkm`s. Yfr nfhsjcuj`ht`, nukhlf s` l`spmkzkh l` uhk frckhjzknjþh
k ftrk,
pkr`n`h jhnmjhklfs k jhbuhljr kmcuhks prëntjnks y p`rsp`ntjvks nfduh`s. _kzþh
pfr mk nukm, `h mk d`ljlk qu` sus tênhjnks r`quj`r`h bfrdks `sp`näbjnks
l` nkpjtkm eudkhf pkrk uhk `a`nunjþh `bjnj`ht`, pkr`n` prfokom` qu` êstks
s` vu`mvkh nklk v`z dës nfduh`s `h mks ljv`rsks frckhjzknjfh`s.

Mfs ljr`ntjvfs s` du`strkh jhnmj hklfs k s`cujr tflks mks dflks

Mfs ljr`ntjvfs `stëh p`hlj`ht`s l` mk dflk `h `m nkdpf `dpr`skrjkm, ksä nfdf
nukmquj`r ftrk p`rsfhk. Yfr `a`dpmf, sj mk c`stjþh l` nkmjlkl tftkm `s mk t`hl`hnjk
bkvfrjtk l`m dfd`htf `h mk r`sfmunjþh l` prfom`dks, `htfhn`s mk nkpknjlkl pkrk
`m khëmjsjs l`t`rdjhkht` l` mks nkusks pu`l` nfhv`rtjrs` `h `m `m`d`htf l`
nkpjtkm eudkhf dës l`dkhlklf. Nfhbfrd` k `stf, mk ljbusjþh l` mk klfpnjþh l`
dflks l` c`stjþh prflunjrë prfokom`d`ht` uhk s`d`akhzk `htr` mfs `m`d`htfs
l`m nkpjtkm eudkhf r`qu`rjlf pkrk mk `a`nunjþh.
  
\`fräk l` mfs l`tkmm`s

@s pfsjom` qu` lfs `dpr`sks ousqu`h uhk t`hl`hnjk k mk knnjþh `h mks

p`rsfhks qu` nfhtrktkh, p`rf qujzë s` r`bj`r`h k kmcf nfdpm`tkd`ht` ljb`r`ht`.
 Kñh ksä, mks sutjm`zks `h mks l`bjhjnjfh`s l` `m`d`htfs l`m nkpjtkm eudkhf
r`sumtkh dkchjbjnklks pfr su kpmjnknjþh `h uh nfht`xtf `strktêcjnf. Yfr `a`dpmf,
`h uhk `dpr`sk bkrdknêutjnk qujzë sjchjbjqu` kpmjnknjþh pfr prfpjk jhjnjktjvk l`
uh nfhfnjdj`htf tênhjnf pkrk `m l`skrrfmmf l` hu`vfs prfluntfs7 nfdf `h
uh
okhnf l` jhv`rsjfh`s pu`l` sjchjbjnkr mk klfpnjþh l` mks d`ljlks `hnkdjhklks
k n`rrkr uh trktf sjh khëmjsjs f kprfoknjþh jhh`n`skrjfs l` mfs hjv`m`s sup`rjfr`s.
 Ksä pu`s, `stk t`fräk r`nfhfn` qu` mks nkrknt`rästjnks, `m `htfrhf nfdp`tjtjvf, mk
numturk y duneäsjdfs ftrfs bkntfr`s l` uhk `dpr`sk l`bjh`h mfs `m`d`htfs
`strktêcjnfs l`m nkpjtkm eudkhf.

Mk `a`nunjþ h dkrnk mk ljb`r`hnjk

Lfs frckhjzknjfh`s pu`l`h `dpm`kr pkmkorks y brks`s sjdjmkr`s pkrk l`bjhjr sus

h`n`sjlkl`s l` nkpjtkm eudkhf, p`rf klfptkr `hbfqu`s nfdpm`tkd`ht`

ljb`r`ht`s nfh `m bjh l` kt`hl`r `sks `xjc`hnjks. Yfr `a`dpmf nfdf mf `huhnjk
Lkv`hpfrt, mks ljv`rsjlkl`s `h prëntjnks l` nfhtrktknjþh, `strkt`cjks l`
kpr`hljzka`, `htfrhf mkofrkm, pfmätjnks l` r`nfdp`hsks y nfduhjnknjþh t`hlrëh
qujzë uhk jhbmu`hnjk sjchjbjnktjvk `h mk `bjnknjk nfh qu` mks frckhjzknjfh`s rjc`h
su nkpjtkm eudkhf—. 

@h l`bjhjtjvk t`hj`hlf `h nu`htk `stfs `hbfqu`s nfh r`sp`ntf k mks nkpknjlkl`s,

nkpjtkm eudkhf, mjl`rkzcf, t`hl`hnjks y nfdp`t`hnjks, mm`vk k c`h`rkr uhk jl`k
dës kdpmjk `h nukhtf k qu` êstks l`t`rdjhkh sj mk frckhjzknjþh trjuhbkrë
f brknkskrë `h su `dp`ûf l` fot`h`r `m dëxjdf pkrtjlf l` mk
nfhtrjounjþh
`strktêcjnk l` nkpjtkm eudkhf kl`nuklf lfhl` ktrkjck y r`t`hck k p`rsfhks nfh
l`str`zks y nfdp`t`hnjks pkrk trjuhbkr7 `h nfhauhtf nfh
prfpfrnjfhkr jhbfrdknjþh pkrk qu` mfs jhljvjlufs pu`lkh c`stjfhkr su jhv`rsjþh
l` êst` nkpjtkm
k trkvês l` uhk nfduhjnknjþh `h mk frckhjzknjþh. Yfr su pkrt` vkm` r`skmtkr qu`,
mks `strkt`cjks nfdp`tjtjvks sfh uhk pkrt` buhlkd`htkm pkrk `m l`s`dp`ûf l`
mks frckhjzknjfh`s, yk qu` mfs d`rnklfs sfh nklk v`z dës nfdp`tjtjvfs y
`xjc`ht`s. @s pfr `stf, qu` `h `m duhlf cmfokm, mks frckhjzknjfh`s
`dpr`skrjkm`s ekh `hnfhtrklf qu` mk v`mfnjlkl `h mk qu` nr`n` mk nfdp`t`hnjk
`s nklk v`z dkyfr, lfhl` ksudjr k nfhnj`hnjk `stk sjtuknjþh p`rdjt` qu` mks
frckhjzknjfh`s `stkom`znkh pmkh`s ` jhjnjktjvks c`h`rkhlf r`sumtklfs y
d`afrkdj`htfs nfdp`tjtjvfs. L` knu`rlf k Djhtzo`rc, E. (?992), mks
d`afr`s
`strkt`cjks `d`rc`h `h `m qu`ekn`r nftjljkhf l` mk `dpr`sk dës qu` `h
`a`rnjnjfs l` pmkhjbjnknjþh bfrdkm. ^j `stf `s ksä, `htfhn`s uhk frckhjzknjþh
pflrë mfcrkr uhk v`htkak nmkrk nukhlf ljbuhlk nj`rtks nkpknjlkl`s nmkv`s k
trkvês l` mk djsdk.
 
Yfr ñmtjdf, `h dkyfr d`ljlk, `m trkokaklfr r`qu`rjlf `s kmcuj`h qu` pu`l`
fos`rvkr `m kdoj`ht`, kpr`njkr mk pfsjnjþh l` mk `dpr`sk y r`spfhl`r
nr`ktjvkd`ht`. @s pfr `stf qu` s` ekn` h`n`skrjf k hjv`m frckhjzknjfhkm
kt`hl`r, r`spfhl`r y `stkr k mk vkhcukrljk l`m t`dk r`mknjfhklf nfh `m nkpjtkm
eudkhf yk qu` êst` s`rë nkpkz l` prflunjr uhk `strkt`cjk `d`rc`ht`,
cujklk (y hf jdp`ljlk) pfr uh pmkh bfrdkm nfhbfrd` k mks h`n`sjlkl`s y
nfdp`tjtjvjlkl

frckhjzknjfhkm.

Yrëntjnks l` mjl`rkzcf y su jdpkntf `h mk `bjnj`hnjk frckhjzknjfhkm

pkrk c`h`rknjþh l` nfdp `tjtjvjlkl.

Efy `h läk, mk utjmjzknjþh l` mk pkmkork mäl`r s` ek kdpmjklf pkrk jhnmujr k

p`rsfhks qu` t`hckh pfl`r y kutfrjlkl, lfhl` `s nfdñh `snunekr ekomkr
l` ljr`ntfr`s c`h`rkm`s y kutfrjlkl frckhjzknjfhkm, lfhl` r`kmd`ht` mf qu`
s`
`sp`rk `s uh v`rlkl`rf y `bjnkz mjl`rkzcf l` tflks `stks p`rsfhks, qu` k su v`z
s`k sjchjbjnktjvf l`htrf l` uh nfht`xtf sfnjkm y frckhjzknjfhkm, `s l`njr, mks
vjsjfh`s sjchjbjnktjvks y ftrfs vkmfr`s l` mjl`rkzcf l`o`h t`h`r nfdf buhlkd`htf
hfrdks qu` o`h`bjnj`h k mk `dpr`sk y k mk sfnj`lkl `h c`h`rkm.

@h `st` nfht`xtf, `m v`rlkl`rf mjl`rkzcf l`o` nfhlunjr k uhks d`afr`s prëntjnks

qu` s` trklun`h `h `m jdpkntf qu` c`h`rk `h mk `bjnj`hnjk frckhjzknjfhkm pkrk mk
c`h`rknjþh l` uhk kmtk nfdp`tjtjvjlkl. @dp`zkhlf pfr qu` `m v`rlkl`rf
mjl`rkzcf `xjc` k mfs jhljvjlufs ksudjr rj`scfs nfhsjl`rkom`s y qu` ekckh nfsks
qu` ftrfs hf `stëh ljspu`stfs k ekn`r, pfr mf nukm r`quj`r` dkyfr nfdprfdjsf nfh
mk `s`hnjk l` mk vjlk, mfs foa`tjvfs frckhjzknjfhkm`s y `m trkokaf nfhauhtf nfh su
`qujpf l` nfmkofrklfr`s.

L` knu`rlf k Omkhnekrl, G., _khlfmpe, K. & Crkzj`r Y., (?992), nukhlf s` ekomk l`
`bjnj`hnjk, ekn` r`b`r`hnjk k sjst`dks y prfn`ljdj`htfs1 l` mk bfrdk `h qu` s`
ekn`h mks nfsks. Mk `bjnj`hnjk s` r`bj`r` k mk pu`stk `h prëntjnk. @s pfr `stf, qu` mks
`dpr`sks qu` hf l`skrrfmmkh uh mjl`rkzcf `bjnj`ht` hf sfmkd`ht` l`snfhfn`h eknjk
lfhl` vkh sjhf qu` `stëh l`sfrckhjzklks pkrk mm`ckr kmmä sj mf supj`rkh. Yfr
`m nfhtrkrjf, sj s` `stë kmtf l` `bjnj`hnjk frckhjzknjfhkmd`ht` p`rf hf s` sko`
eknjk
lþhl` vk, `stk frckhjzknjþh pu`l` s`r nfhsjl`rklk nfdf uhk frckhjzknjþh
l` oñsqu`lk pfr mf nukm `stkräk ekstk kefrk `h mk `tkpk jhjnjkm l` ousnkr uh
mjl`rkzcf qu` pfs`k vjsjþh y pkrk qu` pfs`k vjsjþh r`quj`r` s`r
jhhfvklfrk y sj `s jhhfvklfrk pu`l` s`r nfdp`tjtjvk, l` mf nfhtrkrjf `stkräk `h
uh hjv`m okaf l`htrf l` su s`ntfr nfdp`tjtjvf

L` mk djsdk dkh`rk, `m mäl`r s`rë `m `hnkrcklf l` ljrjcjr mk `dpr`sk eknjk mk

`bjnj`hnjk pkrk nr`kr uhk frckhjzknjþh nfdp`tjtjvk `h mk qu` su c`ht` `stê
nfdprfd`tjlk, frckhjzklk y mjstk pkrk mk pu`stk `h prëntjnk l` uhk vjsjþh
nfhs`hsklk.
Ykrk `mmf vkm` l`stknkr uhk s`rj` l` prëntjnks l` mjl`rkzcf qu` s` l`o`h t`h`r
`h nu`htk km dfd`htf l` pfh`r `h dkrnek tflf mf kht`rjfr, yk qu` `stks r`bm`akh
mks nkrknt`rästjnks qu` ljstjhcu`h km mäl`r, `stkom`nj`hlf uhk ktdþsb`rk `b`ntjvk
nfdñh y dkrnf nfchjtjvf nfdpkrtjlf7 hf sjh kht`s d`hnjfhkr qu` `m `a`rnjnjf l`m
mjl`rkzcf jdpmjnk d`afrkr l`s`dp`ûf p`rsfhkm y dkyfr nfdprfdjsf
frckhjzknjfhkm pkrk mfcrkr mfs foa`tjvfs qu` s` ousnkh.

 Kefrk oj`h, ljneks nfdp`t`hnjks `stëh `hnkdjhklks k trkvês l` mfs sjcuj`ht`s

ksp`ntfs1

L`skbjkr `m prfn`sf

Mfs mäl`r`s sfh p`rsfhks qu` s` krrj`sckh y kn`ptkh l`skbäfs, mf qu` sjchjbjnk
qu` hf tj`h`h prfom`dks `h kvkhzkr eknjk mf l`snfhfnjlf. C`h`rkmd`ht` `stëh
pr`pkrklfs pkrk kn`ptkr rj`scfs, pkrk jhhfvkr y `xp`rjd`htkr nfh djrks k
`xpmfrkr hu`vks y d`afr`s bfrdks l` ekn`r mks nfsks.

 K su v`z `m trkokaf l` êstfs mäl`r`s nfhsjst` `h `m nkdojf, `h fnksjfh`s `st`

pu`l` s`r kmcf ljbänjm,

psjnfmþcjnkd`ht` ksä yqu`
bu`rt`s l`o`h
k su nr`kr
v`z s` uh nmjdk
sj`htkh `h `m qu`l`
r`spfhskom`s mks`s`
p`rsfhks s`kh
nkdojf. Yfr
su pkrt`, sfh pjfh`rfs `h ousnkr fpfrtuhjlkl`s pkrk jhhfvkr, nr`n`r y d`afrkr,
lfhl` sfh nfhsj`ht`s qu` mfs `xp`rjd`htfs y mfs nkdojfs tj`h`h uh pfrn`htka`
l` rj`scf y l` brknksf, p`rf l` tflfs dflfs kntñkh.

Dfl`mkr `m nkdjhf

Dfl`mkr `m nkdjhf nfdj`hzk nfh mk nmkrjbjnknjþh l` mfs vkmfr`s p`rsfhkm`s

` jhvfmunrk `m l`skrrfmmf y mk kbjrdknjþh l` vkmfr`s nfdpkrtjlfs qu` tflf
mäl`r pu`lk klfptkr. Lfhl` mk nukmjlkl p`rsfhkm dës jdpfrtkht` qu` mks
p`rsfhks ousnkh y kldjrkh `h êm `s mk nr`ljojmjlkl p`rsfhkm, pfr tkhtf êstk
s`rë mk oks` l`m mjl`rkzcf, mk nukm s` buhlkd`htk `h lfs `m`d`htfs1 l`njr y
ekn`r, mf nukm s` trklun` `h qu` mfs mäl`r`s l`o`h `stkr `h nkpknjlkl l`
l`b`hl`r kmcf, nr``r `h kmcf y pr`fnupkrs` pfr kmcf, pfhj`hlf `h nmkrf sus
vkmfr`s, mu`cf `xpr`skrmfs y lkr `a`dpmf. @h nfhs`nu`hnjk, nukhlf mfs
nfmkofrklfr`s sko`h qu` mfs mäl`r`s sfh bj`m`s k sus nfhvjnnjfh`s, s`
nfdprfd`t`h k s`cujr `s` `a`dpmf nfh ou`hk pr`ljspfsjnjþh

Jhspjrkr uhk vjsjþh nfdpkrtjlk

C`h`rkmd`ht`, nklk frckhjzknjþh nfdj`hzk nfh uh su`ûf y nfh `mmf hkn` uhk
vjsjþh, lfhl` `m crkh l`skbäf l`m mäl`r `s s`r nkpkz l` p`rnjojr dës kmmë
l`m efrjzfht` l`m tj`dpf, ` jdkcjhkr mks ktrkntjvks fpfrtuhjlkl`s qu` m`s `sp`rk
k êm y k sus sup`rjfr`s `h nfhauhtf nfh sus s`cujlfr`s, km mm`ckr k `s` l`stjhf.
Nfdf oj`h `s nj`rtf, mfs mäl`r`s `stëh jdpumsklfs pfr mk nmkrk jdkc`h l`
pfsjojmjlkl y l` mf qu` su frckhjzknjþh pflräk mm`ckr k s`r, jhspjrkhlf uhk vjsjþh
nfdpkrtjlk, p`hskhlf `h `m buturf ` jht`crkhlf k ftrfs `h uhk vjsjþh
nfdñh7 lfhl` `m r`sumtklf `s uhk p`rn`pnjþh l` uh kmtf nfdprfdjsf
l` mfs trkokaklfr`s, uhk prfxjdjlkl nfhnr`tk y `xjst`hnjk l` mkzfs
kb`ntjvfs y
`dfnjfhkm`s pfsjtjvfs y mk nfhbfrdknjþh l` kdoj`ht`s mkofrkm`s skmulkom`s.

Ekojmjtkr k ftrf s pkrk kntukr

Mfs mäl`r`s `stëh `h nkpknjlkl l` bfd`htkr mk nfmkofrknjþh l`skrrfmmkhlf

nfhbjkhzk y bknjmjtkhlf mks r`mknjfh`s `htr`s mfs `qujpfs y `m crupf
l` nfmkofrklfr`s. @h `m djsdf s`htjlf qu` vkh kyulkhlf k nr`kr uh
nmjdk l` nfhbjkhzk `m nukm nfdpr`hl` `m r`sp`tf dutuf, lfhl` mk c`ht`
ksud` rj`scfs, ekn` nkdojfs y dkhtj`h` vjvk mks frckhjzknjfh`s. Ksä djsdf,
`m trkokaf l` mfs mäl`r`s `s ekn`r qu` mks p`rsfhks s` sj`htkh bu`rt`s,
nkpkn`s, jhbfrdklks y nfh`ntklks, prfdfvj`hlf uh s`htjlf l`
r`njprfnjlkl y uh s`htjdj`htf l` nfmkofrknjþh dutuk. @mmfs k su v`z sko`h
qu` hf pu`l`h `stkr sfmfs y pfr `hl` ousnkh nfmkofrklfr`s pkrk sknkr
kl`mkht` mfs foa`tjvfs y mfcrkr mk nfdp`tjtjvjlkl l` mk frckhjzknjþh.

Orjhlkr kmj`htf

Ykrt` l`m trkokaf l`m mäl`r nfhsjst` `h dfstrkr kcrkl`njdj`htf pfr mks
kpfrtknjfh`s l` mfs l`dës y nr`kr uh nmjdk l` n`m`orknjþh. @m kmj`htf
pu`l` prfv`hjr l` crkhl`s c`stfs f l` kntfs sjdpm`s orjhlklf k mfs l`dës pkrk
s`cujr kvkhzkhlf. Phfs l` mfs dêtflfs qu` pu`l` utjmjzkr `m mäl`r pkrk
`stjdumkr k mk c`ht` k qu` sjck trjuhbkhlf sfh1 r`nfdp`hsks,
kcrkl`njdj`htfs p`rsfhkm`s, r`nfhfnjdj`htfs, `htr` ftrfs. Nfh `mmf s`rë
pfsjom` qu` `m mäl`r vjhnum` vjsjom`d`ht` mfs kht`rjfr`s nfh `m l`s`dp`ûf,
mfcrkhlf ksä `m`vkr mk nkmjlkl k

h jv `m f rc k h jz k n j f h k m , p f h ` r ` h d k r n e k hu`vfs
nk d o jf q u ` s ` r ` q u j ` rk p krk d `a f r k r.
s`rvjnjfs y/f prfluntfs f nukmquj`r

@h r`sud`h, `ht`hlj`hlf mks kht`rjfr`s prëntjnks l` mjl`rkzcf nfdf uh bkntfr

l`t`rdjhkht` qu` c`h`rk jdpkntf ljr`ntf k mk `bjnj`hnjk frckhjzknjfhkm y kmnkhn`
l` mk nfdp`tjtjvjlkl, `hnfhtrkdfs uhk r`mknjþh qu` jdpmjnk uh kmtf nfdprfdjsf
l` pkrt` l` mfs mäl`r`s lfhl` `xjstkh mkzfs kb`ntjvfs y `dfnjfhkm`s pfsjtjvfs `h
mk nfhbfrdknjþh l` kdoj`ht`s mkofrkm`s skmulkom`s, qu` prfpjnj`h ksä
`m d`afrkdj`htf l` mk `bjnj`hnjk frckhjzknjfhkm.

Yfr nfhsjcuj`ht`, `m pkp`m l`m mäl`r `s buhlkd`htkm km s`r `m `m`d`htf qu` kntjvk
`m l`skrrfmmf l` `sfs kdoj`ht`s, ousnkhlf k hjv`m nfm`ntjvf `m jdpkntf bkvfrkom`

l`m mjl`rkzcf, k trkvês l` ljd`hsjfh`s l` `städumf jht`m`ntukm, r`nfhfnjdj`htf

jhljvjlukm, dftjvknjþh ` jhspjrknjþh sjdumtëh`ks pkrk d`afrkr `h `m l`s`dp`ûf,
klkptëhlfs` k mk vkrj`lkl l` r`qu`rjdj`htfs frckhjzknjfhkm`s y nfht`xtfs pfr mf
nukm s`k pfsjom` dkxjdjzkr `sk `bjnj`hnjk.
 NKYÄ\PMF JR

Mjl`rkzcf y nmjdk frckhjzknjfhkm1 eknjk uhk frckhjzknjþh nfdp`tjtjvk.

@m s`r eudkhf `s `h su `s`hnjk uh s`r sfnjkm y uh s`r frckhjzklf, lfhl` pfr su

djsdk hkturkm`zk tj`hl` k `stkom`n`r r`mknjfh`s l` nffp`rknjþh `
jht`rl`p`hl`hnjk p`rdkh`ht`s pkrk `m mfcrf l` sus prfpþsjtfs. Yfr su pkrt`, mks
frckhjzknjfh`s sfh uhjlkl`s sfnjkm`s nfh uh foa`tjvf, `h mks nukm`s
mkofrkh p`rsfhks pkrk `m l`s`dp`ûf l` l`t`rdjhklks buhnjfh`s ksjchklks l`
dkh`rk
qu` nfhtrjouykh km nudpmjdj`htf l` mk djsjþh frckhjzknjfhkm. K su v`z, nu`htk
nfh ljr`ntjvfs nuyks buhnjfh`s sfh mks l` pmkh`kr trkokafs, tkr`ks, ksjchkr
buhnjfh`s k mfs `dpm`klfs, ljrjcjr prfn`sfs y prfn`ljdj`htfs, nfhtrfmkhlf
mfs r`sumtklfs7 kl`dës l` d`ljr su `a`nunjþh `h nfdpkrknjþh nfh mf pmkh`klf.

@h `st` nfht`xtf, mk frckhjzknjþh km s`r `s` sjst`dk sfnjkm, tj`hl` k mk fomjcknjþh

l` r`bfrzkr hfrdks y vkmfr`s qu` jhbmuykh sfor` `m nfdpfrtkdj`htf l`m `dpm`klf
quj`h pfr su pkrt` mm`vk nfhsjcf km trkokaf jl`ks pr`nfhn`ojlks sfor` sä djsdf,
tkm`s nfdf1 qujêh `s, quê d`r`n`, quê h`n`sjtk, y quê `s nkpkz l` r`kmjzkr, y `s
k trkvês l` mks prfpj`lkl`s klkptktjvks l` sus p`rn`pnjfh`s, qu` jht`htk ekn`r
nfe`r`ht`s sus fpjhjfh`s, kntjtul`s, nfhfnjdj`htfs y vkmfr`s pkrkm`mf nfh mfs l`
mk frckhjzknjþh. @stf sjchjbjnk, qu` `m l`s`dp`ûf l`m `dpm`klf km frj`htkrs` pfr
sus p`rn`pnjfh`s kn`rnk l` sus nkrknt`rästjnks jhljvjlukm`s y mks djsdks
nfhljnjfh`s mkofrkm`s `h mks qu` s` l`s`hvu`mv`, l`o` jr knfdpkûklf y
kpfyklf pfr mk frckhjzknjþh, k trkvês l` mk jdpm`d`htknjþh l` uh
`xn`m`ht` nmjdk mkofrkm.

_kzfh`s pfr mks nukm`s efy `h läk, `m l`skrrfmmf y mk c`stjþh frckhjzknjfhkm l`m
nkpjtkm eudkhf vj`h`h klqujrj`hlf nklk v`z dkyfr jdpfrtkhnjk, sjtuëhlfs`
nfdf ksp`ntfs oësjnfs pkrk `m mfcrf l`m nr`njdj`htf y l`skrrfmmf jht`crkm l` mks
frckhjzknjfh`s, ksä nfdf pkrk su pfsjnjfhkdj`htf nfdp`tjtjvf y `strktêcjnf.

L` `stk dkh`rk, `m `stuljf l`m nmjdk frckhjzknjfhkm ek v`hjlf nforkhlf `h mfs

ñmtjdfs kûfs `m `stktus l` e`rrkdj`htk `strktêcjnk pkrk mks frckhjzknjfh`s, yk
qu` êstks pkrk ckrkhtjzkr su sfst`hjojmjlkl y pft`hnjkr su nr`njdj`htf,
l`o`h l`skrrfmmkr pmkh`s prfsp`ntjvfs y nfhbjcurkr uhk vjsjþh r`tklfrk k buturf,
nfht`xtf
`h `m qu` `stf ñmtjdf nfdf yk mf vjdfs `h mfs nkpätumfs kht`rjfr`s nfhstjtuy` uhk
`strkt`cjk y tfdk l` l`njsjfh`s, lfhl` r`sumtk k su v`z nfhv`hj`ht` tfdkr
hu`vks p`rsp`ntjvks y `stkom`n`r prfpu`stks l` trkokaf qu` p`rdjtkh mfcrkh uh
kl`nuklf okmkhn` `htr` mk prflunnjþh, mk nfdp`tjtjvjlkl, `m trkokaf fp`rktjvf y mk
c`stjþh l` p`rsfhks7 `sbu`rzfs qu` frj`htkrëh sj`dpr` eknjk `m mfcrf l`m
prfcr`sf y oj`h`stkr frckhjzknjfhkm.

 Kefrk oj`h, r`tfdkhlf `m t`dk l` nmjdk mkofrkm, s` ekn` buhlkd`htkm yk

qu` p`rdjt` jl`htjbjnkr lfs bu`rzks ljr`ntks1 mks jdpumsklfrks, qu` sfh
tflks
kqu`mmks vkrjkom`s jht`rhks qu` nfhtrjouy`h km nr`njdj`htf frckhjzknjfhkm, tkhtf
`h `m `htfrhf nfdf `h mk prfluntjvjlkl. Yfr mf nukm jdpmjnk, r`bu`rzf k trkvês l`
knnjfh`s y `strkt`cjks qu` orjhl`h sfmjl`z k mfs pmkh`s ljr`nnjfhkm`s nfdf k mfs
`sp`näbjnfs. Yfr su pkrt`, `stë mk bu`rzk mjdjtkht`, mk nukm ekn` r`b`r`hnjk k tflfs
`sfs ksp`ntfs qu` fostknumjzkh `m prfcr`sf l` mk frckhjzknjþh l`sl` tflf puhtf
l` vjstk, l`ojmjtkhlf ksä mfs foa`tjvfs y d`tks l` êxjtf, pfhj`hlf `h rj`scf
mk dftjvknjþh y `m nr`njdj`htf l`m nkpjtkm eudkhf.

@h `st` frl`h l` jl`ks, s` ekn` h`n`skrjf `stuljkr mk r`mknjþh l`m nmjdk

frckhjzknjfhkm y mk sktjsbknnjþh mkofrkm `h trkokaklfr`s l` nukmquj`r frckhjzknjþh
oksklfs `h uh mjl`rkzcf `b`ntjvf eknjk mk oñsqu`lk l` uhk nfdp`tjtjvjlkl
frckhjzknjfhkm. Ykrk `mmf, `s jdpfrtkht` l`bjhjr prjd`rf qu` tflf, qu` `s `m nmjdk
mkofrkm7 pfr mf nukm, tfdkdfs nfdf r`b`r`hnjk k Dêhl`z (?992) quj`h mf l`bjh`
nfdf ”`m kdoj`ht` prfpjf l` mk frckhjzknjþh, prflunjlf y p`rnjojlf pfr `m
jhljvjluf l` knu`rlf k mks nfhljnjfh`s qu` `hnu`htrk `h su prfn`sf l`
jht`rknnjþh sfnjkm y `h mk `strunturk frckhjzknjfhkm qu` s` `xpr`sk pfr vkrjkom`s
(foa`tjvfs, dftjvknjþh, mjl`rkzcf, nfhtrfm, tfdk l` l`njsjfh`s, r`mknjfh`s
jht`rp`rsfhkm`s, nffp`rknjþh) qu` frj`htkh su nr``hnjk, p`rn`pnjþh, crklf
l` pkrtjnjpknjþh y kntjtul l`t`rdjhkhlf su nfdpfrtkdj`htf, sktjsbknnjþh y hjv`m
l`
`bjnj`hnjk `h `m trkokaf—(p.;95). K pkrtjr l` `stk l`bjhjnjþh, `s pfsjom` nfdpr`hl`r
qu` `m kdoj`ht` mkofrkm `h c`h`rkm, y `m mjl`rkzcf `h pkrtjnumkr, pu`l`h pfsjojmjtkr
`h dkyfr f d`hfr d`ljlk `m l`skrrfmmf y `m oj`h`stkr l` mks p`rsfhks, jhbmuy`hlf
pfsjtjvkd`ht` `h mk nkmjlkl l` vjlk, `h `m oj`h`stkr p`rnjojlf y `h mfs r`nursfs
psjnfmþcjnfs l` mfs trkokaklfr`s. @h `st` s`htjlf, mf prjhnjpkm `s nfhfn`r y
nfdpr`hl`r mk bfrdk nfdf mfs `dpm`klfs p`rnjo`h mk r`kmjlkl mkofrkm d`ljkht`
uh kprfpjklf ljkchþstjnf lfhl` s`k pfsjom` nfhstrujr e`rrkdj`htks
`s`hnjkm`s pkrk jdpm`d`htkr mk sktjsbknnjþh, lfhl` `m kud`htf l` êstk
jhnr`d`htkrë sjh lulk `m l`s`dp`ûf. Yrfbuhljzkhlf `m nfhn`ptf l` sktjsbknnjþh
`hnfhtrkdfs qu` ekn` r`b`r`hnjk km ”`stklf kb`ntjvf l` kcrklf qu` uhk
p`rsfhk `xp`rjd`htk kn`rnk l` su r`kmjlkl mkofrkm. _`pr`s`htk `m
nfdpfh`ht` `dfnjfhkm l` mk p`rn`pnjþh y tj`h` nfdpfh`ht`s nfchjtjvfs y
nfhluntukm`s—0. @s pfr `stf, qu` `m nmjdk frckhjzknjfhkm hf djl` mk r`kmjlkl
tkm nukm `s, sjhf `m nþdf `mmk `s p`rnjojlk. Yfr `hl`, tj`h` uh jdpkntf
sfor` mfs `stklfs `dfnjfhkm`s, mks nr``hnjks y mks nfhluntks l` mfs
trkokaklfr`s, kb`ntkhlf k trkvês l` êstks `m l`s`dp`ûf mkofrkm, `m oj`h`stkr
psjnfmþcjnf y `m nfdprfdjsf l` mfs `dpm`klfs nfh su trkokaf. L` dflf qu`
`m nmjdk frckhjzknjfhkm, s` bfrdk, p`rf pfnfs jhljvjlufs `stëh, nfhsnj`ht`s
l` quê dkh`rk fnurr` `stf, y nksj hklj` `stë ljspu`stf k jdkcjhkr, y d`hfs
k nu`stjfhkrs`, nþdf y `h quê d`ljlk su prfpjk nfhtrjounjþh, khþhjdk kuhqu`
p`rsfhkm ` jhnfhsnj`ht`, nfhnurr` `h `m prfn`sf. Yfr nfhsjcuj`ht`, s` ekn`
jdpfrtkht` r`vjskr kmcuhfs nfhn`ptfs dës km l`tkmm`
`h nukhtf k mks lfs prjhnjpkm`s nmks`s l` nmjdk frckhjzknjfhkm qu` s` l`skrrfmmkh
km jht`rjfr l` mk frckhjzknjfhkm, nfh `m bjh l` pfl`r jl`htjbjnkrmfs y sko`r
nþdf

mäl`r, qu` `stjmf nfhvj`h` pkrk l`t`rdjhklk sjtuknjþh, pkrk mf nukm s` trk` k
nfhsjl`rknjþh k Nkhtfhj, B., (?99?), `h su t`xtf `m bkntfr eudkhf `h mk
frckhjzknjþh.
@h prjd`rk jhstkhnjk, s` pu`l` kpr`njkr `m nmjdk mkofrkm l`dfnrëtjnf f l`
sfmjlkrjlkl, qu` `stë buhlkd`htklf `h nþdf mks p`rsfhks pr`s`rvkh y
prjvjm`cjkh mks h`n`sjlkl`s l` kb`ntf, nkrjnjks psjnfmþcjnks, kn`ptknjþh,
kprfoknjþh y nfdpkrtjr. Ekomkhlf k hjv`m crupkm, pfr mf c`h`rkm `stfs s` r`ñh`h
`h `qujpf pkrk trkokakr nfhauhtkd`ht` `h ousnk tkhtf l`m oj`h`stkr `dfnjfhkm
nfdf l` mk r`kmjzknjþh l` mks tkr`ks prfpu`stks. @h `m nksf nfhtrkrjf, jdpmjnk mk
l`shkturkmjzknjþh l` mk nfhljnjþh eudkhk, `h kqu`mmf qu` m` `s dës
nkrknt`rästjnf, `h ftrks pkmkorks ”hf h`n`sjtkr l` `sks nfsks—, lfhl` mfs
jht`crkht`s l` mfs crupfs s` r`uhjrëh dës pkrk munekr pfr `m pfl`r, `s l`njr,
ekn`r qu` mfs jhljvjlufs hf `stêh jht`r`sklfs `h mk nffp`rknjþh pfr mf nukm, mm`vk
dës eknjk uhk dkhjpumknjþh l` r`mknjþh lfdjhkht` y l` sfd`tjdj`htf.
@st`
`stjmf `s `m l`hfdjhklf kutfnrëtjnf-pktrjkrnkm f l` lfdjhknjþh. Nko`
knmkrkr, qu` hjhcuhk frckhjzknjþh f `qujpf nfhnr`tf tj`h` uh nmjdk
frckhjzknjfhkm nj`htf pfr nj`htf kutfnrëtjnf7 tflfs tj`h`h uh pfrn`htka` l`
kdofs nmjdks. L` `stk dkh`rk, pkrk qu` s` lê `m nmjdk frckhjzknjfhkm
l`dfnrëtjnf, `s jhljsp`hskom` r`sp`tkr km ftrf nfdf m`cätjdf `h mk
nfhvjv`hnjk. Lfhl` s`rë pfsjom` `hnfhtrkr ljd`hsjfh`s tkm`s nfdf1
Mjl`rkzcf, prfn`sfs l` nfduhjnknjþh, l`skrrfmmf eudkhf, tfdk l`
l`njsjfh`s, trkokaf `h `qujpf, `htr` ftrfs, l`htrf l` uh kdoj`ht` mkofrkm
`stkom`. @h mk dkyfräk l` mks frckhjzknjfh`s, `stf `s, uhk d`tk
pfr mk qu` l`o`h trkokakr mfs jhljvjlufs `h su prfpjf duhlf jht`rjfr y `m crupf
nfdf nfhauhtf, d`ljkht` `m l`skrrfmmf l` nfdpr`hsjfh`s y e`rrkdj`htks l`
r`sp`tf, sfmjlkrjlkl y nffp`rknjþh7 tkdojêh nfh `m foa`tjvf l` mfcrkr uhk
oñsqu`lk l`m oj`h`stkr `dfnjfhkm y sktjsbknnjþh p`rsfhkm km jht`rjfr l` mk
frckhjzknjþh pkrk r`kmjzknjþh l` tkr`ks prfpu`stks nfh kmtfs y
`bjnj`ht`s l`s`dp`ûfs.

@h l`bjhjtjvk, nfhfn`r y nfdpr`hl`r mk bfrdk nfdf mfs jht`crkht`s l` mk

frckhjzknjþh p`rnjo`h su r`kmjlkl mkofrkm, nfhstjtuy` uhk e`rrkdj`htk
`s`hnjkm pkrk jdpm`d`htkr mk jht`rv`hnjþh h`n`skrjk okaf uh mjl`rkzcf `b`ntjvf,
k trkvês l` uh nkdojf pmkhjbjnklf qu` nfhluznk k uh dkyfr oj`h`stkr,
prfluntjvjlkl pfr pkrt` l`m nkpjtkm eudkhf, pkrkm`mkd`ht` nfh `m
kmnkhn` nfdp`tjtjvf frckhjzknjfhkm. @h `m djsdf s`htjlf, `m nfhfn`r `stks
p`rn`pnjfh`s pkrk ust`l nfdf ljr`ntjvf y mäl`r l` uhk frckhjzknjþh, s`rë
uh r`nursf vkmjfsf pkrk nfdpr`hl`r su nfdpfrtkdj`htf y l`m ftrf, y
`stkom`n`r ksä mfs kc`ht`s jhbmuy`ht`s. Mf qu` m` p`rdjtjrë, bjakr bfrdks
kl`nuklks pkrk fptjdjzkr `m hjv`m l` r`hljdj`htf, `m`vkhlf ksä mk nkmjlkl l`
vjlk mkofrkm.
OJOMJFC_KBJK

 Khzfmk, F (?99>) Phk djrklk k mk numturk nfrpfrktjvk (;ª @l). Ofcftë1

Phjv`rsjlkl @xt`rhklf l` Nfmfdojk. Yp. ;90

Omkhnekrl, G., _khlfmpe, K. & Crkzj`r Y., (?992),. \rkokaf `h `qujpf CF\@KD!
\r`s pksfs pkrk nfhs`cujr crkhl`s r`sumtklfs. (;ª @l.) Okrn`mfhk1 L`ustf. Yp.
;23

 Khtfhj, B., (?99?). @m bkntfr eudkhf `h mk frckhjzknjþh. (;ª @l.) Ofcftë1 Närnumf
l` m`ntfr`s ^.K. Yp. <;:

Nfhtr`rks, Brkhnfjs`., (?995). Mjl`rkzcf1 Y`rsp`ntjvks l` l`skrrfmmf `

jhv`stjcknjþh. Jht`rhktjfhkm Afurhkm fb Ysynefmfcjnkm _`s`krne Rfm. ;, (Hf. ?),
Yp. 2<-3?

Lkv`hpfrt, \., (?992). Nkpjtkm eudkhf. Nr`khlf v`htkaks nfdp`tjtjvks k trkvês

l` mks p`rsfhks. (;ª @l). Okrn`mfhk1 L`ustf. Yp. ?2<

Br`hne, S., O`mm, N. & Qkwkngj, _., (?993). L`skrrfmmf Frckhjzknjfhkm.

\rkhsbfrdknjþh y kldjhjstrknjþh `b`ntjvk l`m nkdojf. (;ª @l.). Dêxjnf1
DnCrkwEjmm. Yp. <<?

CK__JLF N`msf. @m Mjl`rkzcf l` mks Crkhl`s @dpr`sks Jhlustrjkm`s

D`xjnkhks. @h "Crkhl`s `dpr`sks y crupfs jhlustrjkm`s mktjhfkd`rjnkhfs".
^jcmf v`jhtjuhf. Yrjd`rk `ljnjþh ;::5.

Mkwm`r, @. (?992), Yfr bjh ek mm`cklf mk `rk l`m nkpjtkm eudkhf. @h O`hhjs, S,
^pr`jtz`r C.D. & Nuddjhcs \.C. (@ls), Mks nmkv`s l`m mjl`rkzcf. Mfs
p`hsklfr`s dës orjmmkht`s l` efy `snrjo`h pkrk mfs ljr`ntfr`s l` dkûkhk (pp.
?2->3). Okrn`mfhk1 L`ustf

Mkzzktj, ^. & ^khcujh`tj @., (?99>). C`r`hnjk y Mjl`rkzcf. (;k @l). Krc`htjhk1
Dknnej. Yp.?>;

M`jhwkhl, Y & Dkjhkrlj N. (?9;9, Auhjf). Mk Yrjdk pfr nfe`r`hnjk. Ekrvkrl

Ousjh`ss _`vj`w, vfmud`h 55, 0, ::-;90.

Mussj`r, _. & Kneuk, N. (?990). Mjl`rkzcf1 \`fräk, Kpmjnknjþh, L`skrrfmmf l`

Ekojmjlkl`s. Dêxjnf1 \efdsfh M`krhjhc. Y.p. <:5

Dkxw`mm, A. N. (;::5). \e` ?; jrr`butkom` mkws fb M`kl`rsejp. Hksevjmm`, \H,

P^K1 \efdks H`msfh

Djhtzo`rc, E`hry1 ”@m Yrfn`sf @strktêcjnf1 Nfhn`ptfs, Nfht`xtfs y Nksfs—.

@ljtfrk Yr`htjn Ekmm Ejspkhfkd`rjnkhk. ;::3

Dfht`s, J., (?999). L`skrrfmmf Eudkhf Ljr`ntjvf. (;ª @l.) Dêxjnf1 Mjdusk ^.K.
Yp.>2>
Oppermann, U. (2011). Asuma su liderazgo Instrumentos. (G. María, Trad.).
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Porter, M. (2006). Estrategia y ventaja competitiva. (1a Ed.). Barcelona: Deusto.

Pp.222

PORTER Michael. "The Competitive Advantage of Nations", Free Press,

Nueva York, 1990.
Ulrich, D. & Smallwood N. (2007). El liderazgo como marca. En Hesselbein,
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Vázquez, R. (2010). Habilidades directivas y técnicas de liderazgo. Su

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BIBLIOGRAFÍA WEB-ENLACES DE INTERÉS

httn://dspace.utb.edu.ec/inicio/bitstream/123456789/185/2/Tesis%20Laura%20v%20iose1.do
CX

http://www.gestiopolis.com/economia/empresas-venezolanas-ante-la-competitividad.htm

http://www.eumed.net/cursecon/ecolat/ec/2012/oeouenas-medianas-empresasecuador.html

publivoros-competitividad.blogspot.com/2007/08/la-competitividad-y

http://www.definicionabc.com/negocios/competitividad-empresarial.php#ixzz3TvCXnT66