BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

LAYOUT AND EXCAVATION

SPIRIT LEVEL - INSTRUMENT OR TOOL CAPABLE OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL LINE
CHECK.
PLUMB BOB - IT’S USES FOR VERTICAL LINE CHECK.
PLASTIC HOSE FILLED W/ WATER – A METHOD OF LEVELLING (HORIZONTAL)
BATTERBOARDS WITHOUT TRANSIT.
3-4-5 MULTIPLES W/ THE USE OF STEEL TAPE MEASURE – A MANUAL METHOD OF
SQUARING THE CORNERS OF BUILDING LINES IN BUILDING LAYOUT.
SHEET PILLING – A BARRIER FORMED TO PREVENT THE MOVEMENT OF SOIL TO
STABILIZE FOUNDATION.
LAYOUT AND EXCAVATIONS
LAYOUT IS SOMETIMES CALLED “ STAKING OUT” WHICH MEANS THE PROCESS OF
RELOCATING THE POINT OF BOUNDARIES AND PROPERTY LINE OF THE SITE WHERE THE
BUILDING IS TO BE CONSTRUCTED.
IT INCLUDES CLEARING, STAKING, BATTER BOARDS AND ESTABLISHES THE EXACT
LOCATION OF THE BUILDING FOUNDATION AND WALL LINE ON THE GROUND.
STAKE – ARE WOODEN STICKS USED AS POSTS SHARPENED AT ONE END DRIVEN INTO
THE GROUND TO SERVE AS BOUNDARIES OR SUPPORTS OF THE BATTER BOARDS.
BATTER BOARD – WOOD STICK OR BOARD NAILED HORIZONTALLY AT THE STAKE
WHICH SERVE AS THE HORIZONTAL PLANE WHERE THE REFERENCE POINT OF THE
BUILDING MEASUREMENTS ARE ESTABLISHED.
STRING – IS EITHER PLASTIC CHORD OR GALVANIZED WIRE ACROSS THE BATTER
BOARDS USED TO INDICATE THE OUTLINE OF THE BUILDING WALL AND FOUNDATION.
LAYOUT METHODS AND PROCEDURES
1. BEFORE THE CONSTRUCTION BEGINS, SEE TO IT THAT A BUILDING PERMIT IS FIRST
SECURED FROM THE LOCAL AUTHORITIES CONCERNED.
2. RELOCATE THE BOUDARIES OF THE CONSTRUCTION SITE. IT IS SUGGESTED THAT
THE RELOCATION OF THE PROPERTY LINE SHALL BE DONE BY GEODETIC ENGINEER
SPECIALLY FOR THOSE LOTS WITHOUT EXISTING REFERENCE POINTS OR ADJOINING
STRUCTURES.
3. CLEAR THE SITE OF ANY EXISTING STRUCTURE, TREES, AND OTHER ELEMENTS THAT
WILL OBSTRUCT THE CONSTRUCTION WORK.
4. CONSTRUCT AND ALLOCATE A SPACE FOR LABORERS’ QUARTERS, CONSTRUCTION
OFFICE, BODEGA FOR THE MATERIALS AND WORKING TOOLS AND TEMPORARY WASTE
DISPOSAL.
5. APPLY FOR A TEMPORARY CONNECTIONS OF ELECTRIC AND WATER SUPPLY.
ELECTRIC CURRENT IS IMPORTANT FOR THE POWER NEEDS OF THE TOOLS AND
EQUIPMENT AND IS NECESSARY ON OVERTIME SCHEDULES ESPECIALLY IN THE TIME
OF CONCRETING. WATER IS ALSO A PRIME NEED IN CONSTRUCTION.
6. CONSTRUCT A TEMPORARY FENCE AROUND THE CONSTRUCTION.
7. VERIFY THE MEASUREMENT IN THE PLAN IF THE DISTANCES INDICATED ARE FORM:
CENTER TO CENTER
OUTER TO CENTER
OUTER TO OUTER
INSIDE TO INSIDE
8. FIX THE BATTER BOARD TO ITS HORIZONTAL POSITION WITH THE AID OF LEVEL
INSTRUMENT PREFERABLY PLASTIC HOSE WITH WATER.
9. AFTER ESTABLISHING THE REFERENCE POINT AND LINE OF THE FOOTING,
TRANSFER THE INTERSECTING POINTS OF THE STRING ON THE GROUND BY THE AID OF
PLUMB BOB AND INDICATE THE SIZE AND WIDTH TO BE EXCAVATED.
EXCAVATION
EXCAVATION WORK IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IS CATEGORIZED INTO TWO TYPES:
THE MINOR AND MAJOR EXCAVATION DEPENDING UPON THE SIZE AND NATURE OF THE
FOUNDATION TO BE CONSTRUCTED. EXCAVATION FOR A SMALL CONSTRUCTION WITH
INDEPENDENT WALL, OR COMBINED FOOTING IS CLASSIFIED UNDER THE MINOR
EXCAVATION, WHILE THE REST WHICH REQUIRES SIZEABLES OR TOTAL EXTRACTION OF THE
EARTH FALL UNDER THE CATEGORY OF MAJOR CONSTRUCTION.
MINOR EXCAVATION
EXCAVATION UNDER THIS CATEGORY ARE THOSE CONSTRUCTION HAVING
INDEPENDENT FOOTING AND HOLLOW BLOCK WALL FOOTING WHERE THE DIGGING OF THE
SOIL FOR THE FOOTING EXTEND TO A DEPTH FROM 1.00 TO 1.50 METER AND ABOUT HALF A
METER DEPTH FOR THE WALL FOOTING.
MAJOR EXCAVATION
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION THAT REQUIRES WIDE EXCAVATION OR TOTAL EXTRACTION
OF THE SOIL ARE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO CATEGORIES DEPENDING UPON THE CONDITION OR
LOCATION OF THE SITE. WHEN THE AREA OF THE CONSTRUCTION SITE IS BIG THAT THERE IS
ENOUGH SPACE TO ACCOMMODATE WORKING ACTIVITIES, STORING OF MATERIALS AND
DUMPING GROUND FOR THE EXCAVATED SOIL.
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION ON A BUSY COMMERCIAL CENTER WITH ADJACENT
EXISTING STRUCTURE IS CONSIDERED TO THE MOST COMPLICATED AMONG THE VARIOUS
CONSTRUCTION WORKS SINCE THIS REQUIRES CAREFUL STUDY AND ANALYSIS OF THE RIGHT
APPROACH.
PROBLEMS MIGHT BE ENCOUNTER:
1. THE MANNER OF THE EXCAVATION TO BE EMPLOYED WHICH WILL NOT AFFECT OR
DAMAGED THE ADJOINING STRUCTURE.
2. THE KIND OF EQUIPMENT TO BE USED IN THE DIGGING AND EXTRACTING THE GROUND
MAY NOT BE A PROBLEM BUT THE PLACE WHERE TO STATION THE EQUIPMENT DURING
THE OPERATION.
3. HOW AND WHERE TO DISPOSE THE EXTRACTED SOIL INVOLVES THE EFFECTIVE
MANNER OF MANEUVERING THE PAYLOAD AND DRUMPTRUCKS IN HAULING WITHOUT
OBSTRUCTING THE PEDESTRIAN AND VEHICULAR TRAFFIC FLOW.
4. WHERE TO DISPOSE THE UNDERGROUND WATER TO BE DRAINED BY THE WATER PUMP
DURING THE PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION WHICH MIGHT CAUSE MUDDY ROAD AND
CREATE INCONVENIENCE TO TRAFFIC.
5. THE KIND OF SHEETING AND BRACING TO BE USED IN SHORING OR UNDERSPINNING TO
PROTECT THE ADJOINING STRUCTURE MUST BE CONSIDERED.

FOUNDATION AND FOOTING

THE FUNCTION OF A FOUNDATION IS TO TRANSFER THE STRUCTURAL LOADS FROM A
BUILDING SAFELY INTO THE GROUND.
ALL FOUNDATIONS SETTLE TO SOME EXTENT AS THE SOIL AROUND BENEATH THEM
ADJUST ITSELF TO THESE LOADS.
UNIFORM SETTLEMENT IS USUALLY OF LITTLE CONSEQUENCES IN A BUILDING, BUT A
DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT CAN CAUSE SEVERE STRUCTURAL DAMAGE.
3 MAJOR PARTS OF A BUILDING:
SUPERSTRUCTURE – WHICH IS THE ABOVE GROUND PORTION OF THE BUILDING.
SUBSTRUCTURE – WHICH IS THE HABITABLE BELOW-GROUND PORTION.
 FOUNDATION – WHICH ARE THE COMPONENTS OF THE BUILDING THAT TRANSFER ITS
LOAD INTO THE SOIL.
3 TYPES OF SUBSTRUCTURES:
SLAB ON FILL
CRAWLSPACE
BASEMENT

2 BASIC TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS:

SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS ARE THOSE THAT TRANSFER THE LOAD TO THE EARTH AT THE
BASE OF THE COLUMN OR WALL OF THE SUBSTRUCTURE.
DEEP FOUNDATIONS TRANSFER THE LOAD AT A POINT FAR BELOW THE SUBSTRUCTURE.
FOUNDATION IS THAT PORTION OF THE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS THAT CARRY OR
SUPPORT THE SUPERSTRUCTURE OF THE BUILDING.
FOOTING IS THAT PORTION OF THE FOUNDATION OF THE STRUCTURE WHICH DIRECTLY
TRANSMIT THE COLUMN LOAD TO THE UNDERLYING SOIL OR ROCK, FOOTING IS THE LOWER
PORTION OF THE FOUNDATION STRUCTURE.
FOUNDATION BED - REFERS TO THE SOIL OR ROCK DIRECTLY BENEATH THE FOOTING.
PILE FOUNDATION – WHEN A FOUNDATION BED IS TOO WEAK TO SUPPORT A RAFT
FOOTING, THERE IS AN URGENT NEED TO PROVIDE A SUITABLE MATERIALS WHERE TO
TRANSFER THE EXCESS LOAD TO A GREATER DEPTH WHEREIN PILES IS THE ANSWER.
PILE – IS A STRUCTURAL MEMBER OF SMALL CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA WITH REASONABLE
LENGTH DRIVEN DOWN THE GROUND BY MEANS OF HAMMERS OR VIBRATORY GENERATOR.
PILE IS DISTINGUISHED FROM A CAISSON BY BEING DRIVEN INTO PLACE RATHER THAN
DRILED & POURED.
PILES ARE GENERALLY DRIVEN CLOSELY TOGETHER IN CLUSTERS CONTAINING FROM
TWO TO TWENTY-FIVE PILES. EACH CLUSTER IS LATER JOINED AT THE TOP BY A
REINFORCED CONCRETE PILE CAP.
PILE CAP – DISTRIBUTES THE LOAD OF THE COLUMN OR WALL EQUALLY AMONG THE PILES.
CAISSONS – IS SIMILAR TO A COLUMN FOOTING IN THAT IT SPREADS THE LOAD FROM A
COLUMN OVER A LARGE ENOUGH AREA OF SOIL.
FOUNDATION WALL – THAT PART OF THE BUILDING FOUNDATION WHICH FORMS THE
PERMANENT RETAINING WALL OF THE STRUCTURE BELOW GRADE.
GRADE BEAM – THAT PART OF A FOUNDATION SYSTEM W/C SUPPORTS THE EXTERIOR
WALL OF THE SUPERSTRUCTURE AND BEARS DIRECTLY ON THE COLUMN FOOTING.
RETAINING WALL – A WALL OR LATERALLY BRACED, THAT BEARS AGAINST AN EARTH
OR OTHER FILL SURFACE AND RESISTS LATERAL AND OTHER FORCES.
CANTILEVER WALL – A REINFORCED CONCRETE WALL WHICH RESIST OVERTURNING
BY THE USE OF CANTILEVER FOOTING.
GRAVITY WALL – A MASSIVE CONCRETE WALL THAT RESIST OVERTURNING BY VIRTUE
OF IT’S OWN WEIGHT.
BEARING WALL – A WALL CAPABLE OF SUPPORTING AN IMPOSED LOAD.

FOOTING ARE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO TYPES:

WALL FOOTING OR STRIP FOOTING – IS A STRIP OF REINFORCED CONCRETE WIDER THAN
THE WALL WHICH DISTRIBUTES THE LOAD TO THE SOIL.
A STEEL PERCENTAGE EQUALS TO 0.2 TO 0.3% OF THE CROSS SECTIONAL AREA OF
CONCRETE IS SAID TO BE ADEQUATE EXCEPT ON UNUSUAL CASES.
COLUMN FOOTING – IS CLASSIFIED INTO THE FOLLOWING TYPES:
1. ISOLATED OR INDEPENDENT FOOTING – IS A KIND OF FOOTING REPRESENTS THE
SIMPLEST AND MOST ECONOMICAL TYPE, IN THE FORM OF:
SQUARE BLOCK FOOTING
 SQUARE SLOPE FOOTING
SQUARE STEPPED FOOTING
2. COMBINED FOOTING – IS USED WHEN TWO OR MORE COLUMNS ARE SPACED
CLOSELY TO EACH OTHER THAT THEIR FOOTING WILL ALMOST OR COMPLETELY MERGE.
IT’S EITHER :
RECTANGULAR
TRAPEZOIDAL
3. CONTINUOUS FOOTING – IS SOMETIMES CLASSIFIED AS WALL FOOTING WHICH
SUPPORT SEVERAL COLUMNS IN A ROW. IT’S EITHER:
INVERTED SLAB FOOTING
INVERTED TEE FOOTING
4. RAFT OR MAT FOOTING – IT’S OCCUPIES THE ENTIRE AREA BENEATH THE STRUCTURE
AND CARRY THE WALL AND THE COLUMN LOADS.
UNIFORM SLAB
THICKENED SLAB
BEAM & GIRDER

CONCRETE
CONCRETE IS AN ARTIFICIAL STONE MADE OUT FROM THE MIXTURE OF CEMENT,
SAND, GRAVEL AND WATER. THIS IS KNOWN AS SOLID MASS OR PLAIN CONCRETE.
CONCRETE IN WHICH REINFORCEMENT IS EMBEDDED IN SUCH A MANNER THAT THE TWO
MATERIALS ACT TOGETHER IN RESISTING FORCES IS CALLED REINFORCED CONCRETE.
SLUMP TEST – A READY MEANS OF DETERMINING THE CONSISTENCY OF FRESHLY
MIXED CONCRETE.
DESIGNING OF CONCRETE MIXTURE IS BASED ON THE WATER-CEMENT RATIO.
0.68 lb. OF WATER / lb. OF CEMENT WILL PRODUCE CONCRETE CAPABLE OF
DEVELOPING 2,500 PSI IN 28 DAYS.
LESS WATER PRODUCE STRONGER CONCRETE.
MORE WATER PRODUCE LESSER STRENGTH.
ADMIXTURE – ACCELERATES OR RETARDS CONCRETE SETTING.
SIZES OF MEASURING BOX FOR :
40 kg. CEMENT – 300mm X 300mm X 300mm
50 kg. CEMENT - 320mm X 320mm X 330mm
CONCRETE MIXTURE:
CLASS MIXTURE 40kg. 50kg. SAND GRAVEL
“AA” 1:11/2: 3 12 9.5 0.5 cu.m. 1.0 cu.m.
“A” 1:2:4 9 7 0.5 1.0
“B” 1:21/2:5 7.5 6 0.5 1.0
“C” 1:3:6 6 5 0.5 1.0

MORTAR MIXTURE:
CLASS MIXTURE 40kg. 50kg. SAND
“A” 1:2 18 14.5 1.0 cu.m.
“B” 1:3 12 9.5 1.0
“C” 1:4 9 7 1.0
“D” 1:5 7.5 6 1.0

POST AND COLUMN

POST – REFERS TO A PIECE OF TIMBER OF EITHER CYLINDRICAL, SQUARE OR OTHER
GEOMETRICAL CROSS SECTION PLACED VERTICALLY TO SUPPORT A BUILDING.
COLUMN – REFERS TO VERTICAL STRUCTURE USE TO SUPPORT A BUILDING MADE OF STONE,
CONCRETE, STEEL OR COMBINATION OF THE ABOVE MATERIALS.
STOREY – IS THE SPACE IN A BUILDING BETWEEN FLOOR LEVELS OR BETWEEN A FLOOR AND
A ROOF ABOVE.
REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMN ARE CLASSIFIED AS:
SHORT COLUMN – WHEN THE UNSUPPORTED HEIGHT IS NOT GREATER THAN TEN TIMES
THE SHORTEST LATERAL DIMENSION OF THE CROSS SECTION.
LONG COLUMN – WHEN THE UNSUPPORTED HEIGHT IS MORE THAN TEN TIMES THE
SHORTEST LATERAL DIMENSION OF THE CROSS SECTION.
TYPES OF COLUMNS ARE:
TIED COLUMN – HAS REINFORCEMENT CONSISTING OF VERTICAL OR LONGITUDINAL
BARS HELD IN POSITION BY LATERAL REINFORCEMENT CALLED LATERAL TIES.
SPIRAL COLUMN – IS THE TERM GIVEN WHERE A CIRCULAR CONCRETE CORE IN
ENCLOSED BY SPIRALS WITH VERTICAL OR LONGITUDINAL BARS. THE VERTICAL
REINFORCEMENT IS PROVIDED WITH EVENLY SPACED CONTINUOUS SPIRAL HELD FIRMLY
IN POSITION BY AT LEAST THREE VERTICAL BAR SPACERS.
COMPOSITE COLUMN – WHERE STRUCTURAL STEEL COLUMN IS EMBEDDED INTO THE
CONCRETE CORE OF A SPIRAL COLUMN.
COMBINED COLUMN – WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL ENCASED IN CONCRETE OF AT
LEAST 7 cm. THK. REINFORCED WITH WIRE MESS SURROUNDING THE COLUMN AT A
DISTANCE OF 3 cm. INSIDE THE OUTER SURFACE OF THE CONCRETE COVERING.

LALLY COLUMN – IS A FABRICATED STEEL PIPE PROVIDED WITH A FLAT STEEL BARS OR
PLATE WHICH HOLD A GIRDER, GIRTS OR BEAM. THE STEEL PIPE IS SOMETIMES FILLED
WITH GROUT OR CONCRETE FOR CORROSION.
METAL REINFORCEMENT
THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF STRESSES THAT MAY ACT ON THE STRUCTURE ARE:
1. COMPRESSION STRESS
2. TENSION STRESS
3. SHEAR STRESS
4. TORSION STRESS
REINFORCEMENT NEED TO PROVIDE ON BEAM TO RESPONSE TO POSITIVE AND
NEGATIVE BENDING WHICH MAY CAUSE FAILURE OR COLLAPSE OF THE STRUCTURE.
REINFORCED CONCRETE – IS A COMBINATION OF CONCRETE AND STEEL.
CONCRETE – IS STRONG IN SUPPORTING COMPRESSION LOAD BUT WEAK IN RESISTING
TENSION FORCES.
STEEL – POSSESSES THE STRENGTH TO RESIST BOTH COMPRESSION AND TENSION.
BALANCE BEAM – WHEN THE AREA OF THE CONCRETE AND STEEL ARE JUST ENOUGH
TO CARRY THE COMPRESSION AND TENSION FORCES SIMULTANEOUSLY.
INFLECTION POINTS – REFER TO THE PORTION OF A BEAM WHERE BENDING MOMENT
CHANGES FROM POSITIVE TO NEGATIVE.
NO BENT BARS – WHEN BARS ARE NOT BENT, AN ADDITIONAL STRAIGHT REINFORCING
BARS ARE PLACED ON THE TOP OF THE BEAM ACROSS THE SUPPORTS EXTENDED TO THE
REQUIRED LENGTH.
BENT REINFORCING BARS – ARE BENT UP ON OR NEAR THE INFLECTION POINT AND
ARE EXTENDED AT THE TOP OF THE BEAM ACROSS THE SUPPORT TOWARDS THE
ADJACENT SPAN.
4cm. – ALLOWANCE PROTECTIVE COVERING OF STEEL BARS FROM THE OUTSIDE OF
THE MAIN REINFORCEMENT.
ADVANTAGE OF THE BEND BARS, ITS RESIST THE DIAGONAL TENSION.
 BUILDING CODE REQUIRED THAT A BALANCE BEAM SHALL PROVIDE, THAT THE CROSS
SECTIONAL AREA OF STEEL REINFORCEMENT SHALL BE EQUAL TO .005 TIMES THE CROSS
SECTIONAL PRODUCT OF THE WIDTH AND THE DEPTH OF THE BEAM.
USED LATERAL TIES –
10mm dia. IF LONGITUDINAL BARS 32mm SMALLER
12mm dia. IF LONGITUDINAL BARS 36mm BIGGER
THREE FACTORS FOR SPACING OF THE LATERAL TIES:
SHOULD NOT BE MORE THAN 16 TIMES THE DIA. OF THE LONGITUDINAL OR MAIN
REINFORCING BARS.
SHOULD NOT BE MORE THAN 48 TIMES THE DIA. OF THE LATERAL TIES.
NOT MORE THAN THE SHORTEST DIMENSION OF THE COLUMN.

WOOD CONSTRUCTION
SCAB – A SHORT FLAT PIECE OF LUMBER WHICH IS BOLTED, NAILED OR SCREWED TO
TWO BUTTING PIECES IN ORDER TO SPLICE THEM TOGETHER.
FISH PLATE – A WOOD OR METAL PIECE USED TO FASTEN TOGETHER THE ENDS OF
TWO MEMBERS WITH NAILS OR BOLTS.
SPLICE PLATE – A METAL PLATE USED FOR FASTENING TWO OR MORE MEMBER
TOGETHER.
COGGED JOINT – A CARPENTRY JOINT BY TWO UNEVEN TIMBERS, EACH OF WHICH IS
NOTCHED AT THE PLACE WHERE THEY MEET.
NOTCHING – JOINING OF TIMBERS, USUALLY MEETING OR CROSSING AT RIGHT
ANGLES, BY CUTTING A DAP IN ONE OR BOTH PIECES.
CROSSLAP JOINT – A JOINT CONNECTING TWO WOOD MEMBERS WHICH CROSS EACH
OTHER, HALF THE THICKNESS OF EACH IS CUT SO THAT THE THICKNESS WILL THE SAME
AS THAT OF EACH MEMBER.
SQUARE SPLICE–A TYPE OF HALF LAPPED USED TO RESIST TENSION.
BRIDLE JOINT – A JOINT IN WHICH TWO TONGUES PROJECT FROM THE SIDES OF THE
TENONED MEMBER, THESE TONGUES FIT INTO CORRESPONDING SLOTS IN THE MORTISED
MEMBER.
TENON – THE PROJECTING END OF A PIECE OF WOOD, OR OTHER MATERIALS WHICH
IS REDUCED IN CROSS SECTION, SO THAT IT MAY BE INSERTED IN A CORRESPONDING
CAVITY IN ANOTHER PIECE IN ORDER TO FORM A SECURE JOINT.
YACAL – LUMBER PREFFERED WHEN IN CONTACT WITH CONCRETE.
BOARD FOOT – THE VOLUME OF A PIECE OF WOOD ONE INCH. THICK, ONE FOOT
WIDE AND ONE FOOT LONG.
BOLIDEN SALT – TREATMENT IN WOLMANIZED LUMBER.
DAP – A NOTCH IN A TIMBER FOR RECEIVING ANOTHER TIMBER.
DADO – A RECTANGULAR GROOVE CUT ACROSS THE FULL WIDTH OF A PIECE OF
WOOD TO RECEIVE THE END OF ANOTHER PIECE.
SOLIGNUM – TRADE NAME FOR ANTI-TERMITE SURFACE APPLICATION ON WOOD.

FLOOR STRUCTURE
WOOD FLOOR SYSTEM
FLOOR FRAMING IS THAT PLATFORM STRUCTURE OF THE BUILDING SUSPENDED BY
POSTS, COLUMNS, WALLS AND BEAMS.
THE DESIGN OF A PLATFORM FLOOR SYSTEM DEPENDS UPON THE FOLLOWING
CONSIDERATIONS:
1. LIVE LOAD – REFERS TO THOSE MOVABLE LOADS IMPOSED ON THE FLOOR.
2. DEAD LOAD – REFERS TO THE STATIC LOAD SUCH AS THE WEIGHT OF THE
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS WHICH GENERALLY CARRY THE LIVE LOAD.
 3. TYPES OF MATERIALS TO BE USED – THE CHOICE FROM THE VARIOUS
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS SUCH AS LUMBER, CONCRETE, AND STEEL.
4. THE SIZING AND SPACING OF THE STRUCTURAL MEMBERS – DEPENDS
UPON ITS STRENGTH AND CAPABILITY TO CARRY THE LOAD AT A CERTAIN
SPACING.
5. SPAN OF THE SUPPORTS – PERTAINS TO THE DISTANCES BETWEEN THE
POSTS, COLUMNS OR SUPPORTING WALLS.
THE PLATFORM - FLOOR FRAMING STRUCTURE IS CLASSIFIED INTO THE FOLLOWING
TYPES:
A. THE PLANK AND BEAM FLOOR TYPE
B. THE PANELIZED-FLOOR SYSTEM
C. THE CONVENTIONAL FLOOR FRAMING SYSTEM
THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF A PLATFORM FLOOR SYSTEM ARE:
GIRDER – IS A PRINCIPAL BEAM EXTENDING FROM WALL TO WALL OF A BUILDING
SUPPORTING THE FLOOR JOISTS OF FLOOR BEAMS.
SILL – THAT PART OF THE SIDE OF A HOUSE THAT RESTS HORIZONTALLY UPON THE
FOUNDATION.
FLOOR JOISTS – ARE THOSE PARTS OF THE FLOOR SYSTEM PLACED ON THE GIRDERS
WHERE THE FLOOR BOARDS ARE FASTENED.
HEADER AND TRIMMER – HEADER IS A SHORT TRANSVERSE JOISTS THAT SUPPORT THE
END OF THE CUT-OFF JOIST AT A STAIR WELL HOLE. TRIMMER IS A SUPPORTING JOIST
WHICH CARRIES AN END PORTION OF A HEADER.
FLOORING – THE TONGUE AND GROOVE WHICH ARE POPULARLY KNOWN AS T & G IS
GENERALLY SPECIFIED FOR WOOD FLOORING.
TAIL BEAM OR TAIL PIECE – A SHORT BEAM, JOIST OR RAFTER WHICH IS SUPPORTED
BY A HEADER JOIST AT ONE END AND A WALL AT THE OTHER.
LEDGER STRIP – A STRIP OF LUMBER WHICH IS NAILED TO THE SIDE OF THE BEAM,
FORMING A SEAT FOR THE JOISTS.
DRAFTSTOP PLATE – IS A PIECE OF LUMBER USES TO DRESS UP THE EDGE OF THE
JOISTS.
SOLE PLATE – A HORIZONTAL TIMBER WHICH SERVES AS A BASE FOR THE STUDS IN A
STUD PARTITION.
SILL PLATE – A HORIZONTAL TIMBER, AT THE BOTTOM OF THE FRAME OF AWOOD
STRUCTURE WHICH REST ON THE FOUNDATION.
TOP PLATE – A HORIZONTAL TIMBER AT THE UPPER PORTION OF THE STUDS IN ASTUD
PARTITION.
CRIPPLE STUD – IN ABUILDING FRAME, A STRUCTURAL ELEMENT THAT IS SHORTER
THAN USUAL, AS A STUD ABOVE AND BELOW OPENING.
BLOCK OR SOLID BRIDGING – SHORT MEMBERS WHICH ARE FIXED VERTICALLY
BETWEEN FLOOR JOISTS TO STIFFEN THE JOISTS.
CROSS BRIDGING – DIAGONAL BRACING IN PAIRS, BETWEEN ADJACENT FLOOR JOISTS
TO PREVENT THE JOISTS FROM TWISTING.
HANGER OR STIRRUP – A METAL SEAT, ATTACHED TO A GIRDER TO RECEIVE AND
SUPPORT A JOIST.
BALLOON FRAMING – CONSTRUCTION HAS STUDS CONTINOUS TO ROOF SUPPORTING
SECOND FLOOR JOISTS.
WESTERN FRAMING – THAT HAS SUBFLOOR EXTENDED TO THE OUTER EDGE OF THE
FRAME AND PROVIDE A FLAT WORK SURFACE AT EACH FLOOR.

REINFORCED CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEM

 BEAM - IS A STRUCTURAL MEMBER THAT SUPPORTS THE TRANSVERSE LOAD WHICH
USUALLY REST ON SUPPORTS AT ITS END.
GIRDER – IS THE TERM APPLIED TO A BEAM THAT SUPPORTS ONE OR MORE SMALLER
BEAM.
BEAM ARE CLASSIFIED AS :
A) SIMPLE BEAM
B) CONTINUOUS BEAM
C) SEMI – CONTINUOUS
SIMPLE BEAM – REFERS TO THE BEAM HAVING A SINGLE SPAN SUPPORTED AT ITS END
WITHOUT A RESTRAIN AT THE SUPPORT. SIMPLE BEAMS IS SOMETIMES CALLED AS SIMPLY
SUPPORTED BEAM.
RESTRAINT MEANS A RIGID CONNECTION OR ANCHORAGE AT THE SUPPORT.
CONTINUOUS BEAM – IS A TERM APPLIED TO A BEAM THAT REST ON MORE THAN TWO
SUPPORTS.
SEMI-CONTINUOUS BEAM – REFERS TO A BEAM WITH TWO SPANS WITH OR WITHOUT
RESTRAINT AT THE TWO EXTREME ENDS.

WEB REINFORCEMENT
WEB REINFORCEMENT IS THE SAME AS THEIR STIRRUPS USED IN THE BEAM TO HOLD
THE REINFORCEMENT IN ITS DESIGNED POSITION. THE WEB REINFORCEMENT IS NOT ONLY
INTENDED TO HOLD THE REINFORCEMENT AND PROVIDE LATERAL SUPPORT BUT ALSO
SERVES TO RESIST DIAGONAL TENSION AND COUNTERACT THE SHEAR ACTION ON THE
STRUCTURE. THE VERTICAL STIRRUPS SHOULD ENCIRCLE THE MAIN REINFORCEMENT AND
HOOK BENT WITH A DIAMETER NOT LESS THAN 5 TIMES THE DIAMETER OF THE STIRRUPS AT
ITS END AND SECURED PROPERLY TO PREVENT SLIPPING OF THE MAIN REINFORCEMENT IN
THE CONCRETE.

REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB:

REINFORCED CONCRETE FLOOR SLABS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO THE FOLLOWING TYPES:
1. ONE WAY SOLID SLAB AND BEAM.
2. TWOWAY SOLID SLAB BEAM.
3. RIBBED FLOORS.
4. FLAT SLAB OR GIRDERLESS FLOORS SOLID OR RIBBED.
EACH TYPE OF THE FLOOR SYSTEM HAS ITS OWN ADVANTAGES IN APPLICATION
DEPENDING UPON THE FOLLOWING FACTORS:
1. SPACING OF THE COLUMNS.
2. THE MAGNITUDE OF THE LOADS TO BE SUPPORTED
3. LENGTH OF THE SPAN
4. THE COST OF THE CONSTRUCTION
ONE WAY SLAB – ONE WAY SLAB IS THE COMMON TYPE OF REINFORCED CONCRETE
FLOOR SYSTEM WHICH THE REINFORCEMENTS RUNS ONLY IN ONE DIRECTION. MADE OF
SOLID SLAB SUPPORTED BY TWO PARALLEL BEAMS. IT IS COMPARATIVELY ECONOMICAL FOR
A MEDIUM AND HEAVY LIVE LOADS ON SHORT SPANS RANGING FROM 2.00 TO 3.50 METERS
LONG. ALTHOUGH THE REINFORCEMENTS ARE ALSO PLACED IN THE SLAB PARALLEL WITH
THE BEAMS PERPENDICULAR WITH THE MAIN REINFORCEMENTS CALLED “TEMPERATURE
REINFORCEMENTS”. USUALLY NO. 3 STEEL BAR IS USED TO COUNTERACT THE EFFECT OF
SHRINKAGE AND CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE. IT ALSO DISTRIBUTES POSSIBLE
CONCENTRATION OF LOADS OVER A LARGER AREA.
TWO WAY SLAB – SLAB WHICH ARE SUPPORTED ON FOUR SIDES WHERE THE FLOOR
PANEL IS NEARLY SQUARE IS GENERALLY ECONOMICAL TO EMPLOY THE TWO DIRECTIONS
OF REINFORCING BARS PLACED AT RIGHT ANGLE WITH EACH OTHER.
 THE CODE SPECIFIES THAT THICKNESS OF THE SLAB SHALL NOT BE LESS THAN 4
INCHES OR 10 CM. NOR LESS THAN THE PERIMETER OF THE SLAB DIVIDED BY 180. THE
SPACING OF THE REINFORCEMENT SHALL NOT BE MORE THAN 3 TIMES THE SLAB THICKNESS.
RIBBED FLOOR SLAB – IS AN ECONOMICAL TYPE OF FLOOR CONSTRUCTION BUT IS
APPLICABLE ONLY TO MEDIUM SPAN LENGTH WITH LIGHT OR MEDIUM LOAD.
A RIBBED FLOOR SLAB CONSISTS OF SMALL ADJACENT T-BEAM WHEREIN THE OPEN
SPACES BETWEEN THE RIBS ARE FILLED BY CLAY TILES, GYPSUM TILES OR STEEL FORMS. THE
TILES ARE GENERALLY 30 X 90 CM. WITH DEPTH OF 10 TO 40CM. O.C. PLACED @ 5CM. O.C.
MAKING THE RIBS 10 CM. WIDE.
THE CONCRETE SURFACE LAYER PLACED ON TOP OF THE TILES RANGES FROM 5 TO 6.5
CM. THICK. THE REINFORCEMENT OF A RIBBED FLOOR SYSTEM CONSIST OF TWO BARS
PLACED AT THE LOWER PART OF THE RIB WHERE ONE IS BENT AND THE OTHER REMAINED
STRAIGHT, OR SOMETIMES, STRAIGHT BARS ARE PALCED AT THE TOP AND BOTTOM OF THE
RIB. TEMPERATURE BARS ARE EITHER NO. 2 BARS OR 6 MM. OR WIRE MESH WHICH RUNS AT
RIGHT ANGLE WITH THE RIBS.
FLAT SLAB – IS A RECTANGULAR SLAB DIRECTLY SUPPORTED BY COLUMNS WITHOUT
BEAMS OR GIRDERS. THESLAB IS EITHER UNIFORM IN THICKNESS OR PROVIDED WITH SQUARE
SYMMETRICAL AREA DIRECTLY ABOVE THE COLUMN REINFORCED WITH BARS RUNNING IN
TWO DIRECTIONS. THE INCREASED AREA DIRECTLY ABOVE THE COLUMN CALLED DROP
PANEL OR SIMPLY DROP. ON THE OTHER HAND, A FLARED HEAD IS EMPLOYED IN THE
CONSTRUCTION OF A FLAT-SLAB FLOOR MAKING A CAPITAL OF THE COLUMN.
WHEN THE COLUMN DESIGN IS NOT PROVIDED WITH CAPITAS, A STRAIGHT FLAT
UNDERNEATH IS PROVIDED IN THE SLAB THROUGHOUT THE SYSTEM, WHICH IS CALLED FLAT
PLATE CONSTRUCTION.
THIS FLOOR SYSTEM IS ECONOMICAL IN TERMS OF MATERIALS AND LABOR.
CONSTRUCTION JOINT – A JOINT WHERE TWO SUCCESSIVE PLACEMENT OF
CONCRETE MEET.
CONTRACTION JOINT OR EXPANSION JOINT – A JOINT BETWEEN ADJACENT PARTS
OF A STRUCTURE WHICH PERMITS MOVEMENT BETWEEN THEM.
CONTROL JOINTS – EMPLOYED TO REDUCE RESTRAINT BY ACCOMODATING
MOVEMENT OF MASONRY WALL.
BLOCK OUT – IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES UNDER CONSTRUCTION, A SPACE WHERE
CONCRETE IS NOT TO BE PLACED.
COLD JOINT – A JOINT FORMED WHEN A CONCRETE SURFACE HARDEN BEFORE THE
NEXT BATCH OF CONCRETE IS PLACED AGAINST.
CREEP – PERMANENT DEFORMATION OF A MATERIAL UNDER A SUSTAIN LOAD.
CAMBER – CONVEX CURVATURE IN BEAM OR TRUSS.

LAYING OUT OF STAIRS

THE METHOD OF LAYING OUT STAIRS ARE:
1. DETERMINE THE CLEAR HEIGHT OF THE RISE IN METER.
ORDINARILY, THE RISE PER STEP IS 17 TO 18 CM AND THE MINIMUM TREAD WIDTH IS 25
CM.
2. DIVIDE THE RISE ( HEIGHT IN METER) BY .17 OR .18 TO DETERMINE THE NUMBER OF
STEPS.
3. DIVIDE THE RUN DISTANCE IN METER BY .25 OR .30m.
4. IF THE RESULT, FOUND IN STEP THREE IS LESS THAN THE NUMBER FOUND IN STEP
TWO, THE RUN LENGTH HAS TO BE EXTENDED.
5. THERE SHOULD BE NO FUNCTIONAL VALUE OF A RISER. SHOULD THERE BE FROM
THE RESULT OF STEP TWO, ADJUST A FUNCTIONAL VALUE IN EQUAL PROPORTION TO
THE NUMBER OF RISER HEIGHT, BUT IN NO CASE SHALL THE RISE PER STEP BE GREATER
 THAN 19 CM OR LESS THAN 17 CM OTHERWISE, THE STAIRS WILL NOT BE AN IDEAL
ONE.
IT IS IMPORTANT TO MAKE A CROSS SECTIONAL SKETCH OF A STAIR BEFORE MAKING
THE FINAL PLAN LAYOUT INDICATING THE NUMBER OF STEPS TO AVOID ADJUSTMENTS
OF THE RUN DURING THE ACTUAL CONSTRUCTION.
TYPE OF STRINGERS
THERE ARE SEVERAL FORMS OF STRINGER CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE METHOD
OF ATTACHIND THE RISERS AND THE TREADS.
1. CUT
2. CLEATED
3. BUILT-UP
4. RABBETED (HOUSE)
BALUSTER – ONE OF A NUMBER OF SHORT VERTICAL MEMBERS OFTEN CIRCULAR IN
SECTION, USED TO SUPPORT A STAIR HANDRAIL.
BALUSTRATE – AN ENTIRE RAILING SYSTEM INCLUDING A TOP RAIL, VERTICAL MEMBERS
AND BOTTOM RAIL.
BULL-NOSED STEP – A STEP USUALLY LOWEST IN AFLIGHT, HAVING ONE OR BOTH ENDS
ROUNDED TO A SEMI-CIRCLE AND PROJECTION BEYOND THE FACE OF THE STAIR
STRING/S.
BANISTER – HANDRAIL FOR A STAIRCASE.
RISER – A VERTICAL FACE OF ASTAIR.
KICKER PLATE – STAIR ANCHOR TO CONCRETE.

TYPES OF ROOF
THERE ARE SEVERAL FORMS OF ROOF AND NUMEROUS VARIETY OF SHAPES THAT ONE
HAS TO BE FAMILIAR WITH:
SHED OR LEAN-TO ROOF- IS CONSIDERED AS THE SIMPLEST FORM OF ROOF
CONSISTING OF ONE SINGLE SLOPE.
GABLE OR PITCH ROOF- THE MOST COMMON TYPE AND ECONOMICAL FORM OF
ROOF MADE OF TRIANGULAR SECTIONS CONSISTING OF TWO SLOPES MEETING AT THE
CENTER OF THE RIDGE FORMING A GABLE.
SAW TOOTH ROOF- IS THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SHED MADE INTO A SERIES TO
LEAN-TO ROOF COVERING ONE BUILDING. THIS IS COMMONLY USED ON FACTORIES WHERE
EXTRA LIGHT IS REQUIRED THROUGH THE WINDOW ON A VERTICAL SIDE.
DOUBLE GABLE ROOF- IS A MODIFICATION OF A GABLE OR A HIP AND VALLEY ROOF.
HIP ROOF- IS ALSO A COMMON FORM USED IN MODERN HOUSES HAVING STRAIGHT
SIDES ALL SLOPING TOWARD THE CENTER OF THE BUILDING TERMINATING AT THE RIDGE.
HIP AND VALLEY ROOF- IS A COMBINATION OF THE HIP ROOF AND AN INTERESTING
GABLE ROOF FORMING A T OR L SHAPED BUILDING. THIS TYPE OF ROOF FORM HOWEVER,
HAS A VARIETY OF MODIFICATION WHICH ARE NOT ILLUSTRATED.
PYRAMID ROOF- IS A MODIFICATION OF THE HIP ROOF WHEREIN THE FOUR STAIGHT
SIDES ARE SLOPING TOWARDS THE CENTER TERMINATING AT A POINT.
GAMBREL ROOF- IS A MODIFICATIN OF THE GABLE ROOF WITH EACH SIDE HAVING
TWO SLOPES.
BUTTERFLY ROOF- IS A TWO SHED ROOF WHERE THE SLOPE MEET AT THE CENTER
OF THE BUILDING.
MANSARD ROOF- WHERE THE SIDES OF THE ROOF SLOPE STEEPLY FROM EACH SIDE
OF THE BUILDING TOWARDS THE CENTER FORMING A FLAT DECK ON TOP.
FRENCH OR CONCAVE MANSARD ROOF- IS A MODIFICATION OF THE MANZARD
ROOF WHERE THE SIDES ARE CONCAVE.
DOME- IS A HEMISPHERICAL FORM OF ROOF USUALLY USED ON OBNSERVATORIES.
 CONICAL ROOF OR SPHIRE- IS A STEEP ROOF OF CIRCULAR SECTION THAT TAPERS
UNIFORMLY FROM THE CIRCULAR BASE TO A CENTRAL POINT.

TYPES OF ROOF FRAME

THE THREE TYPES OF ROOF FRAME COMMONLY USED ARE:
1. RAFTERS TYPE
2. TRUSS TYPE
3. LAMINATED TYPE

THE VARIOUS KINDS OF RAFTERS FOR ROOF CONSTRUCTIONS ARE:

COMMON RAFTERS- ARE RAFTERS EXTENDED AT RIGHT ANGLES FROM THE PLATE OR
GIRTS T THE RIDGE.
HIP RAFTERS- ARE RAFTERS LAID DIAGONALLY FROM THE CORNER OF A PLATE OR
GIRTS TO THE RIDGE.
VALLEY RAFTERS- RAFTERS PLACED DIAGONALLY FROM THE PLATE OR GIRTS AT THE
INTERSECTION OF GABLE EXTENSION WITH THE MAIN ROOF.
OCTAGONAL RAFTERS- ARE RAFTERS PLACED ON AN OCTAGONAL SHAPED PLATE AT
THE CENTRAL APEX OR RIDGE POLE.
JACK RAFTERS- ANY RAFTER WHICH DOES NOT EXTEND FROM THE PLATE OR GIRTS
TO THE RIDGE.
JACK RAFTERS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO:
1. HIT JACKS
2. VALLEY JACKS
3. CRIPLE JACKS

JACK RAFTERS FRAMED BATWEEN HIP RAFTERS AND GITS ARE CALLED HIP JACKS. THE
FRAME BETWEEN THE RIDGE AND VALLEY RAFTERS ARE CALLED VALLEY JACKS, WHILE
THOSE FRAMES BETWEEN THE HIP AND THE VALLEY RAFTERS ARE CALLED CRIPPLE JACKS.
TRUSS – IS A BUILT-UP FRAME COMMONLY EMPLOYED ON A LONG SPAN ROOF UNSUPPORTED
BY INTERMEDIATE COLUMNS OR PARTITIONS. TRUSS IS A DESIGN OF A SERIES OF TRIANGLES
USED TO DISTRIBUTE LOAD, STIFFEN THE STRUCTURE AND FLEXIBILITY FOR THE INTERIOR
SPACING AS WELL AS STRENGTH AND RIGIDITY.
THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF TRUSSES ARE:
LIGHT TRUSSES:
PITCHED HOWE
SCISSORS RAISED CHORD
SAWTOOTH 1 ½ STORY FRAME
FLAT UTILITY
BOWSTRING
HEAVY TRUSSES:
HOWE TRUSS BELGIAN
FINK PRATT
SCISSORS CAMBERED FINK
WARREN FLAT HOWE
SAW TOOTH FLAT PRATT

PURLINS – THE STRUCTURAL MEMBER PLACED ON TOP OF A RAFTER OR TOP CHORD OF A

TRUSS THAT SUPPORTS THE ROOF SHEATING.
PURLINS SIZE AND SPACING:
SPAN: 2.00 SIZE: 50mm X 75mm
 3.00 50mm X 100mm
3.50 50mm X 150mm
4.50 50mm X 200mm

ROOF AND ROOFING MATERIALS

THE TERM ROOF USED HERE MEANS THE TOP COVERING OF A BUILDING THAT SERVES
AS A PROTECTIVE COVERING FROM THE WEATHER.
ROOFING CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE MATERIALS USED:
FIBER
WOOD
METAL
SLATE
TILES
REINFORCED CONCRETE
PLASTICS
FIBERGLASS
METAL ROOFING – IS THE MOST COMMON MATERIALS IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION, THIS
ARE CLASSIFIED AS FOLLOWS:
GALVANIZED IRON
ALUMINUM
TIN
TITANIUM COPPER ZINC
COPPER
STAINLESS STEEL
LEAD
AMONG THE METAL ROOFING ENUMERATED, GALVANIZED IRON SHEET IS THE MOST
COMMONLY SPECIFIED CONSIDERING THE ADVANTAGES THAT IT OFFER.
GALVANIZED IRON ROOFING IS EITHER PLAIN OR CORRUGATED. THE THICKNESS ARE
MEASURED IN TERMS OF “GAUGE” FROM ga. 14 TO ga. 30. Gauge 26 IS THE MOST COMMONLY
USED FOR ROOFING.
THE STANDARD COMMERCIAL SIZE WIDTH IS 0.80 m. WITH LENGTH THAT RANGES
FROM 1.50 TO 3.60 m.
PLAIN G.I. SHEET COMMERCIAL STANDARD SIZE IS 0.90m. X 2.40m. IT’S ALSO USED FOR
ROOFING, GUTTERS,FLASHING,RIDGE,HIP AND VALLEY ROLLS, DOWNSPOUT, AND STRAP FOR
RIVETING.
CORR. G.I.ROOFING FASTENERS:
NAILING
RIVETING
PANTILE – A ROOFING TILE WHICH HAS THE SHAPE OF “S” LAID ON IT’S SIDE.
MISSION TILE – A CLAY ROOFING TILE, APPROX. SEMI-CYLINDRICAL IN SHAPE LAID IN
COURSES WITH THE UNIT HAVING THEIR CONVEX SIDE ALTERNATELY UP AND DOWN.
ROMAN TILE – A CHANNEL SHAPED, TAPERED, SINGLE LAP ROOPING TILE.
GALVANIZED – ZINC COATED MATERIALS.
A FRAME – A 3-PIECE RIGID STRUCTURAL FRAME IN THE SHAPE OF THE UPRIGHT
CAPITAL “A”.
CHORD – A PRINCIPAL MEMBER OF A TRUSS.
BATTEN – WOOD STRIPS TO SUPPORT ROOF TILES.
SPLIT RING – CHORD SPLICE CONNECTORS FOR TRUSSES.

FORM, SCAFFOLDING AND STAGING

 FORM IS A TEMPORARY BOARDING, SHEATING OR PANS USED TO PRODUCE THE
DESIRED SHAPE AND SIZE OF CONCRETE. FORMS ARE USED IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION.
STRUCTURAL MEMBERS OF A BUILDING ARE BUILT-UP INTO ITS SPECIFIED DIMENSIONS BY THE
USE OF FORMS THAT SERVES AS MOULD FOR THE MIXED CONCRETE.
FORMS SHOULD BE WATERTIGHT, RIGID AND STRONG ENOUGH TO SUSTAIN THE
WEIGHT OF CONCRETE. IT SHOULD BE SIMPLE AND ECONOMICALLY DESIGNED TO BE
REMOVE EASILY AND REASSEMBLED WITHOUT DAMAGE TO THEMSELVES OR TO THE
CONCRETE.
FACTORS CONSIDERED IN THE SELECTION OF FORMS ARE:
COST OF MATERIALS
THE CONSTRUCTION AND ASSEMBLING COST
THE NUMBER OF TIMES IT COULD BE USED
STRENGTH AND RESISTANCE TO PRESSURE AND THE TEAR & WEAR
WOOD BOARD AND PLYWOOD FORMS
WOOD FORM IS THE MOST COMMON AND WIDELY USED FORMS IN MINOR OR MAJOR
CONSTRUCTION.
PLYWOOD AS FORM IS GENERALLY ECONOMICAL BOTH IN LABOR AND MATERIALS.
PLYWOOD HAS PLAIN EVEN SURFACE WITH UNIFORM THICKNESS.
IT OFFERS FITTED JOINTS, ELIMINATE DRESSING, PLANING OF THE SURFACE WHICH IS
NORMAL TO WOODEN BOARDS FORMS.
THE LAMINATED CROSS-GRAINED OF PLYWOOD HAS MADE THE BOARD STRONGER AND
FREE FROM WARPING.
PLYWOOD IS LIGHT-WEIGHT, HANDY AND FAST TO WORK ON.
PRODUCE SMOOTH FINISHES OF CONCRETE THAT SOMETIMES NEED LITTLE OR NO
PLASTERING AT ALL.
METAL FORM ARE SELDOM USED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION BECAUSE OF THE
VARIED DESIGNS AND SHAPES OF THE STRUCTURES. ALTHOUGH METAL FORMS ARE
EXTENSIVELY USED ON ROAD CONSTRUCTION. METAL FORMS ARE GENERALLY MADE OUT
OF G.I. SHEET, OR BLACK IRON SHEET, SUPPORTED BY FLAT AND ANGLE BARS DESIGNED TO
BE ASSEMBLED AND LOCKED BE MEANS OF CLAMP, BOLTS AND NUTS.
CONSTRUCTION OF FORMS
CONCRETE WEIGHS ABOUT 2,200 TO 2,400 kg./cu.m. FORMS SHALL BE GUARDED
AGAINST BULGING AND SAGGING FAILURE THAT OCCUR DURING THE PROCESS OF POURING.
THE THICKNESS OF THE FORM AND THE SIZES OF THE FRAME AND RIBS DEPENDS UPON THE
NATURE OF THE STRUCTURE TO BE SUPPORTED CLASSIFIED AS SMALL, MEDIUM AND MASSIVE
STRUCTURE.
SMALL STRUCTURE CONSISTING OF SMALL FOOTINGS, COLUMNS AND BEAM FOR ONE
OR TWO STOREY BUILDING WHEREIN 6mm. THK. PLYWOOOD IS SATIFACTORILY USED
SUPPORTED BY 50mm X 50mm WOOD FRAME AND RIBS.
MEDIUM STRUCTURE ARE THOSE HAVING CONCRETE COLUMNS, BEAMS, AND
CONCRETE FLOOR SLAB GENERALLY OF 2 TO 3 STOREY HIGH. WHEREIN 6mm OR 12mm
THK. PLYWOOD IS USED AS FORM SUPPPORTED BY 50mm X 50mm OR 50mm X 75mm WOOD
FRAME AND RIBS.
MASSIVE STRUCTURE ARE THOSE HAVING HEAVY LOADS USES FORMS OF VARIOUS
THICKNESS THAT RANGE FROM 6mm TO 19mm THK. PLYWOOD SUPPORTED BY 50mm X
50mm TO 50mm X 100mm WOOD FRAME AND RIBS.

TWO TYPES OF FRAMING:

LONGITUDINAL RIB TYPE
PERPENDICULAR RIB TYPE
TYPES OF COLUMN FORMS:
 SQUARE
RECTANGULAR
CIRCULAR
BEAM FORMS CONSIST OF ONE BOTTOM FORM AND A PAIR OF SIDE FORMS.
TYPES OF WALL FORMS:
CONTINUOUS
FULL UNIT
LAYER UNIT
GREASING OF FORMS
THE PURPOSE OF GREASING THE FORM IS TO MAKE THE WOOD WATER PROOF, THUS
PREVENTING ABSORPTION OF WATER IN THE CONCRETE WHICH CAUSES SWELLING AND
WARPING. IT’S ALSO PREVENTS ADHERENCE OF CONCRETE TO THE PORES OF THE WOOD.
YOKE – IS A HORIZONTAL FRAMEWORK AROUND THE FORMWORK FOR A COLUMN.
SCAFFOLDING – WORKER’S PLATFORM
PRECAST AND PRESTRESSED CONSTRUCTION
INTRODUCTION
THE INTRODUCTION OF PRECAST-CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION WAS BROUGHT ABOUT
BY BUILDING COSTS THAT HAS CONSIDERABLY INCREASED FASTER THAT MOST INDUSTRIAL
PRODUCTS THAT ARE AFFECTED BY THE LARGE AMOUNT OF ON-SITE LABOR INVOLVED IN
THE TRADITIONAL METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION.
THE DEMAND FOR SKILLED WORKERS ON ON-SITE BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IS
INCREASINGLY OUTRUNNING THE SUPPLY. THE ANSWER TO THERE PROBLEMS WERE
BROUGHT ABOUT BY THE INDUSTRIALIZATION OF CONSTRUCITON AND SUBSTITUTION OF SITE
LABOR BY FACTORY PRODUCED PRECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURE WHICH HAS RAPIDLY
DEVELOPED AND GAINED IMPORTANCE.
THE CONCRETE IS CAST IN PERMANENT FORMS OF STEEL, CONCRETE, GLASS-FIBER-
REINFORCED PLASTIC.
THE WET CONCRETE IS VIBRATED MECHANICALLY IN THE FORMS TO ACHIEVE
MAXIMUM DENSITY AND HIGHEST SURFACE QUALITY.
CONCRETE STRENGTH IN PRECAST IS USUALLY 5000 PSI, WHILE 270,000 PSI FOR
STRENGTH OF STEEL.
PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS ARE USUALLY STEAM CURED WITH THE USE OF HIGH
EARLY STRENGTH CEMENT TO ENABLE A PRECAST TO REMOVE IN FORM IN 24 HOURS.
FORMS ARE CALLED CASTING BEDS. THE CASTING BEDS AVERAGE 125 METERS TO
EXTEND 250 METERS IN LENGTH.

TYPES OF PRECAST STRUCTURE

WALL PANELS – THIS TYPE OF PRECAST STRUCTURE HAS NUMEROUS DESIGNS
DEPENDING UPON THE ARCHITECTURAL REQUIREMENTS. THE COMMON SHAPES PRODUCED
FOR ONE TO FOUR STOREY HIGH STRUCTURES ARE SECTIONS HAVING A WIDTH UP TO 2.40 m.
THEY ARE USED AS CURTAIN WALLS ATTACHED TO COLUMNS AND BEAMS OR SOMETIMES AS
BEARING WALLS.
THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF WALL PANELS ARE:
1. FLAT TYPE
2. DOUBLE TEE TYPE
3. RIBBED TYPE
4. WINDOW OR MULLION TYPE

TO IMPROVE THE THERMAL INSULATION OF THE PANEL, FOAM GLASS, GLASS FIBER OR
EXPANDED PLASTIC IS INSERTED BETWEEN TWO LAYERS OF LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE
ADEQUATELY BONDED INTERCONNECTING THE TWO LAYERS TO ACT AS ONE UNIT.
STRESSES IN HANDLING AND ERECTION OF THE MEMBER IS MORE THAN THAT OF THE
FINISHED FILLED STRUCTURE, HENCE, CONTROL OF CRACKING IS OF GREAT IMPORTANCE.
PRECAST COLUMN
PRECAST COLUMN SIZES ARE FROM .30 x .30m. to .60 x .60m. IN A MULTI-STOREY
CONSTRUCTION, THE COLUMNS ARE MADE CONTINUOUS UP TO FOUR STORIES WHEREIN
CORBELS ARE USED TO PROVIDE BEARING FOR THE BEAM. TEE COLUMN IS SOMETIMES USED
TO SUPPORT DIRECTLY DOUBLE TEE FLOOR MEMBERS WITHOUT THE USE OF INTERMEDIATE
MEMBERS.
PRECAST BEAMS
THE SHAPE OF PRECAST BEAMS DEPENDS UPON THE MANNER OF FRAMING. THE
VARIOUS SHAPES ARE:
RECTANGULAR BEAM
INVERTED TEE BEAM
L –SHAPED BEAM
AASHTO BRIDGE GIRDER – AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE HIGHWAY AND
TRANSPORTATION OFFICIALS.

ROOF AND FLOOR MEMBERS

SOLID FLAT SLAB – WIDE RANGES FROM 0.60M. TO 2.4M.
HOLLOW CORE SLAB – WIDE RANGES FROM 0.60M. TO 2.4M.
DOUBLE TEE – WIDE RANGES FROM 2.4 TO 3.0M.
SINGLE TEE – WIDE RANGES FROM 2.4 TO 3.0M.

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A PECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURE

ESTIMATE THE DEPTH OF A PRECAST SOLID SLAB AT 1/40 OF ITS SPAN. DEPTH
TYPICALLY RANGE FROM 90-200mm.
AN 200mm PRECAST HOLLOW-CORE SLAB CAN SPAN APPROXIMATELY 7.60M., 250mm
SLAB APPROX. 9.80M., AND A 300mm SLAB APPROX. 12.0M. SPAN.
ESTIMATE THE DEPTH OF PRECAST CONCRETE DOUBLE TEES AT 1/28 OF THEIR SPAN.
THE MOST COMMON DEPTHS OF DOUBLE TEES ARE 300,350,400,450,510,610, AND815mm.
A PRECAST CONCRETE SINGLE TEE 928mm DEEP SPANS APPROXIMATELY 26.0M. AND
1142mm TEE FOR 32.0M. SPAN.
ESTIMATE THE DEPTH OF PRECAST CONCRETE BEAMS AND GIRDERS AT 1/16 OF THEIR
SPAN FOR LIGHT LOADINGS AND 1/12 OF THEIR SPAN FOR HEAVY LOADINGS. THESE
RATIOS APPLY TO RECTANGULAR, INVERTED TEE AND L-SHAPED BEAMS. THE WIDTH OF A
BEAM OR GIRDER IS USUALLY ABOUT ½ ITS DEPTH. THE PROJECTING LEDGERS ON
INVERTED TEE AND L-SHAPED BEAMS ARE USUALLY 150mm WIDE AND 300mm DEEP.
TO ESTIMATE THE SIZE OF A PRECAST CONCRETE COLUMN. ADD UP THE TOTAL ROOF
AND FLOOR AREA SUPPORTED BY THE COLUMN. A 250mm. COLUMN CAN SUPPORT UP TO
ABOUT 185 sq.m. OF AREA. A 300mm. COLUMN FOR 240 sq.m. AREA. A 400mm. COLUMN
FOR 370 sq.m. AREA. A 500mm. COLUMN FOR 560 sq.m. AREA. A 600MM. COLUMN FOR 740
sq.m. AREA.

JOINING PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS

BOLTING, WELDING, AND GROUTING ARE ALL COMMONLY EMPLOYED IN THESE

CONNECTIONS. EXPOSED METAL CONNECTORS NOT COVERED BY TOPPING ARE USUALLY
DRY PACKED WITH STIFF GROUT AFTER BEING JOINED, TO PROTECT THEM FROM FIRE AND
CORROSION.
THE SIMPLEST JOINTS IN PRECAST CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION ARE THOSE THAT RELY
UPON GRAVITY BY PLACING ONE ELEMENT ON TOP OF ANOTHER, AS IS DONE WHERE SLAB
ELEMENTS REST ON A BEARING WALL OR BEAM, OR WHERE A BEAM RESTS ON THE CORBEL
OF A COLUMN. BEARING PADS ARE USUALLY INSERTED BETWEEN THE CONCRETE MEMBERS
AT BEARING POINTS TO AVOID THE CONCRETE-TO-CONCRETE CONTACT THAT MIGHT
CREATE POINTS OF HIGH STRESS. BEARING PADS ALSO ALLOW FOR EXPANSION AND
CONTRACTION IN THE MEMBERS. FOR SOLID AND HOLLOW-CORE SLABS THESE PADS ARE
STRIPS OF HIGH-DENSITY PLASTIC. UNDER ELEMENTS WITH HIGHER POINT LOADING SUCH
AS TEES AND BEAMS, PADS OF SYNTHETIC RUBBER AREUSED.

PRESTRESSING OF CONCRETE
THERE ARE SEVERAL METHODS EMPLOYED IN APPLYING PRESTRESSED FORCE TO A
CONCRETE BEAM:
PRECOMPRESSING METHOD – IS A PROCESS OF USING JACKS REACTING AGAINST
ABUTMENT.
SELF-CONTAINED METHOD – THE PROCESS IS DONE BY TYING THE JACK BASE
TOGETHER WITH WIRES OR CABLES LOCATED ON EACH SIDE OF THE BEAM. USUALLY THE
WIRES AND CABLES ARE PRESSED THROUGH A HOLLOW CONDUIT EMBEDDED IN THE
CONCRETE BEAM. ONE END OF THE TENDON IS ANCHORED AND FORCES ARE APPLIED AT
THE OTHER END. AFTER ATTAINING THE DESIRED PRESTRESS FORCE, THE TENDON IS
THEN WEDGED AGAINST THE CONCRETE, REMOVING THE JACK EQUIPMENT.
BOND FRICTION – THE PRESTRESSING STRANDS ARE STRETCHED BETWEEN MASSIVE
ABUTMENT PRIOR TO CASTING OF CONCRETE IN THE BEAM FORMS. AFTER THE
CONCRETE HAS GAINED SUFFICIENT STRENGTH, THE JACKS ARE THEN RELEASED
TRANSFERRING THE PRESTRESSED FORCE TO THE CONCRETE BY BOND AND FRICTION
ALONG THE STRANDS.
THE SELF CONTAINED AND THE BOND AND FRICTION METHODS CAN GENERALLY BE
CLASSIFIED AS PRE-TENSIONING OR POST-TENSIONING SYSTEM. THESE METHODS CAN BE
APPLIED TO MASS PRODUCTION OF CASTING SEVERAL METERS LONG OF STRUCTURE AND
CUTTING THE INDIVIDUAL BEAM OR POST TO THE DESIRED LENGTH OUT FROM THE LONG
CASTING.
THERMAL PRESTRESSING – THE STEEL IS PREHEATED BY MEANS OF ELECTRIC POWER
WHICH ARE ANCHORED AGAINST THE OPPOSITE END OF THE CONCRETE BEAM. THE
COOLING PROCESS PRODUCES PRESTRESS FORCE THROUGH RESTRAINED CONTRACTION.

THE CAUSES OF PRESTRESS LOSSES ARE:

1. SLIP AT ANCHORAGE
2. ELASTIC SHORTENING OF CONCRETE
3. CREEP OF CONCRETE
4. SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE
5. RELAXATION OF STEEL STRESS
6. FRICTIONAL LOSS DUE TO INTENDED OR UNINTENDED CURVATURE IN
THE TENDONS.

CONCRETE FOR PRESTRESSING

CONCRETE OF HIGHER COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH IS USED FOR PRESTRESSED
STRUCTURES. MOST OF THE PRESTRESSED CONSTRUCTION SPECIFY A COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH OF CONCRETE BETWEEN (4,000 to 6,000 psi) 280-422 kg/cm2 BECAUSE OF THE
FOLLOWING ADVANTAGES THAT IT OFFERS.
A) HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE HAS A HIGHER MODULUS OF ELASTICITY. IT
MINIMIZE THE REDUCTION OF PRESTRESS LOSS.
B) INCREASING THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF THE CONCRETE MEETS THE
PROBLEM OF HIGH BEARING STRESSES AT THE ENDS OF POST AND BEAM WHERE
 THE PRESTRESSING FORCE IS TRANSFERRED FROM THE TENDON TO THE
ANCHORAGE DOWELS WHICH DIRECTLY BEARS AGAINST THE CONCRETE.
C) HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE DEVELOPS STRONGER BOND PRESTRESSES TO
PRETENSIONING CONSTRUCTION.
D) HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE GIVES HIGHER STRENGTH TO PRECAST
CONSTRUCTION WHEN CURING IS CAREFULLY CONTROLLED.

MEASUREMENT OF PRESTRESSING FORCE

PRESTRESSING FORCE COULD BE DETERMINED BY:
1. MEASURING THE TENDON ELONGATION.
2. EITHER BY CHECKING JACK PRESSURE ON A CALIBRATED GAGE OR LOAD
CELL OR BY THE USED OF CALIBRATED DYNAMOMETER.

POST TENSIONING – THE STRESSING OF UNBONDED TENDONS AFTER CONCRETE HAS

CURED.
BUILDING MATERIALS

WOOD MATERIALS
WOOD HAS DURABILITY AND BEAUTY. IT HAS GREAT ABILITY TO ABSORB SHOCKS FROM
SUDDEN LOAD AND LIGHT IN WEIGHT WHICH ADAPTABLE IN A COUNTLESS VARIETY OF
PURPOSES.
TWO MAJOR CLASSIFICATION OF WOOD:
SOFTWOOD – THESE ARE USED FOR GENERAL CONSTRUCTION.
HARDWOOD – THESE ARE USED FOR FLOORING, STAIRS, PANELLING,
FURNITURES AND INTERIOR TRIM.

PROPERTIES OF WOOD:
HARDNESS – MEASURED BY THE COMPRESSION, WHICH A PIECE UNDERGOES
WHEN A WEIGHT IS APPLIED.
FLEXIBILITY – THE AMOUNT A PIECE WILL BEND BEFORE BREAKING.
STRENGTH – TO THE GRAIN.
DURABILITY – THE RELATIVE VALUE / LIFESPAN OF WOOD.

DEFECTS OF LUMBER:
DECAY – CAUSED BY THE ATTACKED OF FUNGI.
CHECKS – CRACKS OR LENGTH WISE SEPARATION ACROSS THE ANNUAL RINGS
OF GROWTH.
KNOTS – IRREGULAR GROWTHS IN THE BODY WHICH INTERRUPS SMOOTH CURVE.
PITCH POCKETS – WELL REFINED OPENINGS BETWEEN ANNUAL RINGS
CONTAINING SOLID OR LIQUID PITCH.
WANE – IS THE LACK OF WOOD ON THE EDGE OR CORNER OF A PIECE.

TYPES OF WARPING:
CUPPING – IS A DISTORTION OF THE BOARD IN WHICH THE FACE IS
CONVEX/CONCAVE ACROSS THE BOARD.
BOWING – IS A DISTORTION OF THE BOARD IN WHICH THE FACE IS
CONVEX/CONCAVE LONGITUDINALLY.
TWISTING – IS A DISTORTION OF THE BOARD IN WHICH ONE CORNER IS RAISED.

DEFINITION OF TERMS:
 STRIPS – PIECES LESS THAN 2” THICK AND LESS THAN 8” WIDE.
BOARDS – PIECES LESS THAN 2” THICK AND AT LEAST 8” WIDE.
DIMENSION LUMBER – PIECES MORE THAN 2” THICK AND LESS THAN 5” IN ANY
DIMENSION.
TIMBER – PIECES 4” OR MORE ON THE SMALLEST DIMENSION.
LOG – PIECES 12” OR MORE ON THE SMALLEST DIMENSION.

THREE CATEGORIES OF LUMBER:

YARD LUMBER – USED FOR ORDINARY LIGHT CONSTRUCTION AND FINISHING
WORK. COMMONLY USED FOR FLOORING, PLANK SIDING, TRIM AND MOULDING.
SHOP LUMBER – IT IS INTENDED FOR USE IN SHOPS OR IN MILLS MAKING SASH,
DOORS, AND CABINETS.
STRUCTURAL LUMBER – IS INTENDED FOR USE IN HEAVY CONSTRUCTION FOR
LOAD-BEARING PURPOSES AND IS CUT INTO TIMBERS OF LARGER SIZE.

WOOD GRAIN:
EDGE GRAIN – ANNUAL RINGS RUN APPROX. AT RIGHT ANGLE TO THE FACE.
FLAT GRAIN – WHEN THE ANNUAL RINGS RUN MORE OR LESS PARALLEL TO THE
SURFACE.
ANGLE GRAIN – WHEN THE ANNUAL RINGS ARE AT ABOUT 45 DEG. TO THE FACE.

SEASONING OF LUMBER:
AIR DRYING – LUMBER IS STRIP-PILED AT ASLOPE ON ASOLID FOUNDATION. THIS
ALLOWS AIR TO CIRCULATE AROUND EVERY PIECE WHILE THE SLOPING ALOOWS
WATER TO RUN OFF QUICKLY.
KILN-DRYING – MORE EXPENSIVE LUMBER WHICH IS REQUIRED FOR MORE
REFINED USES SO AS WOOD WILL NOT MOVE. IT MUST BE DRIED TO A MOISTURE
CONTENT OF NOT MORE THAN 5 TO 10 PERCENT. THIS IS DONE IN AN AIRTIGHT
STRUCTURE SCIENTIFICALLY HEATED BY STEAM PIPES IN WHICH THE LUMBER IS
ARTIFICIALLY DRIED TO THE CORRECT MOISTURE CONTENT.

MANUFACTURE BOARDS:
MANUFACTURED BOARDS ARE MADE OF WOOD BUT DOES NOT APPEAR IN THEIR
NATURAL STATE. THIS TYPE OF BUILDING MATERIALS CAN BE CLASSIFIED AS A TYPE OF
LUMBER AS THEY ARE THE BY-PRODUCT IN THE MANUFACTURE OF LUMBER. THE COMPLETE
UTILIZATION OF WOOD HAS LEAD TO AN EXPANDED FIELD OF MANUFACTURED BOARDS.
TYPES OF BOARDS:
PLYWOOD – IS MADE OF AN ODD NUMBER VENEER SHEETS GLUED TOGETHER
WITH THE GRAINS RUNNING AT RIGHT ANGLE TO EACH OTHER. IT IS LIGHT IN
WEIGHT AND STRONG THAT SCREW OR NAIL CAN BE DRIVEN CLOSE TO THE EDGES
WITHOUT DANGER OF SPLITTING.
THE DIFF. TYPES OF PLYWOOD:
SOFT PLYWOOD - THE MOST COMMON FOR STRUCTURAL USE
HARDWOOD PLYWOOD – ARE USED FOR PANELLING AND FINSHING
WHERE USUALLY ON ONE FACE IS HARD FINISHED.
EXTERIOR OR MARINE PLYWOOD – IS MADE FOR EXTERNAL USE.
HARDBOARD – IS MADE FROM WOOD CHIPS WHICH ARE EXPLODED INTO FIBERS
UNDER STREAM OF HIGH PRESSURE. THE LINING IN THE WOOD ITSELF BINDS
PRESSED WOOD TOGETHER WITH NO FILLERS OR ARTIFICIAL ADHESIVES APPLIED.
PRESSED WOOD IS EQUALLY STRONG IN ALL DIRECTIONS BUT VERY BRITTLE. ITS
COLOR VARIES FROM LIGHT TO DARK BROWN.
 PARTICLE BOARD – IS MANUFACTURES FROM WOOD CHIPS, CURLS, FIBERS,
FLAKES, STRANDS, SHAVING, SLIVERS ETC. BOUND TOGETHER AND PRESSED INTO
SHEETS AND OTHER MOLDED SHAPED. PARTICLE BOARD HAS EQUAL STRENGTH IN
ALL DIRECTION OF A GIVEN CROSS SECTIONAL AREA, IT IS NOT BRITTLE AND CAN
RESIST WARPING.

MASONRY
MASONRY REFERS TO A MAN-MADE UNITS WHICH ARE FORMED AND HARDENED INTO
MODULAR BUILDING UNITS.
BASIC BRICKWORK TERMINOLOGY:
COURSE – IS A HORIZONTAL LAYER OF BRICKS OR OTHER MASONRY UNITS.
BED JOINT – IS THE HORIZONTAL MORTAR IN EVERY COURSE.
HEAD JOINT – IS THE VERTICAL MORTAR IN EVERY MASONRY UNIT.
STRETCHER IS A BRICK LAID WITH ITS FACE PARALLEL TO THE WALL AND ITS LONG
DIMENSION HORIZONTAL.
HEADER – IS A BRICK LAID SO AS TO BOND TWO WYTHES TOGETHER.
WYTHE – IS A VERTICAL LAYER OF MASONRY UNITS, ONE UNIT THICK.
SOLDIER – IS A BRICK LAID ON ITS END WITH ITS FACE PARALLEL TO THE WALL.
ROWLOCK – IS A BRICK LAID ON ITS FACE WITH ITS END VISIBLE IN THE WALL FACE.
STRUCTURAL BONDS FOR BRICKWORK:
RUNNING BOND CONSISTS ENTIRELY OF STRETCHERS.
COMMON BOND HAS A HEADER COURSE EVERY SIXTH COURSE
ENGLISH BOND ALTERNATES COURSES OF HEADERS AND STRETCHERS.
FLEMISH BOND ALTERNATES HEADERS AND STRETCHERS IN EACH COURSE.

JOINT TOOLING PROFILES FOR BRICKWORK:

WEATHERED JOINT CONCAVE JOINT VEE JOINT

FLUCH JOINT RAKED JOINT STRIPPED JOINT

STRUCK JOINT
REINFORCED BRICK MASONRY
A REINFORCED BRICK WALL IS CREATED BY CONSTRUCTING TWO WYTHES OF BRICK 50
–100mm APART, PLACING THE REINFORCING STEEL IN THE CAVITY, AND FILLING CAVITY
WITH GROUT. GROUT IS A MIXTURE OF CEMENT, AGGREGATES, AND WATER.
BRICK BOUNDS
THE METHOD OF LAYING BRICKS IN A WALL IN ORDER TO FORM SOME
DISTINCTIVE PATTERN OR DESIGN IS REFERRED TO AS THE PATTERN BOND.
THE METHOD BY WHICH THE INDIVIDUAL UNITS IN A BRICK STRUCTURE ARE TIED
TOGETHER EITHER BY OVERLAPPING OR BY METAL TIES IS KNOWN AS THE
STRUCTURAL BOND.
THE ADHESION OF MORTAR TO BRICKS OR TO STEEL REINFORCEMENT USED IN
CONJUNCTION WITH THEM IS CALLED THE MORTAR BOND.
CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS:
CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS ARE CLASSIFIED AS BEARING AND NON-BEARING BLOCKS.
LOAD BEARING BLOCKS ARE THOSE WHOSE THICKNESS RANGES FROM 15 CM. TO 20 CM. AND
ARE USED TO CARRY LOAD ASIDE FROM ITS OWN WEIGHT. NON-BEARING BLOCKS ON THE
OTHER HAND, ARE BLOCKS WHICH ARE INTENDED FOR WALLS, PARTITIONS, FENCES OR
DIVIDERS CARRYING ITS OWN WEIGHT WHOSE THICKNESS RANGES FROM 7.5 CM. TO 10 CM.
CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS HAS THREE CELLS AND TWO ONE HALF CELLS AT BOTH
ENDS HAVING A TOTAL OF FOUR.
CONCRETE
CEMENTS
PORTLAND CEMENT
MADE FROM MATERIALS WHICH MUST CONTAIN IN THE PROPER PROPORTIONS OF LIME,
SILICA, ALUMINA AND IRON COMPONENTS. FOUR PARTS OF LIMESTONE TO ONE PART CLAY
ARE BASIC INGREDIENTS. THESE ARE MIXED, BURNED THEN PULVERIZED. PORTLAND
CEMENT IS SOLD EITHER IN CEMENT BAGS OF 40 & 50 KILOS WEIGHT OR IN BULK INTO
CEMENT TRUCKS.
SPECIAL CEMENTS
WHITE PORTLAND CEMENT – SAME MATERIALS AS NORMAL PORTLAND EXCEPT IN
COLOR. THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS IS CONTROLLED TO PRODUCE A PURE WHITE,
NON-STAINING CEMENT. IT IS USED PRIMARILY FOR ARCHITECTURAL PURPOSES SUCH AS
CURTAIN WALL AND FACING PANELS, DECORATIVE CONCRETE STUCCO AND TILE GROUT,
OR WHEREVER WHITE OR COLORED CONCRETE OR MORTAR IS SPECIFIED.
MASONRY CEMENT OR TILE ADHESIVES – HAS BEEN SPECIALLY DESIGNED TO PRODUCE
BETTER MORTAR THAN THAT MADE WITH NORMAL PORTLAND CEMENT OR WITH A LIME-
CEMENT HAS PARTICULARLY GOOD PLASTICITY AND WORKABILITY, GOOD ADHESION
AND BOND.
WATERPROOFED PORTLAND CEMENT – NORMALLY PRODUCED BY ADDING A SMALL
AMOUNT OF STEARATE, USUALLY CALCIUM OR ALUMINUM TO THE CEMENT CLINKER
DURING THE FINAL GRINDING.
TYPES OF AGGREGATES USED IN CONCRETE
CONCRETE CAN BE CONSIDERED TO BE AN ARTIFICIAL STONE MADE BY BINDING
TOGETHER PARTICLES OF SOME INERT MATERIAL WITH A PASTE MADE OF CEMENT AND
WATER. THESE INERT MATERIAL ARE THE AGGREGATE. AGGREGATES USED ARE SAND,
GRAVEL CRUSHED STONE, CINDER. CRUSHED FURNACE SLAG, BURNED CLAY, EXPANDED
VERMICULITE, AND PERLITE.

SAND - FOUND IN RIVERBEDS, FREE OF SALT

AND MUST BE WASHED.
FINE AGGREGATE - ¼” AND SMALLER DIAMETER STONES.
COARSE AGGREGATE - BIGGER THAN ¼” DIAMETER STONES.

CONCRETE MIXES

CLASS “AA” - 1: 1 ½: 3 - CONCRETE UNDER WATER, RETAINING

WALLS
CLASS A - 1:2:4 - FOOTINGS, COLUMNS BEAMS, R.C.
SLABS
CLASS B - 1: 2 1/ 2:5- SLAB ON FILL, NON BEARING WALLS
CLASS C - 1: 3: 6 - CONCRETE PLANT BOXES, ETC.

CONTROL OF CONCRETE MIXES

SLUMP TEST- WHEN FRESHLY MIXED CONCRETE IS CHECKED TO ENSURE THAT THE
SPECIFIED SLUMP IS BEING ATTAINED CONSISTENTLY. A STANDARD SLUMP CONE IS 12
INCHES HIGH (0.30) AND 8 INCHES (O.20) IN DIAMETER AT THE BOTTOM AND 4 INCHES (O.10)
ON TOP WHICH IS OPEN ON BOTH ENDS.
THE CONE IS FILLED IN THREE EQUAL LAYERS, EACH BEING TAMPED OR RODDED 25
TIMES WITH A STANDARD 5/8” BULLET NOSED ROD. WHEN THE CONE HAS BEEN FILLED AND
LEVELED OFF, IT IS LIFTED CAREFULLY AND THE AMOUNT OF SLUMP IS MEASURED.
ALLOWABLE DEFLECTION ‘X’
BEAMS AND COLUMNS 7.5 cm. (.075) 3”
SLABS AND TUNNEL INVERTS 5.0 cm. (.50) 2”
TOPS AND WALL, PIERS, PARAPET & CURBS 5.0 cm. (.50) 2”
SIDE WALLS AND ARCH IN TUNNEL LINING 10.0 cm. (.10) 4”
CANAL LINING 7.5 cm. (.075) 3”
HEAVY MASS CONSTRUCTION 5.0 cm. (.50) 2”

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST- COMMON QUALITY-CONTROL TEST OF CONCRETE, BASED

ON 7 AND 28 DAYS CURING PERIODS. SPECIMENS ARE USUALLY CYLINDRICAL WITH A
LENGHT EQUAL TO TWICE THE DIAMETER. STANDARD SIZE IS 12 INCH. HIGH AND 6 INCH.
DIAMETER. FILLING IS DONE THE SAME WAY AS THE SLUMP TEST BUT TAKEN OUT FROM THE
MOLD IN 24 HOURS. IT IS THEN SENT TO A COMPRESSION TESTING LABORATORY, BY MAKING
THE CYLINDER WHILE STILL WET. SOME COMPRESSIVE STRESSES ARE 2,000 psi, 2,500 psi,
3,000 psi.

SOME OF THE BRANDS OF PORTLAND CEMENT

ISLAND CEMENT
CONTINENTAL CEMENT
HI- CEMENT
UNION CEMENT
RIZAL CEMENT
FILIPINAS CEMENT
PACIFIC CEMENT
FORTUNE CEMENT
REPUBLIC CEMENT
NORTHERN CEMENT

BRANDS OF WHITE CEMENT

PRIME WHITE CEMENT
KEENE
TRINITY
SNOWCRETE
MORTAR – CEMENT, SAND & WATER.
GROUT – CEMENT AND WATER MIXTURE.
CONCRETE – CEMENT, SAND, GRAVEL & WATER.
TYROLEAN FINISH – ROUGH PLASTER FINISH OBTAINED BY FLINGING PLASTER ON A
WALL W/ A HAND OPERATED MACHINE.
EFFLORESCENCE – AN ENCRUSTATION OF SOLUBLE SALTS CAUSED BY FREE ALKALIES
LEACHED FROM MORTAR OR ADJACENT CONCRETE AS MOISTURE MOVE THROUGH IT.
ADIABATIC CURING - THE CURING OF CONCRETE OR MORTAR W/O THE GAIN OR LOSS
OF HEAT DURING THE CURING PERIOD.
WHEATHERED – MOST WATERPROOFED TYPE OF MORTAR JOINTS FOR WALLS.
ADOBE BRICK – LARGE ROUGHLY MOULDED SUN DRIED CLAY BRICKS OF VARYING SIZES.
ASHLAR BRICK – A BRICK WHOSE FACE HAS BEEN HACKED TO RESEMBLE ROUGHLY
HACKED STONE.
RETARDER – AN ADMIXTURE WHICH DELAY THE SETTING OF CEMENT PASTE OR
MIXTURES/ AN ADDITIVE MIXED WITH PLASTER TO CONTROL THE RATE OF HARDENING.
STEAM CURING – THE CURING OF CONCRETE OR MORTAR IN WATER VAPOR AT AN
ELEVATED TEMPERATURE AT EITHER ATMOSPHERIC OR HIGH PRESSURE.
 QUOIN / COIN – IN MASONRY, A HARD STONE OR BRICK USED TO REINFORCE AN
EXTERNAL CORNER OF A WALL.
ZOCALO – LOW WALL AROUND A CHALET-TYPE HOUSE.
FORTIFICATION – THA WALL OF INTRAMUROS.
SCRATCH COAT – INITIAL SCORED LAYER OF PLASTER WORK.
CINDER BLOCK – A LIGHT WEIGHT MASONRY UNIT MADE OF CINDER CONCRETE.
MORTAR FOR BLOCK LAYING IS 0.0125 m.
PLASTERING THICKNESS IS 0.016 m.
MORTAR FILLER FOR HOLLOW CELL 0.05 X 0.075 X 0.20 = 0.00075 cu.m.
FOR 4 CELL/BLOCK = 0.00075 X 4 = 0.003 cu.m. FOR 4” CHB.
FERROUS AND NONFERROUS METALS
FERROUS- METAL IN WHICH IRON IS THE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT.
NONFERROUS- CONTAINING NO, OR VERY LITTLE IRON.
FERROUS METAL:
STEEL- A MALLEABLE ALLOY OF IRON AND CARBON PRODUCED BY MELTING AND REFINING
PIG IRON AND/ OR SCRAP STEEL, GRADED ACCORDING TO THE CARBON CONTENT.
PRODUCE BY THREE BASIC RAW MATERIALS, IRON ORE, AND LIMESTONE. FIVE PARTICLES OF
ALL THREE BASIC INGREDIENTS OF STEEL, WHICH OTHERWISE WOULD BE WASTE, ARE
BLENDED AND BURNED ON A MOVING GATE TO CAUSE THE FORMATION OF CLINKERS. THESE
ARE CALLED SINTER, A HIGH- GRADE BLAST-FURNANCE CHARGE MATERIAL.
FROM THESE, RAW MATERIALS WHICH IS MELTED INTO INGOTS PLACE IN MOLDS, A
GRAT VARIETY OF PRODUCTS USED IN CONSTRUCTION ARE MADE. THEY INCLUDED:
COLD-ROLLED SHEETS ARE GALVANIZED (GIVEN A ZINC COATING). PIG IRON IS
USED TO MAKE CAST IRON WHICH IS HIGH IN COMPRESSIVE STRENGHT BUT LOW IN
TENSILE STRENGHT, AND HAS LITTLE USE FOR CONSTRUCTION. HOWEVER SINCE IT IS
CHEAP AND EASY TO CAST, IT IS USED FOR PUMPS, MOTORS, ENGINES AND BECAUSE OF
ITS CORROSION RESISTANCE IT IS USED FOR PIPES TO SOME EXTENT.
WROUGHT IRON IS PRODUCED WHEN PIG IRON IS MELTED IN SUCH A WAY AS TO
REMOVE NEARLY ALL OF THE CARBON AND OTHER IMPURITIES. IT IS EASILY WORKED AND
IS TOUGH AND DUCTILE. IT’S MAIN USES ARE FOR WIRE AND METAL ORNAMENTS.
STAINLESS STEELS ARE MADE WITH CHROMIUM OR A COMBINATION OF NICKEL AND
CHROMIUM USED IN BUILDINGS OF EXTERIOR WALLS PANELS, FRAMES FOR DOORS
EXPANSION JOINTS, FLASHING, COPINGS, FASCIA AND GRAVEL STOPS.
COPPER- BEARING STEEL HAS HIGH RESISTANCE TO CORROSION AND IS USED FOR
MAKING SHEET STEEL AND METAL LATH.

STEEL PRODUCTS
ROLLED STRUCTURAL SHAPES
SHEET PILING- SECTIONS ARE MADE TO INTERLOCK AND ARE AVAILABLE IN SEVERAL
SHAPE.
STEEL PIPE- SEAMLESS OR WELDED SMALL DIAMETER PIPE AND ELECTRICALLY WELDED
LARGE DIAMETER PIPE.
REINFORCING STEEL- MADE FROM NEW STEEL OR FROM DISCARDED RAILWAY- CAR
AXLES OR RAILS.
REINFORCING STEEL COMES IN PLAIN OR DEFORMED BARS, THAT IS, BARS WHICH
HAVE LUGS OR DEFORMATIONS ROLLED ON THE SURFACE TO PROVIDE ARCHORAGE IN
CONCRETE.
SIZES-START WITH NO.2 OR ¼ in. (DIVIDE A NUMBER OF BAR BY 8 TO GET THE
EQUIVALENT IN inch DIAMETER)
No. 2= ¼ “ = 6 mm.
No. 3= 3/8” = 10 mm.
 No. 4= ½” = 12mm.
No. 5= 5/8” = 16mm.
No. 6= ¾” = 20mm.
No. 7= 7/8” = 22mm.
No. 8= 1” = 25mm.
No. 9= 1 1/8 = 30mm.

WELDED WIRE FABRIC- ANOTHER TYPE OF REINFORCING MATERIAL. IT CONSISTS

OF PARALLEL, LONGITUDINAL WIRES WELDED TO TRANSVERSE WIRES AT REGULAR
INTERVALS.
STEEL WIRE – OVER 150,000 USES FOR WIRE INCLUDING PINS, NEEDLES, NAILS,
BOLTS, CABLES, PIANO WIRE, FENCES.
BOLTS AND NUTS – (EITHER HOT FORGED OR COLD-FORMED FROM WIRE OF THE
APPROPRIATE DIAMETER). FOR BOLTS, WIRE IS FED INTO AN AUTOMATIC BOLT-
MAKING MACHINE WHICH CUTS TO LENGTH HEADS, TRIMS, POINTS, AND IN MANY
ROLLS THE THREAD.
STEEL STRAPPING – MADE FROM HIGH-TENSILE FLAT WIRE IN A NUMBER OF SIZES.
USED FOR BANDING COLUMN FORMS TO KEEP THEM FROM BULGING UNDER THE
PRESSURE OF FRESHLY POURED CONCRETE. A TIGHTERNER TIGHTENS IT AND THE
TWO LAPPED ENDS IS SEALED.
OPEN WEB STEEL JOISTS – LIGHTWEIGHT WARREN-TYPE TRUSSES MADE IN SEVERAL
DIFFERENT STYLES.
SHEET STEEL – BLACK AND GALVANIZED, CAN BE USED TO MANUFACTURE
CORRUGATED ROOFING AND SIDING AND FORMED STEEL DECKING.
STEEL STUDS – LIGHTWEIGHT, REQUIRING MINIMUM STORAGE SPACE AND DOES
NOT WARP OR SHRINK. FASTENERS DO NOT POP, AND JOINTS STAY CLOSED. MUCH
FASTER TO INSTALL THAN WOOD STUD INSTALLATION. AVAILABLE IN 1 5/8, 2 ½ AND 3
5/8 INCHES. PLUMBING STACKS AND ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS FIT EASILY INTO A
STEEL-FRAMEWALL.
PANS AND DONES – MANUFACTURED FOR USE IN FORMING ONE-WAY AND TWO-
WAY RIBBED CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEMS.

NONFERROUS METALS:
ALUMINUM – ITS ORE, BAUXITE, REQUIRES 10 KILOWATT HOURS FOR EACH POUND OF
METAL ALUMINUM EXTRACTED. THE REDDISH BROWN ORE IS WASHED AND TREATED IN A
SODA SOLUTION TO YIELD A CHALKY-WHITE POWDER CALLED ALUMNA, CONTAINING A
HIGH CONCENTRATION OF ALUMINUM.
ALUMINUM FOIL – USED AS A VAPOR BARRIER ON WALLS AND CEILINGS AND AS
REFLECTIVE INSULATION.
COPPER – A LUSTROUS REDDISH METAL, HIGHLY DUCTILE AND MALLEABLE; HAS HIGH
TENSILE STRENGTH, IS AN EXCELLENT ELECTRICAL AND THERMAL CONDUCTOR, IS
AVAILABLE IN A WIDE VARIETY OF SHAPES; WIDELY USED FOR DOWNSPOUTS, ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTORS, FLASHINGS GUTTERS, ROOFING, ETC.
COPPER ALLOYS ARE BRASSES, AND BRONZES WHICH CONTAIN PRIMARILY ZINC
AND TIN, RESPECTIVELY, AND THE ALLOYS CONTAINING NICKEL.
BRASSES ARE USED IN ARCHITECTURAL AND HARDWARE APPLICTIONS. BRONZES
ARE USED IN THE PRODUCTION OF SPRINGS.
LEAD – A SOFT, MALLEABLE, HEAVY METAL; HAS LOW MELTING POINT AND A HIGH
COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION. VERY EASY TO CUT AND WORK, ENABLING IT TO BE
FITTED OVER UNEVEN SURFACES. USED FOR ROOFING, FLASHING AND SPANDREL WALL
PANELS.
 TIN – A LUSTROUS WHITE, SOFT AND MALLEABLE METAL HAVING A LOW MELTING
POINT; RELATIVELY UNAFFECTED BY EXPOSURE TO AIR; USED FOR MAKING ALLOYS AND
SOLDER AND IN COATING SHEET METAL.

STRUCTURAL SHAPES
THE MOST COMMON SHAPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL USED IN BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION ARE THE AMERICAN STANDARD FORMS SUCH AS:
1. SQUARE BARS 6. I-BEAM
2. ROUND BARS 7. TEE BEAM
3. PLATE BARS 8. H-COLUMN
4. ANGLE BARS 9. WIDE FLANGES
5. CHANNELS 10. ZEE
STANDARD CHANNEL
THE STANDARD CHANNEL HAS THE SHAPE OF UNSYMMETRICAL BALANCE CONSISTING
OF TWO FLANGES ON ONE SIDE. IT THEREFORE REQUIRES LATERAL SUPPORT TO PREVENT
ITS TENDENCY TO BUCKLE. THE STANDARD CHANNELS ARE GENERALLY USED AS ELEMENTS
OF BUILT-UP SECTIONS FOR COLUMNS AND ARE ALSO SUITABLE FOR FRAMING AROUND
FLOOR OPENINGS, SPANDRELS, AND LINTELS ATTRIBUTED TO THE ABSENCE OF FLANGE ON
THE OTHER SIDE. THE CHANNEL SECTION IS IDENTIFIRD AS C 15 x 20 WHICH MEANS THAT
THE CHANNEL HAS A DEPTH OF 20 cm. AND WEIGHTS 15 kg. PER METER LENGTH.
WIDE FLANGE
WIDE FLANGE SECTIONS ARE DESIGNATED AS W 12 x 24 WHICH MEANS THAT THE
FLANGE HAS A DEPTH OF 24 cm. AND IT WEIGHS 12 kg. PER METER LENGTH. ALL WIDE
FLANGE SECTIONS ARE GENERALLY WITH PARALLEL FACE FLANGE EXCEPT THOSE WITH 5%
SLOPE INSIDE FACE PRODUCED BY BETLEHEM STEEL COMPANY. COMPARATIVELY, WIDE
FLANGE SECTIONS ARE MORE EFFICIENT THAN STANDARD I BEAM WITH RESPECT TO
BENDING RESISTANCE.
STANDARD I-BEAM
THE USE OF I-BEAM AS A COLUMN IS UNECONOMICAL, BECAUSE THE WHIRL OR
REVOLVING ACTION OF THE STRUCTURE ABOUT AN AXIS THROUGH THE CENTROID PARALLEL
TO THE WAB OF THE I-BEAM IS COMPARATIVELY SMALL.
H-BEARING PILES
H-BEARING PILES ALTHOUGH SUITABLE FOR PILE DRIVING ON DEEP EXCAVATIONS IS
MUCH MORE SUITABLE THAN THE I-BEAM FOR COLUMNS.
ZEE SECTIONS
THE ZEE SECTION IS ANOTHER STRUCTURAL FORM IN A LETTER Z WHICH IS NOT
FREQUENTLY USED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION EXEPT ON THE FABRICATION OF STEEL
WINDOWS AND OTHER FRAMES.
WROUGHT IRON – A COMMERCIALLY PURE IRON OF FIBROUS NATURE, VALUED FOR ITS
CORROSION RESISTANCE AND DUCTILITY.
CAST IRON – AN IRON ALLOY USUALLY INCLUDING CARBON AND SILICON WHICH HAS
HIGH COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH BUT LOW TENSILE STRENGTH.
WELDING – IS THE PROCESS BY WHICH TWO METALS ARE SO JOINT THAT THERE IS AN
ACTUAL UNION OF THE INTERATOMIC BONDS.
EXTRUSION – THE PROCESS OF PRODUCING METAL SHAPES OF A CONSTANT CROSS
SECTION BY FORCING THE HOT METAL THROUGH AN ORFICE IN A DIE BY MEANS OF A
PRESSURE RAM.
RED OXIDE – PROTECTIVE COAT FOR IRON.
LAP SEAM – A JOINT FORMED BY OVERLAPPING THE EDGES OF METAL SHEET OR PLATES
AND JOINING THEM BY RIVETING OR SOLDERING OR BRACING.
JOINING STEEL MEMBERS

STEEL SHAPES CAN BE JOINED INTO A BUILDING FRAME WITH ANY OF THREE
FASTENING TECHNIQUES.
RIVETS
A RIVETS IS A FASTENER CONSISTING OF A CYLINDRICAL BODY AND A FORMED
HEAD WHICH IS BROUGHT TO A WHITE HEAT, INSERTED THROUGH HOLES IN THE MEMBERS
TO BE JOINED, AND HOT-WORKED WITH A PNEUMATIC HAMMER TO PRODUCED A SECOND
HEAD OPPOSITE THE FIRSTHEAD.

PROCESS OF RIVETING:
A) A HOT STEEL RIVET IS INSERTED IN HOLES THROUGH THE TWO MEMBERS TO
BE JOINED,
B) ITS HEAD IS THEN HELD WITH HAND HAMMER WITH A CUP-SHAPED
DEPRESSION,
C) WHILE A PNEUMATIC HAMMER DRIVES A RIVET SET REPEATEDLY AGAINST
THE BODY OF THE RIVET TO FORM THE SECOND HEAD,
D) THE RIVET SHRINKS AS IT COOLS, DRAWING MEMBERS TIGHTLY TOGETHER.

BOLTS
THE BOLTS COMMONLY USED IN STEEL FRAME CONSTRUCTION FALL INTO TWO
GENERAL CATEGORIES:
1) CARBON STEEL BOLTS – OR COMMON BOLTS ARE SIMILAR TO THE ORDINARY
MACHINE BOLTS THAT CAN BE PURCHASED IN HARDWARE STORES.
2) HIGH-STRENGTH BOLTS – ARE HEAT TREATED DURING MANUFACTURE TO
DEVELOP THE NECESSARY STRENGTH. IT IS USUALLY TIGHTENED USING
PNEUMATIC OR ELECTRIC IMPACT WRENCH.
A MAJOR PROBLEM IN HIGH-STRENGTH BOLTING OR FRICTION-TYPE CONNECTIONS IS
HOW TO VERIFY THE NECESSARY TENSION HAS BEEN ACHIEVED IN ALL THE BOLTS IN A
CONNECTION.

SEVERAL WAY TO ACHIEVED PROPER TIGHTENING:

TURN-OF-NUT METHOD
LOAD INDICATOR WASHER
TENSION CONTROL BOLTS

PROCESS OF TIGHTENING A TENSION CONTROL BOLT:

A) THE WRENCH HOLDS BOTH THE NUT AND THE SPLINED BODY OF THE BOLT, AND
TURNS THEM AGAINST ONE ANOTHER TO TIGHTEN THE BOLT,
B) WHEN THE REQUIRED TORQUE IS ACHIEVED, THE SPLINED END TWISTS OFF IN THE
WRENCH,
C) A PLUNGER INSIDE THE WRENCH DISCHARGES THE SPLINED END INTO A
CONTAINER.
WELDING

WELDING CAN JOIN THE MEMBERS OF A STEEL FRAME AS IF THEY WERE A MONOLITHIC
WHOLE. WELDED ARE STRONGER THAN THE MEMBERS THEY JOIN IN RESISTING BOTH SHEAR
AND MOMENT FORCES.
TYPICAL WELDS USED IN STEEL FRAME CONSTRUCTION:
FILLET WELD
 DOUBLE FILLET WELD
DOUBLE-BEVEL GROOVE WELD
SINGLE-BEVEL GROOVE WELD WITH BACKUP BAR
V-GROOVE WELD
V-GROOVE WELD WITH BACKUP BAR
PUDDLE WELD
PARTIAL-PENETRATION SINGLE-BEVEL GROOVE WELD

THE BASIC SYBOLS ARE:

BACK FILLET PLUG OR SLOT
GROOVE OR BUTT
SQUARE V BEVEL U J FLARE V FLARE BEVEL

THE ARROW

THE REFERENCE LINE CARRIES THE DESCRIPTIVE SYMBOLS

THE ARROW POINTS TO THE WELD

THE BASIC SYMBOLS

THE BASIC WELD SYMBOL IS LOCATED ON EITHER SIDE OF THE REFERENCE LINE AS
FOLLOWS:

SYMBOLS ON THE TOP OF THE REFERENCE LINE REFER TO WELDS ON THE SIDE OF THE JOINT
OPPOSITE THE

ARROW

SYMBOLS ON THE BOTTOM OF THE REFERENCE LINE

REFER TO WELDS ON THE SAME SIDE OF THE JOINT AS
AS THE ARROW

SUPPLEMENTARY SYMBOLS
FIELD WELD – THIS WELD BE DONE IN THE FIELD DURING ERECTION. OTHER WELDS ARE
DONE EARLIER IN THE FABRICATOR’S SHOP.
WELD ALL AROUND – THIS INDICATES THAT THE WELD SHOULD BE CARRIED FULLY AROUND
THE PERIMETER OF THE JOINING PIECES.
BACKUP BAR – AS INDICATED IN THIS EXAMPLE, A BACKUP BAR TO SUPPORT THE FIRST PASS
OF THE WELD MUST BE PLACED ON THE SIDE OF THE JOINT OPPOSITE THE ARROW.
SPACER – SMALL METAL SPACERS ARE USED TO MAINTAIN A GAP BETWEEN THE PIECS TO BE
JOINED, PRIOR TO WELDING.
A SHARP BEND NEAR THE END OF THE ARROW INDICATES THAT THE ARROWHEAD IS
POINTING TOWARD THE GROOVED SIDE OF THE BEVEL OR J-GROOVED JOINT
GLASS
THE MAJOR INGREDIENT OF GLASS IS SAND (SILICON DIOXIDE). A HARD BRITTLE
INORGANIC SUBSTANCE, ORDINARILY TRANSPARENT OR TRANSLUCENT; PRODUCED BY
MELTING A MIXTURE OF SILICA, A FLUX AND A STABILIZER; WHILE MOLTEN MAYBE BLOWN,
DRAWN, ROLLED, PRESSED OR CAST TO A VARIETY OF SHAPES.
DURING ITS MANUFACTURED, ORDINARY WINDOW GLASS IS ANNEALED, COOLED
SLOWLY UNDER CONTROLLED CONDITION, TO AVOID LOCKED-IN THERMAL STRESSES THAT
MIGHT CAUSE IT TO BEHAVE UNPREDICTABLY IN USE.
THICKNESSES OF GLASS
GLASS IS TYPICALLY MANUFACTURED IN A SERIES OF THICKNESSES RANGING FROM
APPROXIMATELY 2.5mm, THROUGH 3mm, IS CALLED SINGLE-STRENGTH, OR 6mm TO 22mm, IS
CALLED DOUBLE-STRENGTH, AND ON SPECIAL ORDER, 25mm IS AVAILABLE.
TYPES OF CLEAR GLASS
1. TEMPERED GLASS
TEMPERED GLASS IS PRODUCED BY CUTTING ANNEALED GLASS TO THE
REQUIRED SIZES FOR USE, REHEATING IT TO APPROXIMATELY 1200 DEGREES
FAHRENHEIT, COOLING BOTH ITS SURFACES RAPIDLY WITH A BLAST OF AIR WHILE ITS
CORE COOLS MUCH MORE SLOWLY. ITS FOUR TIMES AS STRONG IN BENDING AND
MORE RESISTANT TO THERMAL STRESS AND IMPACT.
2. HEAT-STRENGTHENED GLASS
THE HEAT STRENGTHENED PROCESS IS SIMILAR TO TEMPERING, BUT ITS, ABOUT
ONE-THIRD AS HIGH AS TEMPERED GLASS IN TERMS OF BENDING AND STRENGTH.
3. LAMINATED GLASS

ITS MADE BY SANDWICHING A TRANSPARENT VINYL INTERLAER BETWEEN SHEETS OF

GLASS AND BONDING THE THREE LAYERS TOGETHER UNDER HEAT AND PRESSURE.
WHEN ITS BREAKS, THE SOFT VINYL HOLDS THE SHARDS OF GLASS IN PLACE RATHER
THAN ALLOWING THEM TO FALL OUT OF THE FRAME.
4. PATTERNED OR ROLLED AND ROUGH CAST GLASS
HOT GLASS CAN BE ROLLED INTO SHEETS WITH MANY DIFFERENT SURFACE PATTERNS
FOR USE WHERE LIGHT TRANSMISSION IS DESIRED BUT VISION MUST BE OBSCURED FOR
PRIVACY.
5. SPANDREL GLASS
SPECIAL OPAQUE GLASSES ARE PRODUCED FOR COVERING THE SPANDREL AREA (THE
BANDS OF WALL AROUND THE EDGES OF FLOORS) IN GLASS CURTAIN. IT IS USUALLY
TEMPERED OR HEAT-STRENGTHENED TO RESIST THE THERMAL STRESSES THAT CAN
CAUSED BY ACCUMULATIONS OF SOLAR HEAT BEHIND THE SPANDREL.
6. WIRED GLASS
SIMPLY A ROLLED GLASS INTO WHICH WIRE MESH IS INSERTED DURING THE PROCESS
OF MANUFACTURE. THE WIRE GREATLY INCREASES THE RESISTANCE TO SHATTERING
THROUGH IMPACT. ITS USE FOR SAFETY GLAZING, WHEN ITS BREAKS FROM THERMAL
STRESS, THE WIRES HOLD THE SHEET OF GLASS TOGETHER.
TINTED AND REFLECTIVE COATED GLASS
SOLAR HEAT BUILDUP CAN BE PROBLEMATIC IN THE INHABITED SPACES OF BUILDINGS
WITH LARGE AREAS OF GLASS, ESPECIALLY DURING THE WARM PART OF THE YEAR. THIS IS
USE TO REDUCE GLARE AND CUT DOWN ON SOLAR HEAT GAIN.
1) TINTED GLASS
TINTED GLASS IS MADE BY ADDING SMALL AMOUNTS OF SELECTED CHEMICAL
ELEMENTS TO THE MOLTEN GLASS MIXTURE TO PRODUCE THE DESIRED HUE AND
INTENSITY OF COLOR IN GRAYS, BRONZES, BLUES, GREEN, AND GOLDS.
2) REFLECTIVE COATED GLASS
REFLECTIVE COATED GLASS APPEAR AS MIRROR FROM THE OUTSIDE ON A BRIGHT DAY
AND AT NIGHT, WITH LIGHTS ON INSIDE THE BUILDING, THEY APPEAR AS DARK BUT
TRANSPARENT GLASS.
3) INSULATING GLASS
A SECOND SHEET OF GLASS APPLIED TO A WINDOW WITH AN AIRSPACE BETWEEN THE
SHEETS CUTS THIS RATE OF HEAT LOSS IN HALF. TWO KINDS OF EDGES SEALS ARE
FUSED GLASS EDGES AND A METAL SPLINE AND ORGANIC SEALANT.
GLASS PRODUCTS
I. GLASS BLOCKS
COMPARABLE IN MANY WAYS TO UNIT MASONRY BUT HAVE THE ADDED FEATURE OF
TRANSMITTING LIGHT. THEY ARE MADE INTO TWO SEPARATE HALVES, WHICH ARE
HEAT-SEALED TOGETHER TO FORM A HOLLOW UNIT WITH REASONBLY HIGH THERMAL
EFFICIENCY AND SOUND INSULATION. THE EDGE SURFACES OF THE BLOCK ARE
COATED WITH A GRITTY MORTAR BOND.
TWO TYPES:
1. FUNCTIONAL BLOCKS – DIRECT OR DIFFUSE THE DAYLIGHT WHICH PASSES THEOUGH
THEM TO IMPROVE THE ILLUMINATION OF THE BUILDING INTERIOR.
THREE STYLES OF FUNCTIONAL BLOCKS:
A. A LIGHT DIRECTING BLOCK – DIRECTS INCOMING LIGHT UPWARD TOWARD THE
CEILING. USED ALWAYS ABOVE EYE LEVEL.
B. A LIGHT DIFFUSING BLOCK – DIFFUSES INCOMING LIGHT EVENLY THROUGHOUT THE
INTERIOR OF THE ROOM.
C. GENERAL PURPOSES BLOCK
2. DECORATIVELY OR ARCHITECTURAL GLASS – AVAILABLE IN A WIDE RANGE OF STYLES
AND PATTERNS. THESE GLASS MASONRY UNITS PROVIDE ALMOST UNLIMITED DESIGN
VERSATILITY WHEN USED IN WINDOW, OPENINGS AND FACADES, AS INTERIOR WALLS
AND DIVIDER PANELING.

PAINT FINISHES
THE PURPOSE OF A FINISH IS TO PROTECT, PRESERVE OR VISUALLY ENHANCE THE
SURFACE TO WHICH IT IS APPLIED. FINISHES INCLUDE PLASTIC LAMINATED SURFACE
COVERINGS SUCH AS PLASTIC LAMINATED AND VINYL OF FABRIC WALL COVERING.
PAINT GENERALLY REFERS TO OPAQUE OR CLEAR FILM-FORMING MATERIAL THAT
ACTS AS A SHIELD OR BARRIER BETWEEN THE BUILDING MATERIAL AND THOSE ELEMENTS OR
CONDITIONS THAT MAY ADVERSELY AFFECTS OR DETERIORATE. THE PAINT FILM MUST
RESIST DETERIORATION DUE TO SUNLIGHT HEAT, TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS, WATER OR
MOISTURE VAPOR, MILDEW AND DECAY CHEMICALS AND PHYSICAL ABRASION. PAINT MAY
ALSO SERVE TO MAKE SURFACES MORE SANITARY, IMPROVE HEATING AND LIGHTING
EFFECTS, AND PROMOTE HUMAN COMFORT AND SAFETY.
WHEN USING PAINT, THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF COLOR AND SURFACE TEXTURE
MUST BE CONSIDERED. CERTAIN COLORS MAY BE STIMULATING WHILE OTHERS ARE
RELAXING. WHITE AND LIGHT COLORS REFLECT SIZE OF FORM AND SPACE. DARK COLOR
CAN INHIBIT THE PERCEPTION OF FORM AND MAY BE USED FOR CONTRAST. FLAT PAINT
FINISHES SOFTEN AND DISTRIBUTE, ILLUMINATION EVENLY. GLOSSY FINISHES REFLECT
LIGHT AND CAN CAUSE GLARE, BUT THEY ALSO PROVIDE SMOOTH, EASILY CLEANED, NON-
ABSORPTIVE SURFACES.
MOST PAINTS ARE CAREFULLY FORMULATED TO MEET SPECIFIC APPLICATION THAT
USE REQUIREMENTS AND ARE READY-MIXED FOR APPLICATION EXCEPT FOR THINNING,
STIRRING, OR THE ADDITION OF AN ACTIVATOR OR CATALYST. IT IS ALWAYS ADVISABLE
THEREFORE TO FOLLOW THE PAINT MANUFACTURERS RECOMMENDATIONS IN THE
APPLICATION AND USE OF A PAINT OR OTHER PROTECTIVE COATING.
PAINTS MAY BE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO:
MATERIAL TO WHICH IT IS APPLIED
WOOD, METAL MASONRY, CONCRETE, PLASTIC, ETC.,
SURFACE FINISH TEXTURE
GLOSS, SEMI-GLOSS, EGG SHELL, SATIN, FLAT,& VARNISH.
CONSIDERATIONS IN THE SELECTION AND USE OF A PAINT INCLUDE:
SURFACE PREPARATION
- THE FOUNDATION OF ANY PAINT SYSTEM MUST BE PROPERLY PREPARED TO ENSURE
PROPER ADHESION OF THE PAINT FILM TO ITS SURFACE.
TYPE OF PAINT
- PAINT MUST BE COMPATIBLE WITH THE MATERIAL TO WHICH IT IS APPLIED.
- SPECIFICATIONS INCLUDE THE PAINT VEHICLE, FINISH COLOR, EXPOSURE, AND
MANUFACTURER AND/OR TRADE NAME.
METHOD
- DEPENDING ON THE TYPE OF PAINT AND THE MATERIAL TO WHICH IT IS BEING APPLIED.
COATINGS MAY BE BRUSHED, ROLLED OR SPRAYED ON.
DRYING
- THE TIME AND CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR A PAINT TO DRY MUST BE CHECKED.

FILM THICKNESS
- THE DRY FILM THICKNESS (DFT) IS MORE IMPORTANT THAN THE NUMBER OF COATS.
- MULTIPLE THIN COATS ARE GENERALLY MORE EFFECTIVE THAN A SINGLE THICK COAT.
- A MINIMUM OF 2 COATS IS REQUIRED TO PRODUCE 5 MIL DFT.
COVERAGE
- A PAINT’S COVERAGE CAN BE ESTIMATED BY ITS PERCENTAGE OF VOLUME SOLIDS:
- ie. PAINT WITH 100% VOLUME SOLIDS:
(NO THINNER)
1 GAL COVERS
1600 SF (149 m2) @ 1 MIL DFT
800 SF ( 74 m2) @ 2 MIL DFT
400 SF ( 37 m2) @ 4 MIL DFT

-PAINT WITH 50% VOLUME SOLIDS

(50% THINNER)
1 GAL COVERS
800 SF (74 m2) @ 1 MIL DFT
400 SF (37 m2) @ 2 MIL DFT

PAINT GENERALLY CONSIST OF:

PIGMENT – FINELY GROUND SOLIDS THAT PROVIDE THE PAINTS COVERINGS OR
HIDING POWER OR ITS COLOR.
VEHICLE – LIQUID MEDIUM TO CARRY THE PIGMENT IN SUSPENSION DURING
APPLICATION. AND CONSISTS OF BINDERS AND SOLVENTS.
BINDER SERVE TO FORM THE PAINT FILM AND CAUSE IT TO ADHERE THE SURFACE
BEING PAINTED.
BINDERS ARE LARGELY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE PROTECTIVE QUALITY AND DURABILITY
OF THE PAINT FIL OR PROTECTIVE COATING.
SOLVENTS OR THINNERS ACTS DRYING AGENTS.
DEPENDING ON THE TYPE OF SOLVENT USED, A PAINT MAY DRY OR HARDEN BY
OXIDATION, EVAPORATION, CHEMICAL ACTION, OR BY THERMOSETTING ACTION AT
ELEVATED TEMPERATURES.

COLOR
DEPENDS ON THE TYPE OF PAINT AND THE MANUFACTURER.
EXPOSURE
EXTERIOR OR INTERIOR

CHARACTERISTICS:
PIGMENTED COATING
LACQUER AND ENAMEL PAINTS
CLEAR COATINGS
VARNISHES, LACQUERS, SHEELAC, SEALERS
RUST INHIBITIVE COATINGS
ZINC-PIGMENTED COATINGS
ZINC, SILICONS, ALKYD, OR ASPHALT OR BASE COATINGS
ASPHALT OR TAR COATINGS THAT FORM NON-PEMEABLE BARRIERS AGAINST WATER
AND OXYGEN TO PROTECT SUBMERGED FERROUS METAL AND TO WATERPROOF
MASONRY SURFACES.

CEMENT MORTAR COATINGS

MIXTURE OF PORTLAND CEMENT, LIME AND WATER USED TO DAMPPROOF MASONRY
MATERIALS AND PROTECT EXPOSED STEEL
PLASTIC AND SYNTHETIC RUBBER COATINGS
COATING RESISTANT TO MILDEW, MOLD, FUMES, MARINE ENVIRONMENTS ETC.,

PAINTS MAY BE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO ITS VEHICLE OR BINDER:

ALKYDS – USED FOR EXTERIOR PAINTS.
OIL MODIFIED RESINS THAT HARDEN BY OXIDATION AND EVAPORATION.
THE MOST COMMON PAINT VEHICLE
FAST DRYING A HARDER THAN ORDINARY TIME, LOWERS THE GLOSS, AND IMPROVES
THE PAINTS WETTING PROPERTIES, DURABILITY AND ELASTICITY TO RESIST BLISTERING.
HAVE GOOD DRYING PROPERTIES, DURABILITY AND WATER RESISTANCE FOR EXTERIOR
EXPOSURES, AND GOOD COLOR RETENTION.
ASPHALT – USED FOR WATERPROOFING AT FIREWALL AND ROOF DECKING.
COATINGS WITH A VEHICLE OF BOTH PETROLEUM AND NATURAL ASPHALTS ARE USED
TO PROTECT WOOD, MASONRY, CONCRETE AND AS ROOF COATING.
HAVE GOOD WATER RESISTANCES BUT THERMOPLASTIC IN NATURE.
ADDITION OF ALUMINUM GLAKES HELPS TO REFLECT THE SUN’S RAYS.
ADDITION OF EPOXY RESINS MINIMIZES THE COLD FLOW AND MAXIMIZES THE
CHEMICAL-RESISTANCE OF ASPHALT.

CHLORINATED RUBBER – USED FOR INDUSTRIAL FLOORING.

USED IN COATINGS HIGHLY RESISTANT TO ALKALIES, ACIDS, CHEMICALS, AND WATER
MAY BE REMOVED BY COAL TAR SOLVENTS
HAS LIMITED RESISTANCE TO PROLONGED HEAT EXPOSURE
USED IN SWIMMING POOLS, WATER TREATMENT PLANTS
EPOXY CATALYZED – USED FOR DUCO FINISH.
TWO COMPONENT COATINGS CONSISTING OF A PIGMENTED PRIMER OR ENAMEL AND
AN ACTIVATOR OR CATALYST.
MIXED JUST PRIOR TO USE – HAS LIMITED “POT LIFE”
PRODUCES BY CHEMICAL ACTION A DENSE, HARD FILM SIMILAR TO BAKED ENAMEL.
HAS EXCELLENT RESISTANT TO SOLVENTS, CHEMICALS, PHYSICAL ABRASION, TRAFFIC
WEAR, A CLEANING MATERIALS
HAS GOOD ADHESION PROPERTIES, COLOR RETENTION AND STAIN RESISTANCE.
HAS GOOD DURABILITY FOR EXTERIOR EXPOSURE BUT MAY CHALK.
HARDWARE
HARDWARE - METAL PRODUCTS USED IN CONSTRUCTION, SUCH AS BOLTS, HINGES, LOCKS,
TOOLS, ETC. THEY ARE CLASSIFIED AS:
FINISHING HARDWARE – HARDWARE, SUCH AS HINGES LOCKS, CATCHES, ETC. THAT
HAS A FINISHED APPEARANCE AS WELL AS FUNCTION, ESP. THAT USED WITH DOORS,
WINDOWS, AND CABINETS, MAYBE CONSIDERED PART OF THE DECORATIVE TREATMENT OF
A ROOM OR BUILDING.
ROUGH HARDWARE – IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION, HARDWARE MEANT TO BE
CONCEALED, SUCH AS BOLTS, NAILS, SCREWS, SPIKES, RODS, AND OTHER METAL FITTINGS.

SOME FINISHING HARDWARE BRANDS:

1. SARGENT 7. RABBIT
2. STANLEY 8. UNIVERSAL
3. YALE 9. EAGLE
4. CORBIN 10. MASTER
5. SCHLAGE 11. ALPHA
6. KWIKSET 12. YETI

DOORS – AN ENTRANCE WAY

TYPES OF DOOR:
FLUSH – A SMOOTH-SURFACED DOOR HAVING FACES WHICH ARE PLANE WHICH
CONCEAL ITS RAILS AND STILES OR OTHER STRUCTURE WHEN USED INSIDE, IT IS OF
HOLLOW CORE, WHEN USED FOR EXTERIOR IT IS OF SOLID CORE.
PANEL DOOR – A DOOR HAVING STILES, RAILS AND SOMETIMES MUNTINS, WHICH
FORM ONE OR MORE FRAMES AROUND RECESSED THINNER PANELS.

KINDS OF DOORS:
SWINGING DOOR
OVERHEAD SWING-UP GARAGE DOOR – A RIGID OVERHEAD DOOR WHICH OPENS AS
AN ENTIRE UNIT.
OVERHEAD ROLL-UP GARAGE DOOR – A DOOR WHICH, WHEN OPEN, ASSUMES A
HORIZONTAL POSITION ABOVE THE DOOR OPENING, MADE OF SEVERAL LEAVES.
ROLL-UP DOOR (SOLID OR SEE-THROUGH ALUMINUM SHUTTERS) A DOOR MADE UP OF
SMALL HORIZONTAL INTERLOCKING METAL SLATS WHICH ARE GUIDED IN A TRACK: THE
CONFIGURATION COILS ABOUT AN OVERHEAD DRUM WHICH IS HOUSED AT THE HEAD OF
THE OPENING, EITHER MANUAL OR MOTOR - DRIVEN.
ACCORDION DOOR – A HINGED DOOR CONSISTING OF A SYSTEM OF PANELS WHICH
ARE HUNG FROM AN OVERHEAD TRACK. WHEN THE DOOR IS OPEN, THE FACES OF THE
PANELS CLOSE FLAT AGAINST EACH OTHER. WHEN THE DOOR IS CLOSED, THE EDGES OF
ADJACENT PANELS BUTT AGAINST (OR INTERLOCK) EACH OTHER TO FORM A SOLID
BARRIER.
BI-FOLDING DOOR - ONE OF TWO OR MORE DOORS WHICH ARE HINGED TOGETHER
SO THAT THEY CAN OPEN AND FOLD IN A CONFINED SPACE.
REVOLVING DOOR - AN EXTERIOR DOOR CONSISTING OF FOUR LEAVES (AT 900 TO
EACH OTHER) WHICH PIVOT ABOUT A COMMON VERTICAL AXIS WITHIN A
CYLINDRICALLY SHAPED VESTIBULE, PREVENTS THE DIRECT PASSAGE OF AIR THROUGH
THE VESTIBULE, THEREBY ELIMINATING DRAFTS FROM OUTSIDE.
SLIDING DOOR - A DOOR MOUNTED ON TRACK WHICH SLIDES IN A HORIZONTAL
DIRECTION USUALLY PARALLEL TO ONE WALL.
BY-PASSING SLIDING DOOR - A SLIDING DOOR WHICH SLIDES TO COVER A FIXED
DOOR OF THE SAME WIDTH OR ANOTHER SLIDING DOOR.
 SLIDING POCKET DOOR - A DOOR WHICH SLIDES INSIDE A HOLLOW OF THE WALL.
DUTCH DOOR - A HINGED DOOR WHICH IS DIVIDED TO TWO. THE UPPER PART CAN BE
OPENED WHILE THE LOWER PORTION IS CLOSED.
FRENCH DOOR
FINISHING HARDWARES:
A. TO HUNG A DOOR
HINGE- A MOVABLE JOINT USED TO ATTACH SUPPORT AND TURN A DOOR ABOUT A
PIVOT, CONSISTS OF TWO PLATES JOINED TOGETHER BY A PIN WHICH SUPPORT THE DOOR
AND CONNECT IT TO ITS FRAME, ENABLING IT TO SWING OPEN OR CLOSED.
TYPES OF HINGES:
1. BUTT HINGE - CONSISTS OF TWO RECTANGULAR METAL PLATES WHICH ARE JOINED WITH
A PIN, IN LARGE HINGE, THE PIN IS REMOVABLE, IN SMALL HINGES, IT IS FIXED.
FAST PIN HINGE - A HINGE IN WHICH THE PIN IS FASTENED PERMANENTLY IN
PLACE.
FULL SURFACE HINGE - A HINGED DESIGNED FOR ATTACHMENT ON THE SURFACE
OF THE DOOR AND JAMB WITHOUT MORTISING.
LOOSE JOINT HINGE - A DOOR HINGED HAVING TWO KNUCKLES, ONE OF WHICH
HAS VERTICAL PIN THAT FITS IN A CORRESPONDING HOLE IN THE OTHER, BY LIFTING
THE DOOR UP, OFF THE VERTICAL PIN, THE DOOR MAY BE REMOVED WITH
UNSCREWING THE HINGED.
LOOSE PIN HINGE - A HINGE HAVING A REMOVABLE PIN WHICH PERMITS ITS TWO
PARTS TO BE SEPARATED.
PAUMELLE HINGED - A TYPE OF DOOR HINGE HAVING A SINGLE JOINT OF THE
PIVOT TYPE, USUALLY OF MODERN DESIGN.
OLIVE KNUCKLE HINGE - A PAUMELLE HINGE WITH KNUCKLES FORMING AN OVAL
SHAPE.
2. SPRING HINGES - A HINGE CONTAINING ONE OR MORE SPRINGS, WHEN A DOOR IS
OPENED, THE HINGE RETURNS IT TO OPEN POSITION AUTOMATICALLY, MAY ACT IN ONE
DIRECTION ONLY, OR IN BOTH DIRECTIONS.
DOUBLE ACTION - EXCELLENT FOR USE IN RESTAURANTS, HOSPITALS, KITCHENS,
THE DOOR OPENS BY JUST PUSHING IT WITH THE SHOULDER OR FEET.
SINGLE ACTION
3. PIVOT HINGE - THE AXLE OR PIN ABOUT WHICH A WINDOW OR DOOR ROTATES.
VERTICAL SPRING PIVOT HINGE- A SPRING HINGE FOR A DOOR WHICH IS
MORTISTED INTO THE HEEL OF THE DOOR, THE DOOR IS FASTENED TO THE FLOOR
AND DOOR HEAD WITH PIVOTS.
B. TO FIX ONE SASH
TYPES OF BOLT AND FASTENER:
CHAIN HEAD AND FOOT BOLT
DOOR OR BARREL BOLT
FLUSH BOLT
CHAIN DOOR FASTENER
C. TO LOCK THE DOOR
LOCKSET – A COMPLETE LOCK SYSTEM INCLUDING THE BASIC LOCKING MECHANISMS AND
ALL THE ACCESSORIES, SUCH AS KNOBS ESCUTCHEONS, PLATES, ETC.
BUTTON – A SMALL REJECTING MEMBER USED TO FASTEN THE FRAME OF A DOOR OR
WINDOW.
KNOB – A HANDLE, MORE OR LESS SPHERICAL USUALLY FOR OPERATING A LOCK.
ESCUTCHEON – A PROTECTIVE PLATE SURROUNDING THE KEYHOLE OF A DOOR.
PLATES – A THIN FLAT SHEET OF MATERIAL.
 STRIKES – A METAL PLATE OR BOX WHICH IS SET IN A DOORJAMB AND IS EITHER
PLACED OR RECESSED TO RECEIVE THE BOLT OR LATCH OF A LOCK, FIXED ON DOOR.
LIP STRIKE – THE PROJECTION FROM THE SIDE OF A TRIKE PLATE WHICH THE BOLT
OF A LOCK STRIKES FIRST, WHEN A DOOR IS CLOSED; PROJECTS OUT FROM THE SIDE
OF THE STRIKE PLATE TO PROTECT THE FRAME.

USE A DIFFERENT LOCKSET FOR EACH ROOM:

ENTRANCE LOCKSET – WITH A KEY AND UNIVERSAL BUTTON WHICH WHEN
PUSHED STAYS PUT AND LOCKS THE DOOR.
BEDROOM LOCKSET – SAME AS THE ENTRANCE LOCKSET BUT SIMPLER IN DESIGN.
TOILET LOCKSET – WITHOUT A KEY HAS A BUTTON THAT IS PUSHED TO LOCK
INSIDE.

KIND OF LOCKSET:
INTEGRAL LOCK – A TYPE OF MORTISE LOCK HAVING ITS CYLINDER IN THE KNOB.
CYLINDER LOCK – A BORED LOCK WHICH HAS A CYLINDRICAL CASE INTO WHICH
A SEPARATE LATCH CASE FITS.
LATCH – A SIMPLE FASTENING DEVISE HAVING A LATCH BOLT, BUT NOT A DEAD BOLT
CONTAINS NO PROVISIONS FOR LOCKING WITH A KEY.
NIGHT LATCH – KEY OPERATED LATCH WITH SAFETY PIN.
LIFT LATCH – A TYPE OF DOOR LATCH WHICH FASTENS A DOOR BY MEANS OF A PIVOTED
BAR THAT ENGAGES A HOOK ON THE DOOR JAMB, A LEVER WHICH LIFTS THE PIVOTED BAR
USED TO UNFASTEN THE DOOR.
RABBETED LOCK – A LOCK OR LATCH IN WHICH THE FACE IS FLUSH WITH THE RABBET ON A
RABBETED DOOR JAMB.
ROLLER LATCH – A TYPE OF DOOR LATCH HAS A ROLLER UNDER SPRING TENSION INSTEAD
OF A BEVELED SPRING BOLT, THE ROLLER ENGAGES A STRIKE PLATE, HAVING A RECESS
FORMED TO RECEIVE.
SCREEN DOOR LATCH – A SMALL LOCKING OR LATCHING DEVICE USED ON SCREEN DOORS
AND GENERATED BY A KNOB OR LEVER HANDLE, SOMETIMES EQUIPPED WITH A DEAD BOLT.
HASP – A FASTENING DEVICE CONSISTING OF A LOOP OR STAPLE AND A SLOTTED HINGE
PLATE NORMALLY SECURED WITH A PADLOCK.
KEY-PADLOCK – A DEVICE WHICH FASTENS IN POSITION MAYBE OPERATED BY A KEY.
MAGNETIC PADLOCK – A KIND OF LOCK WHICH OPENS BY USING THE CORRESPONDING
MAGNET WHICH GOES WITH IT.
HASPLOCK – A KIND OF HASP THAT HAS A BUILT-IN LOCKING DEVICE WHICH CAN BE
OPENED ONLY WITH A KEY.
BORED LOCK – A LOCK INTENDED FOR INSTALLATION IN A CIRCULAR HOLE IN A DOOR.

CREMONE BOLT – USED TO FASTEN UPPER AND LOWER DOOR.

DEAD BOLT – A TYPE OF DOOR LOCK, THE BOLT, WHICH IS SQUARE IN SECTION IS
OPERATED BY THE DOOR KEY OR A TURN PIECE.
TYPES OF AUTOMATIC DOOR CLOSER:
PNEUMATIC TYPE
SEMI-CONCEALED OVERHEAD TYPE
CONCEALED TYPE
OVERHEAD LIQUID TYPE

TYPES OF CABINET HINGED DOOR:

FLUSH
OVERLAPPING
 OFFSET

TYPES OF CABINET HINGES:

BUTT HINGES
COMMON BUTT
LOOSE PIN
T-HINGE
PIANO HINGE
DECORATIVE HINGE
OFFSET HINGES – USED FOR HANGING LIPPED OR OVERLAPPING DOORS,
AVAILABLE IN SEMI-CONCEALED AND SURFACE-MOUNTED STYLES.
PIVOT HINGES – MADE FOR BOTH FLUSH AND OVERLAPPING DOORS.
INVISIBLE HINGES – DON’T SHOW FROM THE FRONT AND IS EXPENSIVE. THEY
CAN BE USED FOR BOTH FLUSH AND OVERLAPPING DOOR.
FLUSH COUNTER HINGE – FOR A DROP DOWN DOOR THAT CAN BE LOWERED TO
SERVE AS WORK SURFACES REQUIRE HINGES THAT LAY FLUSH IN THE SURFACE,
MORTISE THEM INTO BOTH SURFACES, THEY DON’T SHOW WHEN THE DOOR IS
CLOSED. A DROPDOWN DOOR ALSO REQUIRES A CHAIN OR STAY SUPPORT TO
HOLD THE DOOR’S WEIGHT WHEN IT’S OPEN.
CATCHES FOR CLOSING OF CABINET DOORS IN PLACE
KINDS OF CATCHES:
FRICTION CATCH – ANY CATCH WHICH WHEN IT ENGAGES A STRIKE, IS HELD IN
THE ENGAGED POSITION BY FRICTION.
MAGNETIC CATCH – A DOOR CATCH FLAT THAT USES A MAGNET TO HOLD THE
DOOR IN A CLOSED POSITION.
BULLET CATCH – A FASTENER WHICH HOLDS A DOOR IN PLACE BY MEANS OF A
PROJECTING SPRING ARCTUATED STEEL HALL WHICH IS DEPRESSED WHEN THE
DOOR IS CLOSED.
TYPES OF KNOBS:
SCREW-IN KNOB
BOLT-ON KNOB
FLUSH KNOB
FLUSH RING
PULL
OTHER FINISHING ACCESSORIES:
GRAB BAR – A HAND GRIP USUALLY INSTALLED IN SHOWER, WHICH MAY BE USED
FOR STEADYING ARE SELF.
SELF BRACKET – ANY OVER HANGING MEMBER PROJECTING FROM A WALL OR
OTHER BODY TO SUPPORT A WEIGHT.
METAL BRACKET – USED TO SUPPORT ANY CABINET OR SHELF.
SPRING DOOR CLOSER – ATTACHED ABOVE A SCREEN DOOR TO
AUTOMATICALLY CLOSE IT.
DOOR STOPPER – TO PREVENT THE DOOR WITH ITS LOCKSET FROM HARMING
THE WALL OR TILES.
ROUGH HARDWARES:
NAILS
COMMON WIRE NAIL WITH HEAD AND FOR STRENGTH.
FINISHING NAIL WITHOUT HEAD AND FOR BETTER APPEARANCE
MASONRY OR CONCRETE NAIL USED FOR CONCRETE, MORTAR AND BRICK SURFACE
SIZES, 1”, 1 ½”, 2 “, 2 ½”, 3”, 3 ½”, 4”, 6”
OTHER COMMON HAMMER DRIVEN FASTENER
SCOTCH NAILS BRADS
STAPLES TACKS

SCREWS
CLASSIFIED BY GAUGE (DIAMETER), LENGTH, HEAD TYPE, AND METALLIC MAKE-UP.
TYPES OF SCREW HEAD
FLAT HEAD SCREW
OVAL HEAD SCREW
PHILIPPS HEAD
SHEET-METAL SCREW
ROUND HEAD SCREW
LAG SCREW
WASHERS
FLAT
COUNTER SUNK
FLUSH
BOLTS
BOLTS HAVE THREADED SHAFTS THAT RECEIVE NUTS. TO USE THEM, A HOLE IS
DRILLED, PUSHING A BOLT THROUGH AND ADDING A NUT.
BOLTS TIGHTENED WITH SCREW WHILE HOLDING THE NUT WITH A WRENCH.
NUTS

FLAT SQUARE NUT

HEX NUT
SQUARE NUT
ACORN NUT
T – NUT
KNURLED NUT
WING NUT

HUNGER BOLTS – FOR HANGING FIXTURES FROM WALLS.

U-BOLTS – TO ATTACH FLAT SURFACE TO ROUND POLES AND PIPES.
JOINERY BRACKETS
MENDING PLATE
T-PLATE
FLAT CORNER PLATE
L-BRACKET
AWNING – AN ARCHITECTURAL PROJECTED WINDOW.
BAY WINDOW – A WINDOW WHICH PROJECTS OUTSIDE THE MAIN LINE OF A BUILDING.
HOPPER WINDOW – A WINDOW SASH WHICH OPENS INWARD AND ITS HINGED AT THE
BOTTOM.
ORIEL WINDOW – A PROJECTED WINDOW BEYOND BUILDING WALL CARRIED BY A
CORBEL.
BATTEN DOOR - A DOOR W/OUT STILES WHICH IS COSTRUCTED OF VERTICAL BOARDS
HELD TOGETHER BY HORIZONTAL BATTENS.
STILE – VERTICAL FRAMES OF PANELLED DOOR.
TRANSOM – WINDOW OVER A DOOR.
DOOR JAMB – FINISHED FRAME SURROUNDING A DOOR.
ANCHOR BOLT – A STEEL BOLT USUALLY FIXED IN ABUILDING STRUCTURE WITH ITS
THREADED PORTION PROJECTING.
PLATE BOLT – A BOLT IN A BUILDING FOUNDATION WHICH SECURES THEPLATE OR SILL.
 MACHINE BOLT – A THREADED BOLT HAVING A STRAIGHT SHANK AND A
CONVENTIONAL HEAD SUCH AS A SQUARE, HEXAGONAL, BUTTON OR COUNTERSANK.
CARRIAGE BOLT – A BOLT WITH NECK FOR NON-RATATING MOUNTING.
LAG SCREW – COMMON HARDWARE FASTENER FOR TRUSS BRACES.
KNOB BOLT – A DOOR LOCK WITH A SPRING BOLT CONTROLLED BY ONE OR BOTH
KNOBS AND DEAD BOLT CONTROLLED BY AKEY.
BACKSET – THE HORIZONTAL DISTANCE FROM THE FACE OF A LOCK OF LATCH TO THE
CENTER OF THE KNOB OR LOCK CYLINDER.
GUSSET – A PLATE ATTACHED TO SIDE OF A JOINT FOR INCREASE HOLDING POWER.
BRAD – A THIN NAIL WITH SMALL HEAD.
KERF – IN A SUSPENDED ACOUSTICAL CEILING, AGROOVE CUT INTO THE EDGES OF AN
ACOUSTICAL TILES TO RECEIVE SPLINES OR SUPPORTING MEMBERS OF THE CEILING
SUSPENSION SYSTEM.
PERFORATED TAPE – A TYPE OF TAPE USED IN FINISHING JOINTS BETWEEN GYPSUM
BOARD.
SAHARA – USED FOR WATERPROOFING.
PARQUET – INLAID WOOD FLOORING USUALLY SET IN SIMPLE GEOMETRIC PATTERN.
VINYL TILE – A FLOOR TILE COMPOSED PRINCIPALLY OF POLYVINYL CHLORIDE.
BEVEL – THE ANGLE WITH ONE SURFACE OF A BODY MAKES WITH ANOTHER SURFACE
WHEN THEY ARE NOT AT RIGHT ANGLE.
CHASE – A CONTINOUS RECESS BUILT INTO A WALL TO RECEIVE PIPES, DUCTS, ETC.
GYPSUM BOARD – MATERIAL USED IN DRYWALL CONSTRUCTION.
PLOUGH – A GROOVE EXTENDED ALONG THE EDGE OR FACE OF THE WOOD MEMBER
BEING CUT PARALLEL TO GRAIN.
BUILDING PROTECTION
PREVENTIONS
WATERPROOFING – A METHOD OF PROTECTING SURFACES AGAINST THE DESTRUCTIVE
EFFECTS OF WATER.
DAMP-PROOFING – PROTECTION FROM THE OUTSIDE IS PROVIDED BY WATER
REPELLENT MATERIALS WHICH TURN WATER ASIDE AND FORCE IT TO RETURN TO THE
EARTH. THE DAMPNESS THAT SOMETIMES OCCURS INSIDE THE BUILDING CAN BE CAUSED
BY PENETRATION OF MOISTURE FROM THE OUTSIDE OR BY CONSIDERATION OF WATER
VAPOR GENERATED ON THE INSIDE.
CLEAR PROTECTIVE TREATMENTS FOR MASONRY, CONCRETE – THIS IS A CLEAR,
INVISIBLE SILICONE WATER REPELLENT SPECIALLY FORMULATED FOR APPLICATION ON
MASONRY AND BRICKS (STANDARD SILICONE REPELLENT) AND FOR LIMESTONE AND
CONCRETE THAT SEEPS MUCH RAINWATER (SPECIAL FORMULATED SILICONE REPELLENT).
THE SILICONE LIQUID IS APPLIED BY BRUSH OR LOW PRESSURE SPRAY AND DOES NOT
AFFECT THE COLOR OR NATURALNESS OF THE MATERIAL.
ANAY (TERMITE) PROOFING BY SOIL POISONING – IT IS IMPORTANT TO POISON THE SOIL
AGAINST ANAY (WHITE ANTS) IN ORDER TO STOP THE ANAY FROM INFESTING THE
MAINPOSTS, WALLS AND FLOORING.
WOOD PRESERVATIVE (POWDER POST TERMITES) A CHEMICAL LIQUID PAINTED AND
APPLIED TO LUMBER TO PRESERVE IT FOR YEARS. IT PROTECTS WOOD AGAINST POWDER
POST BEATLES (BUKBOK) POWDER POET TERMITE (UNOS), DECAY CAUSING FUNGI, SUCH
AS SAP STAIN AND SRYROT.
FIREPROOFING – A CLEAR LIQUID APPLIED EASILY ON WOOD, PLYWOOD, LUMBER AND
OTHER BOARD THAT RETAINS THE NATURAL BEAUTY, GIVES ADDED STRENGTH AND
PROTECTS MATERIALS AGAINST FIRE, WEATHER, DECAY, INSECTS AND WARPING. SINCE
THE LIQUID PENETRATED INTO THE WOOD, WHEN THERE IS FIRE. IT REACTS BY
DISPERSING THE FLAME, PREVENTING PROGRESSIVE BURNING.
 RATPROOFING – A METHOD OF PROTECTING ROOMS AGAINST THE INTRUSION OF RATS
AND OTHER SMALL DESTRUCTIVE ANIMALS FROM GNAWING THE WOODEN PARTS OF THE
HOUSE, HABITATING ON CEILINGS AND FLOORS OF HOUSES AND BUILDINGS.
RUSTPROOFING – A METHOD OF PROTECTING THE FERROUS MATERIALS LIKE STEEL,
IRON FROM RUSTING OR CORROSION.
FLOOR PROTECTION – WHEN FLOORS ARE SUBJECTED TO WEAR AND TEAR, OR FROM
CHEMICAL ABRASIONS AND HEAVY USE, A SPECIAL KIND OF MATERIAL SHOULD BE USED
TO PROTECT THE FLOORING.
DESCALERS, PAINT AND CHEMICAL STRIPPERS – WHEN AN OLD HOUSE HAVING OLE
PAINT IS IN NEED OF REPAINTING, PAINT REMOVER IS APPLIED TO THE SURFACE WHICH
SOFTENS AND LIFTS THE PAINT. FOR CLEANING OF BUILDINGS FROM STAINS, RUST, ALGAE
OR EVEN CEMENT BUILD UP FROM FORMS OR EQUIPMENT, ETC. A CHEMICAL STRIPPER OR
DESCALER IS USED.
CONTROL, PROTECT AND MANAGE – FOR BUILDINGS THAT NEED TOTAL CONTROL OF
THE INCOMING AND OUTGOING INDIVIDUALS FOR THE PROTECTION OF THE BUILDING AS
A WHOLE FROM ROBBERS, STEALERS, ETC. THERE ARE SO MANY EQUIPMENTS WHICH
CAN BE INSTALLED.
THIS IS APPLIED ON THE FOLLOWING LOCATIONS:
ROOF DECKS
CONCRETE TERRACES AND BALCONIES
SHEATHING FOR WOOD SHINGLE AND TILE ROOFING
WATER TANKS
CONCRETE ROOF GUTTERS
PLANT BOXES INSIDE
KITCHEN FLOOR
TOILETS
CANOPIES
BASEMENT FLOOR AND WALLS
ELEVATOR PITS
SWIMMING POOL
MACHINE ROOMS, AIR CON & PUMP ROOMS
REFRIGERATION & COLD STORAGE ROOMS

THREE TYPES OF WATERPROOFING:

INTEGRAL TYPE – MEDIUM IN POWDER FORM IS ADDED AND MIXED
WITH THE AGGREGATES OF CONCRETE. IN THIS CASE, ONE PACK OF USUALLY .908
KILOS IS ADDED TO ONE BAG OF KILOS CEMENT. SOME OF THE KNOWN BRANDS
ARE SAHARA AND SAKURA.
MEMBRANE TYPE – RECOMMENDED FOR USE WHERE DIRECT RAIN,
OR STANDING WATER ARE EMINENT, THERE ARE ABOUT 14 USES. THE MATERIALS
USED DEPENDING ON THE MANUFACTURER IS EITHER ASPHALT PAPER LAID WITH
HOT ASPHALT, IMPREGNATED ASBESTOS FELT, SOMETIMES THICK POLYETHYLENE
SHEETS IS ALSO USED. OTHER MATERIALS ARE PERFORMED SELF SEALING ASPHALT.
FLUID APPLIED – A FLUID APPLIED ELASTOMERIC COATING BASED
ON HAVY SOLIDS ELASTOMER COMPOUND FORMULATED TO WATERPROOF AND
PRESERVE THE SUBSTRATE, LIKE CONCRETE, WOOD, BRICKS AND STEEL. THE
WATERPROOFING IS MONOLOTHIC, SEAMLESS, FLEXIBLE AND ELASTIC OVER A
WIDE TEMPERATURE RANGE, WITHSTANDS EXTREME THERMAL MOVEMENT,
SETTLING AND CRACKING. IT RESISTS PUNCTURE AND TEARING ABRASIVE
OVERLAYMENTS. THIS ELASTOMERIC FLUID CAN BE APPLIED BY ROLLER, BRUSH,
SPRAY OR SQUEEGEE.
ROOFING FELTS – THE BASE FELTS USED IN BUILT-UP ROOFING ARE AVAILABLE IN TWO BASIC
TYPE – ASBESTOS FELTS AND ORGANIC OR RAG FELTS. THEY LOOK ALIKE, SUPERFICIALLY,
BUT THEY DIFFER WIDELY IN SERVICE.
ASBESTOS:
ASBESTOS FELTS – COMPOSED PRIMARILY OF ASBESTOS FIBER, A NON-
ROTTING, NON-WICKING INORGANIC MINERAL FIBER.
IDENTICAL EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION PROPERTIES TO FINISHING
FELTS.
MINIMUM STRETCH AND SHRINKAGE OR WETTING OR DRYING WHICH
MEANS MINIMUM DISTORTION.
LOSES STRENGTH SLOWLY WHILE AGING.
EXCELLENT RESISTANCE TO “BURNOUT” IN HOT CLIMATE.
RAT RESISTANT.

ORGANIC:
ORGANIC FELTS – COMPOSED OF FIBROUS ORGANIC MATERIALS. SUBJECT TO
DETERIORATION BY OXIDATION AND TO WICKING.
DIFFERENT EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION PROPERTIES FROM FINISHING PLIES.
MAXIMUM STRETCH AND SHRINKAGE ON WETTING AND DRYING WHICH MEANS
MAXIMUM DISTORTION.
LOSES STRENGTH RAPIDLY WHILE AGING.
POOR RESISTANCE TO “BURNOUT” IN HOT CLIMATE.
POOR RESISTANCE TO ROT.

VAPOR INSULATION (DAMPROOFING)

THE DAMPNESS THAT SOMETIMES OCCURS INSIDE BUILDINGS CAN BE CAUSED BY
PENETRATION OF MOISTURE FROM THE OUTSIDE OR BY CONDENSATION OF WATER VAPOR
GENERATED ON THE INSIDE. PROTECTION FROM THE OUTSIDE IS PROVIDED BY WATER
REPELLENT MATERIALS WHICH TURN ASIDE AND FORCE IT TO RETURN TO THE EARTH DONE
THE OUTSIDE OF THE BUILDING. MOISTURE VAPOR ON THE OTHER HAND CAN PERMEATE
MOST ORDINARY BUILDING MATERIALS SUCH AS WOOD, PAPER, LATH PLASTER, UNTREATED
BRICK, ETC. THE MOISTURE VAPOR WILL CONDENSE WATER WHEN ITS TEMPERATURE IS
REDUCED BY CONTACT WITH A COOL SURFACE OR COOL AIR. HENCE, HIGH HUMIDITY IN A
BUILDING MAY RESULT IN CONDENSATION OF WATER NOT ONLY ON THE INSIDE OF WALLS
AND WINDOWS BUT ALSO ON THE OUTSIDE OR WITHIN THE EXTERIOR WALLS, CEILING OR
ROOF. MOISTURE VAPOR IS PRODUCED BY COOKING OCCUPANTS, LAUNDERING, EARTH
CRAWL SPACES, BASEMENT FLOORS, HUMIDIFIES, ETC.

VAPOR BARRIERS (DAMPROOFING MATERIALS)

THESE ARE MATERIALS WHICH EFFECTIVELY RETARD OR STOP THE FLOW OF WATER VAPOR
AND NORMALLY ARE PRODUCED IN SHEETS OR THIN LAYERS. VAPOR BARRIERS SHOULD BE
INSTALLED ON THE WARM SIDE OF THE INSULATION. THEY SHOULD BE CONTINUOUS
SURFACES OF ASPHALT OR WAX COATED PAPER, ALUMINUM, OR OTHER METAL FOIL SHEETS
OR POLYETHYLENE FILM. THEY CAN BE ATTACHED TO THE INSULATION AS PART OF THE
MANUFACTURED PRODUCT OR INSTALLED SEPARATELY IN OR ON THE WARM SIDE OF THE
WALL, FLOOR, OR CEILING. THEY MUST BE CONTINUOUS AND ALLOW NO OPENINGS
THROUGH WHICH VAPOR MAY PASS. ALTHOUGH ASPHALT PAPER IS A GOOD MOISTURE
BARRIER, IT IS NOT A VAPOR BARRIER, AND SHOULD BE USED ON THE OUTSIDE OF A BUILDING
FOR THAT PURPOSE.

MATERIALS USED AS VAPOR BARRIERS:

 POLYETHYLENE FILM – THIS IS CHEMICALLY INERT PLASTIC, UNAFFECTED BY
ACIDS, ALKALIS AND CAUSTICS, PRODUCED IN ROLLS OF 3 TO 20 FT. WIDE.
COMMON THICKNESSES ARE 2,3,4 AND 6 MIL (1MIL = .001 IN.) THIS FILM IS USEFUL
NOT ONLY AS VAPOR BARRIER FOR WALLS, CEILINGS AND FLOORS BUT ALSO AS A
BARRIER TO PREVENT THE PASSAGE OF MOISTURE FROM THE EARTH UPWARD
THROUGH A CONCRETE SLAB LAIN ON THE GROUND. POLYETHYLENE FILM CAN BE
APPLIED VERTICALLY IN 36 IN. WIDE STRIPS TO STUDDING ON 16 IN. CENTERS WITH
A FULL OVERLAP ON ALTERNATE STUDS. FILMS ARE STAPLED TO STUDS. OVERLAPS
AND EXTENSIONS TO FLOORS AND WALLINGS SHALL BE 6 IN.
ALUMINUM FOIL – USED AS VAPOR BARRIER AS A SINGLE SHEET, OR AS A
THIN LAYER OF FOIL LAMINATED TO A HEAVY BACKING OF ASPHALT-IMPREGNATED
KRAFT PAPER. THIS IS ALSO DONE WITH TWO LAYERS OF FOIL LAMINATED WITH
ASPHALT CEMENT.
KRAFT PAPER COATED WITH ASPHALT OR WAX. SOMETIMES TWO LAYERS
OF PAPER ARE CEMENTED WITH A CONTINOUS LAYER OF ASPHALT. ANOTHER
MATERIALS USED FOR DAMP-PROOFING OF CONCRETE WALLS IS “WEATHERKOTE”
BITUMINOUS EMULSION, BY SHELL.

THERMAL INSULATION
IN COLD WEATHER, WE ARE INTERESTED IN TRANSFERRING HEAT FROM FURNACES,
RADIATORS, HEATING PANELS, INTO VARIOUS ROOMS OF OUR BUILDINGS. AT THE SAME
TIME WE ARE INTERESTED IN PREVENTING THAT HEAT FROM BEING TRANSFERRED FROM THE
INTERIOR OF THE BUILDING TO THE OUTSIDE.

DURING THE SUMMER, IT IS IMPORTANT THAT WE PREVENT THE TRANSFER OF HOT OUTSIDE
TEMPERATURES TO THE WORKING AND LIVING SPACE WITHIN OUR BUILDINGS.
ALL OF THESE ARE DONE BY THE JUDICIOUS USE OF MATERIALS WHICH IS BEST PREVENT THE
TRANSFER OF HEAT, THIS WE CALL THERMAL INSULATION.
KINDS OF THERMAL INSULATION
LOOSE FILL – THIS BULKY AND DIVIDED INTO:
FIBROUS TYPE
GRANULAR INSULATION
FIBROUS LOOSE FILL
GRANULE
BLANKET INSULATION- IS MADE FROM SOME FIBROUS MATERIAL SUCH AS MINERAL
WOOL, WOOD FIBER, COTTON FIBER, OR ANIMAL HAIR.
BATTS
STRUCTURAL INSULATION BOARD
STRAWBOARD
CORKBOARD
BLOCK OR RIGID SLAB INSULATION – THIS TYPE OF INSULATION IS SO CALLED BLOCK OR
RIGID BECAUSE THE UNITS ARE RELATIVELY STIFF AND INELASTIC.
FOAMED PLASTIC INSULATION
CELLULAR GLASS INSULATION
FOAMED CONCRETE
CELLULAR HARD RUBBER
SHREDDED WOOD OR WOOD FIBER
RIGID SLAB INSULATION
RIGID INSULATION- WHICH ARE IMPERVOUS TO MOISTURE PENETRATION
RESULTING FROM CONTINUOUS CONTACT WITH THE EARTH AND MOISTURE
ARE PARTICULARLY USEFUL AS PERIMETER INSULATION.
 REFLECTIVE INSULATION
ALUMINUM FOIL
COPPER- FOIL INSULATIONS
REFLECTIVE INSULATION
SHEET FOIL
FOAMED-IN PLACE INSULATION – THIS IS POLYURETHANE PRODUCT MADE BY
COMBINING A POLYISOCYANATE AND A POLYESTER RESIN. THIS TYPE OF INSULATION
CAN BE APPLIED EITHER BY POURING OR BY SPRAYING. THE BASIC INGREDIENTS FOR
BOTH ARE DRAWN FROM THEIR CONTAINERS, MEASURED, AND MIXED BY MACHINE.
APPLICATION BY POURING
APPLICATION BY SPRAYING
SPRAYED-ON-INSULATIONS – MATERIALS USED ARE POLYURETHANE FOAM ASBESTOS
FIBER MIXED WITH INORGANIC BINDERS, VERMICULITE AGGREGATE WITH A BINDER SUCH
AS PORTLAND CEMENT OR GYPSUM AND PERLITE AGGREGATE USING GYPSUM AS A
BINDER. MACHINES ARE USED FOR BLOWING THESE INSULATIONS INTO PLACE; AS A
RESULT THE SHAPE OR IRREGULARITY OF THE SURFACE BEING INSULATED IS OF LITTLE
CONSEQUENCE.
ASBESTOS FIBER INSULATION
CORRUGATED INSULATION

SOIL TESTING
LARGER THAN A SINGLE FAMILY HOUSE, IT IS NECESSARY TO DETERMINE THE SOIL AND
WATER CONDITION BENEATH THE SITE.
METHOD OF SOIL TESTING:
1. DIGGING TEST PITS – ARE USEFUL WHEN FOUNDATION IS NOT EXPECTED TO
EXTEND DEEPER THAT ABOUT 8 FEET WHICH IS THE MAXIMUM PRACTICAL REACH OF
SMALL EXCAVATION MACHINE.
2. TEST BORING – BORING WITH STANDARD PENETRATION TESTS CAN GIVE AN
INDICATION OF THE BEARING CAPACITY OF THE SOIL BY THE NUMBER OF BLOWS OF A
STANDARD DRIVING HAMMER REQUIRED TO ADVANCE A SAMPLING TUBE INTO THE
SOIL BY A FIXED AMOUNT.

TYPES OF SOILS:
ROCK – IS A CONTINUOUS MASS OF SOLID MINERAL MATERIALS, SUCH AS GRANITE OR
LIMESTONE, THAT CAN ONLY BE REMOVED BY DRILLING AND BLASTING.
SOIL – IS A GENERAL TERM REFERRING TO EARTH MATERIAL.
BOULDER – IF THE PARTICLE OF SOIL IS TOO LARGE TO LIFT BY HAND.
COBBLE – IF THE PARTICLE OF SOIL TAKES THE WHOLE HAND TO LIFT.
GRAVEL – IF THE PARTICLE CAN BE LIFTED EASILY WITH THUMB AND FOREFINGER.
SAND – IF THE PARTICLE SEEN BUT ARE TOO SMALL TO BE PICKED UP.
FINE GRAINED SOIL – IF THE PARTICLES ARE TOO SMALL TO BE SEEN.
SILT
CLAY
PILE DRIVING
MATERIAL USED IN PILE FOUNDATION ARE:
1. TIMBER
2. CONCRETE
3. STEEL
TIMBER – CANNOT RESIST HIGH STRESSES DUE TO HARD DRIVING THAT IS REQUIRED TO
PENETRATE HIHLY RESISTANT LAYER OF SOIL. THE TIP OF THE TIMBER PILE WHICH COULD BE
EASILY DAMAGED IS PROTECTED BY THE USE OF STEEL SHOES, ON THE OTHERHAND THE
BUTT IS ALSO PROVIDED WITH AN AMPLE PROTECTION BY THE USE OF CUSHION BLOCK.
CONCRETE PILES ARE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO TYPES:
1. CAST-IN-PLACE
CASED – IS CAST INSIDE A METAL SHELL FORM WHICH ARE LEFT IN THE GROUND.
UNCASED – ELIMINATE THE METAL CASING.
2. PRECAST PILES – ARE REINFORCED TO RESIST HIGH STRESS CAUSED BY THE
HAMMER IN DRIVING.

METAL PILE – IS AN EXCELLENT AMTERIAL FOR PILE BECAUSE OF ITS STRENGTH

CHARACTERISTICS TO WITHSTAND HARD DRIVING AND RAPID PENETRATION INTO THE
GROUND, RELATIVELY WITH SMALL MATERIAL DISPLACEMENTS.
DIFFERENT METAL PILES:
H-BEARING PILES
BOS PILES
RAIL PILES