idxoDIaáljdoh wdpdrúoHd;aul kHdhla jYfhka ie,lsh yels o@

ysgmq ;djld,sl l:sldpd¾h tia' tï' p;=ß .fõIsld iurfldaka

o¾Yk wOHhkdxYh

Ydia;% mSGh

fmardfoKsh úYajúoHd,h

Abstract
Existentialism is a field of Philosophy, which is known as Humanist
inquiry among the various thinking patterns on the world. The
importance of this field is the human being is the main consideration of
this field which talked on the suffering of the human being. It is known
as the main humanist discussion which is tried to salvage human being
from mental and physical suffering with or without God in the flood of
continental philosophy. As an Ethical theory, it consider on the suffering
without dogmatic teachings in the Theism. Existentialism is divided into
two main fields, namely, Atheism and Theism. The philosophers are
which followed the Theism, the salvation of human being is handed over
to the Omnipotence God, as well as the philosophers are which followed
the Atheism, the salvation of human being is handed over to the self.
Sometimes they have tried to present the solution to human suffering
theoretically as well as practically. Suicide is such a solution that some
existentialist practically used to salvage their own suffering. This
discussion is tried to explain on the Existentialism as a philosophy, and
in the perspective of Ethics, tried to emphasis that what are the
difference between other Ethical theories and Existentialism.
 ye|skaùu

ngysr iuld,Sk o¾Yk iïm%odh ;=< m%Odk Odrd 2la y÷kd.; yelsh'ta jkdyS úYaf,aIS
o¾Yk iïm%odh yd uydoaùmsl o¾Yk iïm%odhhs'úYaf,aIS o¾Yk iïm%odh uQ,sl jYfhkau úoHdj
yd .Ks;fha iajNdjh o¾Yk úIhg wE|d .ekSug ork ,o W;aidyhls'ta wkqj úoHdfõ Ndú; jk wdldrfha
k-iajdNdúl(non-natural language) NdIdjla o¾Yk úIhg wjYH nj úYaf,aIS o¾Yk iïm%odh u.ska
wjOdrKh lrk ,oS'tu.ska isÿjQ w;=re m%;sM,hla jQfha o¾Yk úIhg wdfõKsl úIh moaO;s w¾:
Y+kHh hk ñkqu ;=<ska m%;slafIams; ;;ajhg m;aùuhs'tlS úIh lafIa;% jQfha
wêfN!;sljdoS"wdpdrjdoS"fi!kao¾hjdoS yd wd.ñl lafIa;%hs'fï wkqj fulS m%jK;dj o¾Yk úIh ;=<
úYd, n,mEula fukau ksfIaOkd;aul Wkak;shla njg m;aúh'

úoHd;aul oekqu muKla w¾:j;a fia ms<s.ekSu"bkaøShdkqN+;sl lreKq muKla

wOHhkhg ,la lsÍu"jdia;úl {dkfhys im%udK;djh muKla w.h lsÍu"hdka;%sl f,dal oDIaáh"f¾Çh
Ñka;kh hkdoS ,laIK fulS úYaf,aIS o¾Ykhg wdfõKsl ,laIK njg m;aúh'fulS iïm%odh ;=< úlis; jQ
iodpdr o¾Ykho óg iudk ,laIK orkakdjQ m%jK;djla njg m;aúh'ta wkqj fjk;a wdpdrúoHd;aul
kHdhka u.ska fyd| krl ms<sn| wjOdkh fhduq lsÍu i|yd wod< ñkqï o`vq bosßm;a l<o iuld,Sk
iodpdr kHdhka ;=<ska i,ld n,k ,oafoa fyd| hkq l=ulao@ hk ldrKh iïnkaOjh'fuh fyd| ms<sn| w¾:
újrKhla isÿ lsÍu yd iudk fõ'ta wkqj meyeos,s jkafka iuld,Sk úYaf,aIS o¾Ykh ;=< bosßm;a jQ
iodpdr o¾Ykh Bg wdfõKsl ,laIK ork ,o njhs'

óg m%;súfrdaOhla f,i o¾Ykfha kshu iajrEmh wdrlaId lr.ekSfï wáfhka bosßm;a jQ

uydoaùmsl o¾Ykh óg jvd fjkia ,laIKhkaf.ka hqla; úh'uydoaùmsl hkqfjka woyia jkafka N+f.da,Sh
jYfhka isÿlrk fnoSula fkdj úYaf,aIS o¾Ykhg wu;rj bosßm;a jQ o¾Ykh hk w¾:h ye`.ùu i|ydh'ta
wkqj uydoaùmsl o¾Ykh u.ska úoHd;aul oDIaáh m%;slafIam lrhs'jdia;úl {dkh"hdka;%sl f,dal
oDIaáh "f¾Çh Ñka;kh hkdosh úfõpkhg ,la lrhs'úfYaIfhka c¾udkq yd m%xY od¾Ykslhka fulS
iïm%odfhys m%uqLhka fõ'

m¾fhaIK .eg¨j

fuu uydoaùmsl o¾Yk iïm%odh ;=< úlis; jQ iodpdr kHdhla f,i idxoDIaáljdoh fmkajdosh
yelsh'kuq;a úfYaIfhka ie,lshhq;= lreKla jkafka idxoDIaáljdoh yqfola iodpdr kHdhla muKlau
fkdfõ hkakhs' fuh tla;rd wdldrhl udkjjdoS f,dal oDIaáhla f,io úYaaf,aIS o¾Ykhg W!KmQrlhla
imhk ,o o¾Yk iïm%odhla f,io fmkajdosh yelsh'fï wkqj iodpdr kHdhla jYfhka idxoDIaáljdofhys
iajrEmh ljrdldr fõo@ tys jeo.;alu l=ulao@ tys oelsh yels ÿ¾j,;d ;sfío@ hkdoS lreKq úuid ne,Su
,smsh u.ska isÿjkq we;'

m¾fhaIK l%ufõoh

m%d:ñl" oaù;ShSl yd ;D;ShSl uQ,dY% wdY%fhka f.dvkef.k fuu idlÉPdj od¾Yksl úêl
%ufõohka jYfhka idxoDIaáljd§ yd wjia:dkql+,j ;d¾lsl úYaf,aIKh" ;=<kd;aul wOHhkh
fhdod.ekSug wfmalaId flf¾'

m¾fhaIKfha wruqKq

ngysr iuld,Sk o¾Yk iïm%odfhys tk m%Odk fn§ï o< jYfhka y÷kd.ekSu

idxoDIaáljdoh wfkl=;a o¾Yk iïm%odhkaf.ka fjkia jk wdldrh meyeÈ,s lr.ekSu

iodpdr kHdhla jYfhka idxoDIaáljdofh i;= iqúfYaI ,laIK wdldrfhka fuh iodpdr kHdhla jYfhka
ie,lsh yels o@ hkak úuid ne,Su

idlÉPdj

iuld,Sk o¾Yk iïm%odh ;=< uydoaùmsl od¾Yksl Odrdj ksfhdackh lrkq ,nk od¾Yksl
.=rel=,hla fia ie,flk idxoDIaáljdoh c¾uksh yd m%xYh ;=< w;sYh ckm%sh o¾Yk iïm%odhla fia
fmkajdosh yelsh'19 jk yd 20 jk ishjia w;r ld,fhys lr<shg meñKs od¾Yksl l;sldjla fia fmkajdosh
yelsh'fuh uQ,sl jYfhkau udkj flakaøSh jQ o¾Ykhls'tkï fuys uQ,sl l;sldj jkafka ñksidh'—wfkl=;a
od¾Yksl iïm%odhka iu. iei|SfïoS fuys we;s m%Odk;u fjki jkafka hul idrh fkdj tys meje;au
.ek ie,lSuhs'úfYaIfhka udkj j¾.hdf.a meje;auhs'˜ 1tl< idïm%odhsl od¾Ykslhkaf.a uQ,sl l;sldj
jQfha hul idrh ms<sn| úu¾Ykhhs'kuq;a bka fjkiaj hñka idxoDIaáljdoS od¾Yksl l;sldj osh;a
jQfha udkjhdf.a meje;au iïnkaO l;sldj flakaølr.ksñks'Tjqkaf.a woyi jQfha"—idrh we;sùug l,ska
meje;au we;súh hq;=hs'wms fiúh hq;af;a ñksid mj;skafka wehso hkak .ekh'˜ 2

kuq;a fuys ie,lsh hq;= lreK kï fulS meje;au ms<sn| l;sldj o¾Ykfhys tk ioaNjjdoS l;sldfjka
fjkia jk njhs'ukaoh;a" th wêfN!;sl iajNdjhla bis¨jo fuh tjeks iajNdjfha woyilska bosßm;a jQjla
fkdjk neúks'fuh idudkH ck iudcfha udkj meje;au fidhd n,kakdjQ m%dfhda.sl l;sldjls'fuh Nj
i;a;djdoh f,io ye|skafjkafka meje;au ms<sn|j lrkq ,nk l;sldjla jk neúks'fuys m%Odk idxoDIaáljdoS
od¾Ykslhka f,i fidfrka lsh¾ls.dâ"f*%âßla kSÜfIa"cSka fmda,a idf;%a"ud¾áka ffyfv.¾"we,anÜ
leuqia hkdoSka ye|skaúh yelsh'wfkla w;g idxoDIaáljdoh fmdÿ iïuq;shlska we;sjQ od¾Yksl
Odrdjla fkdfõ'lsishï od¾Ykslhka lsysmfofkla tlsfklg iudk ixl,am ms<sn|j ork ,o woyia tl;= fldg
o¾Ykhla f,i y÷kd.kakd ,oaols idxoDIaáljdoh'

fuu idxoDIaáljdoS woyia m%Odk úê folla Tiafia wOHhkh l< yelsh'ta jkdyS BIajrjdoS yd
BIajrjdoS fkdjk hkdoS jYfhks'BIajrjdoS idxoDIaáljdoSka f,i fidfrka lsh¾ls.dâ"ld,a ceiam¾ia".dì
%fh,a ud¾fi,a hkdoSka ye|skaúh yels w;r wkSIajrjdoS idxoDIaáljdoSka f,i cSka fmda,a idf;a
%"ud¾áka ffyv.¾"we,anÜ leuqia hkdoSka ye|skaúh yelsh'

fuu iïm%odfhys uQ,slhd fia ie,flkafka fidfrka lsh¾ls.dâh'—idxoDIaáljdoS woyia ;=<

jvd fyd| iudchla mj;ajdf.k hdu;a "wkd.; iudch jvd fyd| iudchla wruqKq lrf.k mj;Sh
hkak;a"ñksid wfkl=;a ish,a,g jvd fjkiah hkak;a"Tyq iudcfhys mj;sk ish¨u fofhys m
%fhdack ,nd.kSh hkak;a"ish,a, md,kh lsÍfï yelshdj mj;Sh hkak;a ms<s.kS'fï ksid ñksidf.a
ksoyi iy iudcfha we;s ndOdjka .ek wjOdkh fhduq lrhs'˜ 3fï wkqj ñka meyeos,s jkafka
idxoDIaáljdoh u.ska ñksidf.a hym; ms<sn|j ie,ls,su;a jk njhs'idxoDIaáljdofhys m%uqLfhl= jk
cSka fmda,a idf;%ag wkqj idxoDIaáljdoh udkqIjdohls'

idxoDIaáljdofhys wdrïNl ld,iSud ms<sn| ie,ls,a,g .ekSfïoS fuh b;d uE; ld,Skj werUqKq
od¾Yksl jHdmD;shls'fuys woyia iïnkaOj ie,ls,a,g .ekSfïoS uq,skau idxoDIaáljdoS woyia
bosßm;a lrk ,oehs ie,flk mqoa.,hka fofofkls'bka tla wfhla kï reishdkq kjl;dlrefjl= jQ
fvdiafgdjqials ish —lerufidma ifydaorfhda˜ hk lD;sh ;=<ska ñksia cSú;h iïnkaO .eg¨ .eUqßka
idlÉPd fldg we;'tys fndfyduhla idxoDIaáljdoS woyia wka;¾.; fõ hehs ie,fla'

—mkafiaia˜ kï lD;sh ,shQ miald,a keu;s Ñka;lhdo cSú;fha w¾:Y+kH;ajh ms<sn|j ú.%y
fldg we;'udkjhdf.a meje;au ms<sn| lrk ,o idlÉPdõ W;alDIagu wjia:dj jQfha 2 jeks f,dal
hqoaOhhs'—úfYaIfhka f,dal hqoaO yd idïm%odhsl od¾Yksl iïm%odhkaf.a ì|jeàu fuu
Ñka;kh ìysùug m%Odk jYfhkau n,mEfõh'˜4wfkla w;g tjeks fÄokSh brKula ;=< udkjhd
ms<sn| l;dl< o¾Ykhla jYfhka fuh w;sYh ckm%sh jkakg úh'fojk f,dal hqoaOfhka hqfrdamh ;=<
we;sjQ úm¾hdihka ksid wvd, jQ ck cSú;h"bÉPd Nx.;ajh" udkisl wiykh"urKh ms<sn|
ye`.Su"ld¾ólrKh oshqKq ùu ksid n,mdk ,o wys;lr m%;súmdlhka hkdosh uq,a lrf.k fïjdg úi÷ï
fiùug idxoDIaáljdoh W;aidy ork ,oS'—fï ksid idxoDIaál jHqyhka i|yd cSú;h urKg wdoS
ixl,am fndfyda fihska n,md ;sfí'˜5fï wkqj meyeos,s jkafka idxoDIaáljdoh u.ska iajNdúl o¾Ykh
ms<sn|j fkdj udkj o¾Ykh ms<sn| ie,ls,su;aj we;s njhs'

—ngysr rgj, ckixLHd j¾Okh "os<s÷lu me;sr hdu"Y%u iQrdlEu"n, wr.,h"hqoaOh

wdoS lreKq ksid ñksidf.a iodpdrd;aul cSú;hg ;¾ck t,a, úh'fï ksid ñksid ;=< wiykldÍ
;;a;ajh ;jÿrg;a jeäjkakg úh'fujeks mßirhla hgf;a cSj;ajk ñksid ;=< wm.dó fm!reI
f.dvkef.kakg úh'fï wkqj idxoDIaáljdoS ufkdaúoHdjlao ìysjQ w;r tu.ska mqoa.,hd fj,df.k
we;s NS;sh"fodïki wdoS lreKq od¾Yksl uqyqKqjrlska ilia lrkakg úh'˜ 6fï wkqj meyeos,s
jkafka idxoDIaáljdoh uQ,sl jYfhkau ñksidf.a wiykldÍ;ajh ms<sn|j wjOdkh fhduq lrk w;r tysoS
ñksid ;=< wiykldÍ;ajh we;sùug n,mdkq ,nk uQ,sl m%mxph fia fmkajd fokafka ñksidf.a
iodpdrd;aul cSú;h ì|jeàu hkak njh'ta wkqj idxoDIaáljdoh tla w;lska iodpdr kHdhla fiao fmkajdosh
yels njh'

—ukqIHhd iïnkaOfhka b;du jeo.;a lreK Tyqf.a meje;au hehs idxoDIaáljdoSyq

mji;s'Tjqyq th ñksidf.a idrh fyj;a w¾:h hehs ú.%y l<y'idxoDIaáljdoSka meje;au hk moh
fuysoS ú.%y lrkafka úfYaI od¾Yksl w¾:hlsks'Tjqyq thska woyia lrkafka ldhsl meje;aula
fyda fjk;a fN!;sl jia;+ka iïnkaOfhka jQ meje;aula fyda fkdj ñksidf.a wdOHd;añl meje;au
iïnkaOfhka iajÉPkao;djh jeo.;a jk nj wjOdrKh lsÍuhs'˜ 7fï wkqj meyeos,s jkafka
idxoDIaáljdofhys uQ,sl l;sldj wdpdrúoHdfjys tla;rd flakaøSh ixl,amhla jQ iajÉPkao;dj ke;fyd;a
ksoyia wêIaGdkh keu;s ixl,amh jgd f.dkqjk njh'fuh tla w;slska iodpdrd;aul l;sldjla jk w;r wfkla
w;g úoHdj u.ska ish,a, ;SrKh jQ hq.hl ñksidg lsishï Ñka;kuh ksoyila ,ndoSug ork ,o jEhuls'Tjqyq
ish woyia bosßm;a lsÍug fhdod.kakd ,oafoa l,d udOHhs'Tjqkag wkqj tu.ska jvd myiqfjka ;u
woyia iudch fj; ,ndosh yelsh'bka Tjqka cSú;h yd iïnkaO .eg¨ icSù wdldrfhka udkjhdg .%yKh
l<yels wjia:djla i,id oSug W;aiql jQy'

hdka;%sl iudch oeäj ms<sl=,a l< idxoDIaáljdoSka bka ñksidf.a jákdlu uqo, u; ;SrKh lsÍu
fukau ksh;sjdoS ixl,amhka ks¾oh f,i úfõpkh l<y'—mqoa.,hd ish w;aoelSï weiqfrka ,nk
wjfndaOh ;=<ska {dkh ,nd.kakd nj mejiSu i;Hh iïnkaO wd;aóhjdohla flfrys keUqrejla
idxoDIaáljdoSka ;=< mej;s nj fmkakqï lrkafka hehs úpdrlfhda mjihs'˜ 8fï wkqj ks.ukh l<
yelafla i;Hh iïnkaOfhka muKla fkdj idxoDIaáljdoSka úiska iodpdrh iïnkaOfhkao wd;aóhjdohla
bosßm;a lrk ,o njhs'
 idxoDIaáljdofhys wdrïNl od¾Ykslhd fia ie,flkafka fidfrka lsh¾ls.dâh^1813-1855&'Tyq
fvkaud¾ cd;sl od¾Ykslfhls'wfkla w;g Tyq lsúfhla fukau foajO¾ujdosfhl= fiau ie,fla'Tyq
wdpdrO¾uh"iodpdrh"foaYmd,kh"wd.u"wd.fuys o¾Ykh"l%sia;shdks f,dalh ms<sn| úpdrd;aul
rpkd iïmdokh lrk ,oS'fudyq iajÉPkao;djh"j.lSu yd lemùu hkdosh ms<sn|jo idlÉPd fldg
we;'”Much of his philosophical work deals with the issue of how one lives as a ”single
individual”, giving priority to concrete human reality over abstract thinking,and
highlighting the importance of personal choice and commitment” 9.fuhska meyeos,s
jkafka lsh¾ls.dâf.ao uQ,sl l;sldj jkafka iajÉPkao;djh ms<sn| l;sldj jQ njhs'Tyqf.a fndfyduhla
lD;sj,ska woyia jkafka cSú;fha ksiaidr;ajh ms<sn|jhs'

—f,!lsl cSú;fha m%Odk ,laIK folla f,ig Tyq ie,l=fõ bÉPdNx.;ajh yd

ksiaidr;ajhhs'˜10ñksid iEu úgu lsishï wdYdjla ;Dma;su;a lr.ekSug W;aidy l<;a th ,enqKq miq ;j;a
wdYdjka miqmi hdu isß; ù we;snj Tyq mjihs'bka ñksid iajNdjfhkau l<lsÍug yd bÉPdNx.;ajhg
m;afõ'hula wm i;=j ke;s úg tys w.h jeäfhka oekqKo th ,enqKq miqj tys w.h ke;sù fjk;a hula <x
lr.ekSug W;aidy oeÍu ñksia iajNdjhhs'ta i|yd Tyq bosßm;a lrk WodyrKh jkafka"—wYajfhl=
fõ.fhka oelalùug wjYH jQ úg W!g wähla muK bosßfhka lerÜ w,hla t,a,k isß;la m%xYfha
;sfí'lerÜ w,h w,a,d .ekSu i|yd wYajhd b;d fõ.fhka ÿj hhs'fld;rï fõ.fhka osõj;a lerÜ w,h ks;ru
we;af;a wYajhdg wähla bosßfhks'f,!lsl ñksidf.a iem; fidhd ta miqmi t<ùuo
fujekakls'˜11fuhska meyeos,s jkafka ñksidf.a iodpdrd;aul cSú;h wNsfhda.hg ,lajkafka f,!lasl
jYfhka ñksid wdYdjka miqmi .uka .kakd ksid nj lsh¾ls.dâ úYajdi lrk ,o njhs'

fulS bÉPdNx.;ajfhka ñoSu i|yd Tyq mshjr ;=kla wkq.ukh l< hq;= nj fmkajdfohs'tajd kï"fi!
kao¾hd;aul mshjr"wdpdrd;aul mshjr yd wd.ñl mshjrhs'fï wkqj lsh¾ls.dâ wdpdrd;aul yeisÍu Wiia
fldg i,ld we;snj fmfka'

idxoDIaáljdohg wod< ;j;a jeo.;a od¾Ykslfhl= f,i cSka fmda,a idf;%a^1905-1980&

fmkajdosh yelsh'Tyq úfYaIfhka wkSIajrjdoS idxoDIaáljdofhls'Tyqf.a uQ,sl l;sldjla jkafkao
iajÉPkao;djh ms<sn| woyihs'—'''''ñksid ndysr lreKq bosßfha wkai;= ùu ksid Tyqf.a
iajÉPkao;dj wysñj f.dia we;'fulS iajÉPkao;dj fyj;a ish leue;a; wkqj lghq;= lsÍfï yelshdj
we;af;a ñksidg muKla kï w;Dma;sh"bÉPdNx.;ajh i|yd idf;%af.a úi÷u jkafka
iajÉPkao;djlska hqla;j cSj;a ùfuka tlS .eg¨j u.yefrk njhs'˜ 12fuhska meyeos,s jkafka idf;%ao
iodpdrd;aul jYfhka iajÉPkao;djh ñksidg mej;Su wjOdrKh lrk ,o njhs'
 Tyq úiska rpkd lrk ,o —Tlaldrh˜ keu;s lD;sh ;=< ndysr foa weiqßka i;=gla ,eìh fkdyels
nj;a taldldr cSú;h ;=<ska we;sjkafka l<lsÍula nj;a mjihs'Tyqg wkqj f,dalfha mj;sk jia;+ka fohdldr
fõ'tkï";ud i|yd mj;sk jia;+ka yd fjk;a foa i|yd mj;sk jia;+ka f,ih'WodyrK jYfhka wm i;= nvq
ndysrdosh mj;skqfha tajd i|yd fkdj wm i|ydh'kuq;a ñksid mj;skafka fjk;a foa i|yd fkdj ñksid i|
yduh'kuq;a we;eï wjia:dj, ñksido jia;= iajrEmhla f.k hka;% fuka l%shd lrhs'idf;%ag wkqj tysoS
Tyq ukqIH;ajfhka msßfya'fï ksid ñksid ;j;a fohl Wmdhud¾.hla fkdù ksIagdjla ùu Tyq jvd
wjOdrKh fldg we;'—ñksid wjYHfhkau i,lkq ,nkafka ;ukaf.au ksIagdjla yeáhgh'ñksid
mj;skafka ñksid i|yduh';j;a fohla i|yd meje;au ñksia meje;au fkdfõ'˜ 13fulS woyiska
ldkaáhdkq iodpdr o¾Ykfha tk m%;s.Dys;hla jk ukqIH j¾.hd ksIagdjla ñi lsisúfgl;a
Wmdhud¾.hla f,i fhdod fkd.; hq;=h hk m%;s.Dys;h yd idf;%a tl`. jk nj ks.ukh l< yelsh'

Tyq we.hqï iïnkaOj orkafka idfmalaIljdoS u;hls'—hula f;dard.ekSu fïfia l<hq;= hehs
meyeos,s lr.ekSu i|yd iïu; jqKq fmdÿ we.hqï iïm%odhla we;af;a ke;'wmg wjYH wdldrhg
f;dard.ekSu wm úiskau l< hq;=h'˜14kuq;a idf;%ag wkqj fulS f;dard.ekSfï whs;sho mqoa.,hd
i;=fõ'fï wkqj idf;%a ;=< ks.;sjdoh neyer lrñka iajÉPkao;dj ms<s.ekSula oelsh yelsh'—
f;dard.ekSu yd j.lSu ms<sn| ixl,am ñksia cSú;h iïnkaOfhka w;sYh jeo.;a jknj wjOdrKh
lrñka idf;%a ;u o¾Ykh wjika lrhs'˜15

idxoDIaáljdosfhl= f,i jeo.;a jk ;j;a od¾Ykslfhl= f,i we,anÜ leuQ^1913-1960& jeo.;a fõ'—
uq¿ f,!lsl cSú;hu w¾: Y+kH ñ:Hdjla f,i leuQ meyeos,s lf<ah'˜ 16tuksid wm jk fjfyiska m,la
ke;'—isismqiaf.a ñ:Hd l:dj˜ kñka ,shQ lD;sfhka Tyq meyeos,s lrk wdldrhg isismqia keue;a;d
lrk ,o jrola ksid foúhka Tyqg o`vqjï muqKjhs'tkï"úYd, .,la lkao uqÿkg fmr<df.k hduhs'th lkao
uqÿkg .shmiq kej; my<g fmrf<hs'fï wdldrhg ;ju;a Tyq ., lkao u;g f.khdfuys ksr; fõ'ñksid iem
miqmi yUd hduo fujeks ksr¾:l l%shdjla fia leuQ fmkajdfohs'

Tyq oeä udkj ys;jdosfhls'ñksia >d;k" ksoyi iSud lsÍu"whs;sjdislï lv lsÍu hkdosh ms<sl=,a
l< Tyq"—ñksia cSú;fha w¾:Y+kH;ajh .ek l;d lf<ah'laIKslj isÿjk urKhla fya;=fjka ñksidf.a
cSú;hg we;s jákdlu ms<sn| m%Yak lf<ah'˜ 17kuq;a leuQg wkqj cSú;h w¾:j;a lrk we.hqï
moaO;shla mj;S'—tkï iudcfha cSj;ajk wfkla wh iu. tlsfkld flfrys Nla;Hdorfhka cSj;a ùuhs'tu
udkj Nla;sh yd wdorh wjxlj l< hq;a;ls'˜ 18tu.ska iudch ;=< kshu we.hqï we;sl< yelsnj leuQ
úYajdi lrhs'
 idxoDIaáljdosfhl= fukau úYaf,aIS o¾Ykhg;a"uydoaùmsl o¾Ykhg;a fukau mYapd;a
kQ;kjdohg;a n,mdk ,o úma,ùh od¾Ykslfhl= jYfhka ie,flk f*%âßla kSÜfIaf.a wdpdrd;aul woyia
flfia ùo hkak úuid ne,Su jeo.;ah' Tyq ;=< mej;sfha /äl,a Ñka;khls' “His radical questioning of
the value and objectivity of truth has been the focus of extensive commentary, and
his influence remains substantial, particularly in the Continental Philosophical
schools of Existentialism, Postmodernism and Post-structuralism”. 19 Tyq we.hqï
iïnkaOj bosßm;a lrkafka ksfIaOkd;aul woyils'foúhka ñhf.dia we;snj Tyqf.a úma,ùh wdma;hls' —
foúfhda hkafkka kSÜfIa fuysoS woyia lrkafka we.hqïh'wms fuu we.hqï úkdY fldg
we;af;uq'we.hqïj,ska f;drj cSj;a ùu ksiaidr ysia cSj;aùuls'˜ 20fï wkqj ñka meyeos,s jkafka
kSÜfIa we.hqï udkj cSú;h w¾:j;a lr.ekSu i|yd wjYH fia ms<s.kakd njhs' —uu;ajh ms<sn|
ye`.Su bj;a lrf.k mrd¾:ldó ye`.Sï we;slr.ekSfuka mqÿu wkaoug w¾:iïmkak we.hqï we;slr.;
yels nj kSÜfIa lSfõh'˜21 fï wkqj meyeos,s jkafka we.hqï ms<sn|j kSÜfIa kjuq oDIaáfldaKhlska
lreKq bosßm;a lr we;s njhs'

idxoDIaáljdosfhl= jk .íßfh,a ud¾fi,af.a iodpdrd;aul woyia ms<sn|j i,ld ne,SfïoS úfYaIfhka

Tyq ld¾ñl iudch ksid ñksidg ú|skakg isÿj we;s .eyeg ms<sn|j lreKq bosßm;a lr we;'—fuysoS uq¿
ñksia ixy;shu ms<s.;hq;= uQ,sl we.hqï iuQyhl b;d oreKq úmßKduhka isÿfõ'˜ 22 hehs Tyq
lreKq olajd we;'Tyqf.a meyeos,s lsÍug wkqj udkjhdf.a we.hqï kej; we;slr.ekSug kï wd.ñl Nla;sh
we;slr.; hq;=h'—kuq;a fuu m%Yakj,g kshu ms<s;=r kï wd.ñl Nla;shhs'f,dalfha we;s mru
i;Hh f,i foúhka jykafia ms<s.ekSfuka ;udf.a oeä Nla;sh weiqfrka foúhka iu. iyjH;djhg m;a
fjñka wmg cSú;fha mrud¾:h lrd <`.dúh yels hehs udrfi,a lshd isáfhah'˜ 23fï wkqj meyeos,s
jkafka ud¾fi,ag wkqj we.hqï kej; we;slr.ekSug kï foúhka ms<sn| Nla;sh w;sYh jeo.;a fldg i,ld
we;s njhs'idxoDIaáljdosfhl= jQ ld,a ceiam¾iao orkafka óg iudk woyils'Tyqg wkqj —cSú;h
w¾:j;a lr.; yels jkafka f,dalfha mru i;Hh oek .ekSfuks'tu mru i;Hh kï —i;aa;djhs˜
iEu fohlu mru i;Hh kï meje;auhs'tkï foúhka jykafiahs'tkï fuh oek .ekSfuka yd idlaId;a
lr.ekSfuka cSú;h w¾: iïmkak fõ'˜24

tfukau idxoDIaáljdosfhl= jQ ud¾áka ffyfv.¾ ÿlska ñoSu msKsi isÿ l< hq;af;a mru i;a;dj
wjfndaO lr.ekSuhs hkqfjka fudjqkag iudk woyila bosßm;a lrhs'fï wkqj meyeos,s jkafka fmdÿfõ
idxoDIaáljdoSka ñksidf.a meje;au iïnkaOj Wkkaÿ ù we;s njhs' tfukau fuu cSú;h b;d ÿlla nj;a bka
ñoSu i|yd l< hq;af;a l=ulao hkak ms<sn|j;a Tjqka úiska wjOdkh fhduq lr we;'ta wkqj fuh tla;rd
wdldrhlska iodpdruh kHdhla f,io ie,lsh yelsh'
 idxoDIaáljdoh iodpdr kHdhla jYfhka f.k ie,lSfïoS fuh uQ,sl jYfhkau we.hqï ms<sn|j
ork ,o woyi w;sYh jeo.;a fõ' idxoDIaáljdoSkag wkqj iodpdrd;aul we.hqï hkqfjka .; yels fmdÿ
iïuq;Ska we;af;a ke;' th l,ska l,g ;ekska ;ekg mqoa.,hdf.ka mqoa.,hdg fjkia fõ' ta wkqj meyeos,s
jkafka idxoDIaáljdoSka úiska iodpdrd;aul we.hqï iïnkaOj ord we;af;a idfmalaIljdoS u;hla jk njhs'
kuq;a fï ms<sn| wjOdkh fhduq lsÍfïoS úfYaIfhka iodpdr kHdhla fia i,ld ne,SfïoS we.hqï ms<sn|
idfmalaIljdoS oDIaáfldaKh ;=<ska meyeos,s jkafka mqoa.,hdf.ka mqoa.,hdg "iudcfhka
iudchg"ráka rgg fukau ld,fhka ld,hgo we.hqï fjkia jk njhs' kuq;a fufia fjkia jk we.hqï wkqj
iodpdrh ;SrKh lrkafka flfiao@ hk .eg¨j ks;e;skau mek k.S' iodpdr we.hqï iïnkaOj idfmalaIljdoS
u;hla oeÍu fjk;a od¾Yksl ;,hl isg isÿ l< yelsh' WodyrK f,i .%Sl hq.fha cSj;a jQ ú;KavjdoSka
úiska fï yd iudk woyila iodpdr we.hqï iïnkaOj ord we;'kuq;a" ú;KavjdoS od¾Ykslhka iodpdr
od¾Ykslhka fia ms<s.efkkafka ke;' kuq;a" idxoDIaáljdoh iodpdr kHdhla fia i,lkq ,nk ;;ajhla ;=<
we.hqï iïnkaO idfmalaIljdoS u;h ;=<ska iodpdrd;aul woyia bosßm;a fõo hkak iel iys;h'

tfukau iodpdr kHdhla u.ska wjOdkh fhduq l< hq;af;a fyd| yd krl ms<sn|jh'tlaflda fyd| fyda
krl fudkjdo hkak ;SrKh l< yels lsishï ks¾Kdhl lsysmhla fyda bosßm;a l< hq;=h' kuq;a"
idxoDIaáljdoS od¾Ykslhkaf.a iodpdrd;aul woyia ms<sn| i,ld ne,SfïoS fmkS hkafka Tjqka úiska
fyd| krl fudkjdoehs ;SrKh lsÍug wod< ks¾Kdhl fyda bosßm;a lr fkdue;s njhs' iodpdrfha uQ,sl
l;sldj fyd| yd krl ms<sn| fokq ,nk úksYaphka ms<sn| l;sldj fõ kï idxoDIaáljdoSka ta ms<sn| ú.
%yhl fyda kshe<S fkdue;s kï bka ks.ukh l< yelafla Tjqkaf.a l;sldj iodpdrd;aul lafIa;%hg wod<
fkdjk njls'wju ;rñka ñksid yeisßh hq;= wdldrh iïnkaO ir, wdpdrO¾u moaO;shla fyda Tjqka úiska
bosßm;a lr fkdue;s wdldrh meyeos,s fõ'

tfukau idoDIaáljdoSka úiska ñksidf.a ÿl ms<sn|j idlÉPd fldg we;' úfYaIfhka fojk f,dal
hqoaOfhka miq ñksidg uqyqK oSug isÿjQ fYdapkSh brKu iïnkaOj l,amkd lrñka ta fjkqfjka úi÷ï
bosßm;a lsÍug ìysjQ udkjjdoS od¾Yksl jHdmD;shla fia idxoDIaáljdoh fmkajdosh yelsh' ta wkqj
idxoDIaáljdofha uQ,sl l;sldj udkjhdh' kuq;a idxoDIaáljdoSka ñksidf.a ú|ùu yd bka ñoSu ms<sn|
idlÉPd lrkafkao tlsfkldf.ka fjkia jk wdldrfhks' udkjhdf.a ú|ùfuka Tjqka uqojd.ekSug Tjqka ;=<
meyeos,s fmdÿ woyila ke;' th ta ta od¾Ykslhd úiska ;udg wdfõKsl wdldrhg meyeos,s fldg we;' ta
wkqj fï iïnkaOj fmdÿ u;hla fkd;sîuo .eg¨ldÍh'

wfkla w;g ÿlska ñoSu iïnkaOj ta ta od¾Ykslhd bosßm;a lrk ,o úi÷ï iïnkaOj wjOdkh fhduq
lsÍfïoS we;uqka ta i|yd l,djg <eos úh hq;= nj olajhs' WodyrK jYfhka we,anÜ leuQ fmkajdosh
yelsh' kuq;a l,dj hkq fjku lafIa;%hls' l,dj"fi!kao¾hh yd wdpdr úoHdj hk úIh ldKav folu
we.hqïYS,S úoHdjka nj ienEh'kuq;a" fi!kao¾hh ;=<ska úuid nef,kafka rih ñysr wñysr hkdosh
ms<sn|jh' kuq;a wdpdrúoHdfõ l;sldj jkafka fyd| krl ms<sn|jh' fï wkqj l,dj yd fi!kao¾hh hk lafIa;
%fhka wdjrKh lrkq ,nk iSudj fkdj wdpdrúoHd lafIa;%fhka wdjrKh lrkqfha' ta wkqj l,dj ;=<ska
ñksidf.a we.hqï kej; we;slr.; yelso hkak .eg¨jls' ukaoh;a ñksidf.a Wmßu l,d;aul úkaokh iodpdr
úfrdaë úh yelsh' l,d ks¾udK ;=< iodpdr úfrdaë njla we;sfõ hk ms<s.ekSu we;af;a l,dj l,dj i|ydo@
ke;akï l,dj iudch i|ydo@ jeks l;sldjka f.dvke.S we;af;a fulS lreK u;h' fï wkqj l,d;aul <eoshdj
;=<ska ienúkau iodpdrd;aul we.hqï we;slr.; yelso@ hkak .eg¨jls' wfkla w;g tfia l,dj ;=<ska
iodpdrd;aul we.hqï we;slr .kafka flfiao@ hkak iïnkaO meyeos,s ú.%yhla Tjqka úiska bosßm;a lr
ke;' ta wkqj fuh yqfola jpkd¾: ú.%yhla muKla ù we;s nj meyeos,s fõ'

;jo" we;eï od¾Ykslhka úiska ñksidf.a iodpdr we.hqï we;slr.ekSu Wfoid úi÷u foúhka yd
iïnkaO lrhs' ta wkqj iuld,Sk hq.h olajdu od¾Ykslhkag wdOdk.%dyS foajjdofhka .e<ùug
yelshdjla ,eî fkdue;s nj bka meyeos,s fõ' udkj iudcfha m%dfhda.sl O¾;udjla ms<sn|j wêfN!;sl
ixl,amhla u.ska úi÷ï ,nd.kafka flfiao hkak .eg¨jls' wfkla w;g idxoDIaáljdoh ìysjkafka fojk f,dal
hqoaO jd;djrKfhka wk;=rejh' ta wkqj ñksidg ish¨ ÿIalr;djkag uqyqKoSug isÿjQfha fojk f,dal
hqoaOh ksid kï" tlS .eg¨j,g úi÷ï foúka ;=<ska ,nd.; yelskï tlS i¾jn,OdÍ foúhkag fujeks ;;ajhla
Wod fkdlsÍfï yelshdj fkdmej;sfhao@ fjk;a jpkj,ska lsjfyd;a udkjhdf.a .eg¨j,g ms<s;=re foúhkag
fidhd osh yelskï fojk f,dal hqoaOh isÿ fkdjk ;ekg j.n,d.ekSug Wkajykafiag yels fkdjQfha ukao@
hkak .eg¨jls'

tfukau idxoDIaáljdoSkag wkqj udkjhdf.a iajÉPkao;dj ;yjqre ùu udkjhdf.a meje;au iïnkaOj

w;sYh jeo.;a fõ' iajÉPkao;dfjys m%;smlaIh ksh;sjdohhs' we;eï idxoDIaáljdoS od¾Ykslhka úiska
iajÉPkao;dfõ wjYH;dj meyeos,s lrk w;ru ñksidf.a ú|ùug wod< úi÷u bosßm;a lrkafka foajjdoh yd
iïnkaO lrñks' ta wkqj foúhka úiska ñksidf.a ú|ùu yd iïnkaOj iykhla ,nd fohs kï bka woyia jkafka
ta i|yd foajjdofha msysg me;Sula fkdjkafkao@ ta wkqj foajjdoh jQ l,S tla;rd wdldrhl ksh;sjdohls'
th BIajr ksh;sjdoh fiao ye|skaúh yelsh' bka meyeos,s jkafka idxoDIaáljdoSka iajÉPkao;djfhys
wjYH;dj ms<s.kakd w;ru BIajr ksh;sjdohl msysg m;d we;s njhs' BIajr ksh;sjdoh ms<s.kafka kï
iajÉPkao;djla ;sìh fkdyel' iajÉPkao;djh ;sfí kï BIajr ksh;sjdoh l%shd;aul úh fkdyel' hï wjia:djl fï
iodpdr ixl,am folu ms<s.kafka kï th meyeos,s úixjdohls' ta wkqj meyeos,s jkafka
idxoDIaáljdoSkaf.a we;eï woyia úixjdohkag ;=vq fok njhs'

;jo"idxoDIaáljdoSkag wkqj iEu fohlau ukskq ,nk ñkqï oKav jkafka ñksidh' ñksidf.a
hym;g yd meje;aug ;=vq fokq ,nk foa ms<s.ekSu;a ñksidf.a whym;g yd meje;au iïnkaO .eg¨j,g
;=vq fokq ,nk foa m%;slafIam lsÍu;a fuu.ska isÿfõ' fuu ;;a;ajh m%Odk .eg¨ folla u;= lrhs' bka tlla
kï iEu fohlu ñkqï oKav ñksid f,i hula ;SrKh lrkafka flfiao@ th l=uk ñksfil=g idfmalaIj ;SrKh lrkq
,nkaklao@ hkakhs' úfYaIfhka udkjhd iïnkaO .eg¨ w;sYh ixlS¾K fõ'ukaoh;a mqoa.,hd hkq tlu
mokulska f.k ueksh yels m%mxphla fkdfõ' mqoa., hym; reÑ wreÑlï fukau iudc m%mxphka
n,mdk wkaou mqoa.,hdf.ka mqoa.,hdg fjkia fõ' ta wkqj ish,af,ys ñkqï oKav ñksid kï tlS ñkqï
oKav ms<sn|j t<ôh yels fmdÿ iïuq;sh l=ulao@ wfkla w;g tlS iïuq;shg t<öu i|yd wdfY%Ah
lr.kakd moku l=ulao@ hk .eg¨j mek k.S' fï iïnkaOj we;sjk wfkla .eg¨j kï udkjjdoSNdjh ke;skï iEu
fohlu ñkqï oKav f,i ñksid ie,ls,a,g .ekSu idfmalaI jYfhka ñksidg ys;lr úh yelsh' ukaoh;a bka
ñksidf.a iqL úyrKh fukau meje;au iïnkaOj wjOdkh fhduq lrkq ,nk neúks' kuq;a" bka mekkef.k
.eg¨j jkafka th wfkl=;a i;ajhka fukau mßir moaO;Skag fuh ys;lr jkq we;ao@ hkakhs' ñksidf.a
hym; yd meje;au fjkqfjka lghq;= isÿjkq ,nk fndfyda wjia:dj, bka i;=kag fyda mßirhg ydks
meñfKa' th iodpdrd;aul jYfhka ie,l=jfyd;a ks;e;skau i;aj whs;sjdislï fukau mßir wdpdrO¾u
lvjkq ,nk ;;ajhla ;=< idxoDIaáljdoh ñksid yd iïnkaO lreKq ms<sn|j muKla iodpdrjdoS woyia orkq
,nk ú.%yhla fia fmkajdosh yelsh' wfkla w;g fï ;=< l%sia;shdks wd.fï n,mEulao oelsh yelsh'
ukaoh;a l%sia;shdksh ;=< mejfik ldrKhla jkafka foúhkajykafia úiska ñksidf.a mßfNdackh i|ydh
wm wjg mßirh yd i;=ka ujkq ,en we;af;a'idxoDIaáljdoh ;=<skao .uH jkafka fujeks woyils'
úfYaIfhkau idxoDIaáljdoh ;=< BIajrjdoS fukau BIajrjdoS fkdjk jYfhka od¾Ykslhka
fofldÜGdYhls' ta wkqj BIajrjdoS od¾Ykslhkaf.a n,mEfuka by; wdl,am idxoDIaáljdoh ;=<
ia:dms; jkakg we;ehs is;sh yelsh'

tfukau we;eï idxoDIaáljdoS od¾Ykslhka úiska ñksidf.a ú|ùug iqÿiq m%;sl¾uhla f,i
ishosú kid.ekSu fmkajdoS we;' úfYaIfhkau we,afnhd leuQ" cSka fmda,a idf;%a jeks
od¾Ykslhska úiska fulS wdl,amh ord we;' fuh iodpdr úfrdaë fukau kS;s úfrdaëo jkakls' ta wkqj
iodpdr kHdhla jYfhka .;a l, ishosú kid.ekSu iïnkaOj woyia oelaùu jeros mQ¾jdo¾Yhla imhkakla
fia fmkajdosh yelsh'

;jo idxoDIaáljdosfhl= fia ie,flk ud¾áka ffyfv.¾ ms<sn|j jQ újdod;aul lreKla jkafka Tyq
ysÜ,¾f.a hqfoõ úfrdaë foaYmd,k jHdmdrfha flakaøSh mqoa.,fhl= ùuhs' Tyq ysÜ,¾f.a cd;sl
iudcjdoS mlaIfha m%n, idudcslfhls' ta wkqj iodpdrjdoS woyia oelajQjo Tyq l%shdldÍ jYfhka
ñksia fldÜGdYhla ;=rka lsÍu i|yd wjYH kHdhsl {dkh imhd we;ehso úfõpkh l< yelsh' fulS fya;=
u; idxoDIaáljdoh iodpdr kHdhla fia ie,lsh yelso@ hk .eg¨j mekk.S' flfia fj;;a udkjhdf.a meje;au
iïnkaOj wjOdkh fhduq lrñka ñksid ;=<ska .s<sfyk iodpdruh we.hqï iïnkaOj wjOdkh fhduq lsÍu
w.h l< hq;=h'

iuld,Sk o¾Yk iïm%odfhys úYaf,aIS yd uydoaùmsl jYfhka .efkk m%Odk Odrdjka folska
uydoaùmsl o¾Yk iïm%odh ksfhdackh lrkq ,nk od¾Yksl .=rel=<hla fukau tla w;lska iodpdr
kHdhla f,io idxoDIaáljdoh fmkajdosh yelsh' fuys mqfrda.dñhd fia ie,flkafka fidfrka
lsh¾ls.dâh'kuq;a fï ms<sn| úfYaIfhka mejish hq;= lreK kï idxoDIaáljdoh jQ l,S tl t,af,a .; yels
fmdÿ iïuq;s iuqodhlska mek ke.=Kq o¾Yk iïm%odhla fkdjk njhs'

fuh fojk f,dal hqoaO ld,iSudfjka miqj we;sjQ od¾Yksl m%jK;djls' úfYaIfhka ñka
ie,ls,su;a jkafka ñksidf.a meje;au ms<sn|jh' fojk f,dal hqoaOfhka miq ld,iSudj ;=< ñksid f.dÿre jQ
fYdapkSh ;;a;ajh oel ta flfrys wjOdkh fhduq lrñka bosßm;a jQ udkjjdoS woyia iuqodhl tl;=fjka
fuu idxoDIaáljdoS o¾Ykh jHq;amkak jkakg we;ehs mejfia'

fuu idxoDIaáljdoS woyia m%Odk úê folla Tiafia wOHhkh l< yelsh'ta jkdyS BIajrjdoS yd
BIajrjdoS fkdjk hkdoS jYfhks'BIajrjdoS idxoDIaáljdoSka f,i fidfrka lsh¾ls.dâ"ld,a ceiam¾ia".dì
%fh,a ud¾fi,a hkdoSka ye|skaúh yels w;r wkSIajrjdoS idxoDIaáljdoSka f,i cSka fmda,a idf;a
%"ud¾áka ffyv.¾"we,anÜ leuqia hkdoSka ye|skaúh yelsh'

idxoDIaáljdoSka fmdÿfõ ñksidf.a ÿl flfrys wjOdkh fhduq lr we;' ta wkqj ÿlska ñoSu i|yd
Tjqka úúO úi÷ï bosßm;a lr we;' we;uqka th l,djg mjrhs' we;uqka th foúhkajykafiag mjrhs'
we;uqka th wOHd;añl md¾Yjhg mjrhs' flfia kuq;a Tjqkaf.a fmdÿ ,laIKh jkafka l,d ks¾udK
;=<ska ish o¾Ykh bosßm;a lsÍuhs' ta wkqj l,dj yd fi!kao¾hhg jeä jeo.;aula ysñfõ'

flfia fj;;a fuh iodpdr kHdhla jYfhka ie,lSfïoS úfõpkd;aul wxYhlao ksrEmKh fõ'
úfYaIfhka Tjqkaf.a we.hqï iïnkaO woyia újdohg ;=vq foa' tfukau foajjdofha msysg me;Su"
iodpdrh fi!kao¾h lafIa;%h yd iïnkaO lsÍu" iajÉPkao;dj ms<sn| woyia úixjdohg ;=vq oSu"
iodpdruh jYfhka ishosú kid.ekSu w.h l< fkdyels ùu" iodpdrh iïnkaO fmdÿ tl`.;djla fyda fmdÿ
ñkqï o`vq fkdue;s ùu" ñksid iEu fohlu ñkqu jYfhka Ndú; lsÍu .eg¨ldÍ ùu hkdosh fmkajdosh yelsh'
flfia fj;;a ìysjQ ld,hg idfmalaIj úoHdj ms<sn| ie,ls,su;a ùu mfil ,d ñksid yd Tyqf.a meje;au ms<sn|
j ie,ls,su;a jQ od¾Yksl m%jK;djla jYfhka idxoDIaáljdoh w.h l< hq;=h'

mdol igyka
1'idxoDIaáljdoh"úuqla;s tosßisxy"f;fk;^ux., l,dmh&"ixia'chka; fndaf.dv"2013'13'ms'
2' O¾uisß" .=Kmd,"od¾Yksl m%Yak"wOHdmk m%ldYk fomd¾;fïka;=j"1975"186'ms'

3' f;fk;^ux., l,dmh&"13'ms'

4'-tu-

5'tosßixy "ohd"{dkodi fmf¾rd"od¾Yksl úu¾Yk"j;aud m%ldYlfhda"foysj,"2001"215'ms'

6'-tu-

7' tosßisxy "ohd"{dkodi fmf¾rd"ufkdaúoHd .=rel=< yd ufkdaúoHd{fhda"j;aud m

%ldYlfhda"foysj,"2009"63'ms'

8'úodk.uf.a"l=,fiak"od¾Yksl .eg¨"l;D m%ldYk"1997"ms'63'

9' en.wiki.org

10' od¾Yksl m%Yak" 187'ms'

11'-tu-188'ms'

12' od¾Yksl úu¾Yk"219'ms'

13' od¾Yksl m%Yak" 192'ms'

14'-tu-

15'-tu-

16'-tu-193'ms'

17' f;fk;^ux., l,dmh&"13'ms'

18' od¾Yksl m%Yak"193'ms'

19' en.wiki.org

20' O¾uisß" .=Kmd,"fIdamkayj¾ iy kSÜfIa"tia'f.dvf.a iy ifydaorfhda"fld<U 07"102'ms'

21'-tu-114'ms'

22' od¾Yksl m%Yak"189'ms'

23'-tu-190'ms'

24'-tu-
 wdY%s; .%ka: kdudj,sh
1'tosßisxy "ohd"{dkodi fmf¾rd"od¾Yksl úu¾Yk"j;aud m%ldYlfhda"foysj,"2001'

2'-tu- ufkdaúoHd .=rel=< yd ufkdaúoHd{fhda"j;aud m%ldYlfhda"foysj,"2009'

3'l,kaiQßh ta'ã'mS'"o¾Ykh ye|skaùula"f,alayjqia bkafjiaÜukaÜ mqoa' iud.u"1987'

4' O¾uisß" .=Kmd,"fIdamkayj¾ iy kSÜfIa"tia'f.dvf.a iy ifydaorfhda"fld<U 07"1897'

5'-tu- od¾Yksl m%Yak"wOHdmk m%ldYk fomd¾;fïka;=j"1975'

6' úodk.uf.a"l=,fiak"od¾Yksl .eg¨"l;D m%ldYk"1997'

i`.rd$ jdr m%ldYk

1' idxoDIaáljdoh"úuqla;s tosßisxy"f;fk;^ux., l,dmh&"ixia'chka; fndaf.dv"2013'

Web sites

1. en.wiki.org