ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS 152

By analogy with the electrostatic case we define the permeability of a material by its
ability to change the inductance of a solenoid. The permeability, µ, is the ratio of the
inductance L, to the inductance without the material being present, Lo, i.e.
L
µ = .... (6.14) Substances with µ less than
Lo
one are termed diamagnetic
The permeability of most materials is found to be extremely close to unity. Unlike the while substances with µ
electrostatic case (where ε is always greater than unity) µ may be less than or greater greater than one are called
than unity. paramagnetic.

Table 6.3 lists values of µ for a number of different materials.

Certainly for biological materials we can consider µ to be sufficiently close

to one to make no difference. In other words the magnetic field lines will
be virtually unchanged on passing through biological materials: tissues
are 'transparent' as far as the magnetic field is concerned.

Ferromagnetic materials will influence a magnetic field in the same way

that dielectrics influence an electric field. While an electric field will
polarize a dielectric a magnetic field will magnetise a ferromagnetic
material. The analogy could be carried further with discussion of the field
in and around a ferromagnetic material. Figures 6.13 and 6.14 would be
appropriate if we replaced the electric field E with the magnetic field B and
substituted µ for ε. However since the effects are negligible for biological Table 6.3
materials we will not pursue this topic further. Permeability of various materials.

Magnetic Fields and Induced EMF

We now return to the questions left unanswered earlier and further
examine the effect of magnetic fields on charges. We have already
considered electric charge moving in a magnetic field and found that the

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ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS 153

charge experiences a force in a direction perpendicular to both the magnetic field and
the current direction (figure 6.8). This applies both to current flowing along a wire, as
in figure 6.8 and to current flow in a vacuum or near vacuum, as in a television picture
tube.

Consider the following experiments which can be performed with two loops of wire.
Figure 6.20 shows the arrangement of the apparatus which is needed. Loop 2 is
connected, through a switch, to a battery. Loop 1 is connected to a sensitive current
meter or galvanometer.

If the switch were in the closed position,

current is flowing through loop 2 and a
magnetic field exists. Since the electrons
in loop 1 are not moving, we know from
Ampere's law that there is no force on them
and hence no force on the loop.

What happens if now we move loop 1 away

from loop 2? In moving the loop upwards
we find that the galvanometer deflects
indicating a flow of current in loop 1. As
soon as we stop moving loop 1, the current
flow ceases.

If we use the three dimensional axes of

figure 6.8 and regard the direction of Figure 6.20
movement of the loop as the current An experiment with moving wire loops.
direction we predict a force on the electrons
in loop 1 in a direction along the wire. This
then is the explanation for the induced
current in loop 1.

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ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS 154

If now we fix loop 1 in figure 6.20 and instead move loop 2 downwards what is the
effect? In this instance instead of moving electrons through a magnetic field we have
left the electrons alone and moved the field. The net result is the same as we found in
the first example: the galvanometer deflects indicating a flow of current in loop 1.
Clearly it is only the relative motion of the conductor and field which is important in
determining whether current is induced.

When moving the conductor in a fixed field or moving the field with the conductor fixed,
the essential process occurring is that charges are crossing magnetic field lines.
Whenever this happens the charges experience a force. v in the diagram above is the
direction of movement -
What happens then if we keep both loops fixed and suddenly switch off the current in either of the field, the wire or
loop 2? As far as loop 1 is concerned one of two things could have happened. Either electrons (current).
the magnetic field disappeared because the current causing it was stopped or the
loop responsible for the field was suddenly accelerated away from the vicinity. The net
effect is the same - current is induced in loop 1 because of the changing magnetic
field.

The observation can be explained by picturing the magnetic field collapsing on loop 2.
With current flowing in loop 2 a magnetic field, represented by concentric circles
around the wire, is present (figure 6.7). When the current is switched off the circular
field lines can be visualized as shrinking; converging on the wire and disappearing
into it. Thus the field direction is in concentric circles but the direction of movement of
the field is radially inwards towards the wire of loop 2. This is illustrated in figure 6.21.

Figure 6.21
Magnetic force acting on charges when
current in in loop 2 is switched off.

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ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS 155

Closing the switch in figure 6.20 causes current to flow in loop 2 and a field
builds up around the wire. The increasing field is represented by a series The experiments described
of expanding concentric rings emanating from the wire. The direction of demonstrate the principle of
increase of the field is radially outwards (opposite to v in figure 6.21). electromagnetic induction. A current
Experimentally we observe a flow of current in loop 1, in the opposite is induced in loop 1 either by moving
direction to that when the switch was opened (i.e. F is reversed when v is the loops or by switching the current
reversed in figure 6.21) and so causing the field to change. In
each instance the charges in loop 1
Once the current flow is steady, the magnetic field is constant and current is are crossing magnetic field lines.
no longer induced in loop 1. This results in a force on the charges
and hence charge movement. The
Now consider what happens if, instead of switching the current in loop 2 of direction of the induced current is at
figure 6.20 on or off, we pass an alternating current through it. By the right angles to both the field direction
principles outlined above we would expect to find an alternating current and the direction of movement.
produced in loop 1. This process, as you may have realized, forms the
basis of transformer action: a process described in chapter 1.

When an alternating current flows in the primary winding of a transformer, an

alternating magnetic field is produced around the primary and an alternating current is
thus induced in the secondary. The secondary circuit need not be closed. If no
ammeter or other components are connected to the secondary, current will still be
able to flow to the ends of the secondary winding. This will result in a difference in
charge between each end of the winding and thus a potential difference between the
endings.

A major point that should be noted here is that although we have talked about the
current induced in a conducting wire loop, we need not have restricted the discussion
to conductors. Although insulators have their electrons tightly bound to the molecule
and current will not flow, the charges will still experience a force and this force will
polarize the molecules.

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ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS 156

Since electric field strength is defined as the force per unit charge we could include
both insulators and conductors in our discussion by referring to the induced electric
field or electromotive force (EMF) arising as a result of changing magnetic field.

The principle of electromagnetic induction applies to any material placed in a

changing magnetic field. An electric field is always produced as a result of the change
in a magnetic field. If a conductor is in the changing magnetic field, a current will be
induced whereas if an insulator is in the changing magnetic field only polarization will
result.

When an alternating current is induced in a slab of conducting material

rather than a wire the currents are given the special name 'eddy currents'.
The term arises because the most common geometry, a conducting
cylinder placed in a solenoid as in figure 6.22, gives rise to circular current
paths at right angles to the magnetic field. Provided that the magnetic field
of the solenoid is changing i.e. the field lines are moving, force will be
produced on charges in the conductor, resulting in current flow. An
alternating current in the solenoid will result in an induced alternating
current flow in the conductor.

To understand why the induced current follows circular pathways we need

to think about the direction of the magnetic field lines and their direction of
movement. A force will be produced with a direction at right-angles to each
of these. Figure 6.7 shows the magnetic field pattern around a solenoid. Figure 6.22
Magnetic field lines inside the solenoid run parallel along the central axis. Current induced in a conductive
material placed in a solenoid.
If alternating current flows though the solenoid, the magnetic field will
build-up then collapse, build-up in the reverse direction then collapse in
repetitive cycles. As the field builds-up, the field line loops in figure 6.7 will
grow larger as new loops form. This is illustrated in figure 6.23.

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ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS 157

Figure 6.23
Note the movement of the field lines. One field line is highlighted in red to Movement of field lines as the current
show how the line moves towards the central axis as the current flow (and through a solenoid increases.
field intensity) increases. For field lines inside the solenoid, the field line
movement is always radially inwards as the field increases and radially
outward as the field decreases.

Figure 6.24 shows the conductive cylindrical object in figure 6.22, viewed end-
on. The magnetic field lie (B), direction of movement (v) and resulting force (F)
vectors are shown at different points. The B arrows point out of the page,
directly towards you and are shown as blue circles.

Because the field, B, is always pointing out of the

page (along the cylinder axis) and v is always radially Figure 6.24
inwards, the resulting force (EMF) always acts Direction of force and induced
around the circumference of a circle. This is why the current as a result of an increasing
induced current follows circular pathways. magnetic field intensity.

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ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS 158

The force, F, acts clockwise when v points inwards i.e. when the current and,
consequently the magnetic field is increasing, When the current decreases, the When the current through the
magnetic field collapses and loops shrink towards the coil (the reverse of that shown coil is increasing, the induced
in figure 6.23) so the direction of v in figure 6.24 is reversed. The consequence is that current flows in an anti-
the direction of F is reversed and the induced current flow reverses direction. Thus an clockwise direction. When the
alternating current is induced in the conductor as a result of the alternating magnetic current flow is decreasing, the
field. induced current flows in a
clockwise direction.
The important conclusion to draw from figures 6.22 to 6.24 is that an alternating
current in the solenoid gives rise to an alternating magnetic field. This, in turn, gives
rise to an alternating EMF in the material within the solenoid. If the material is a
conductor a current will be induced which follows a circular path parallel to the current
in the solenoid. If the material is an insulator the molecules will polarize in alternating
directions along arcs parallel to the solenoid loops. In either case an induced electric
field is produced with the field direction parallel to the wires in the solenoid. The
actual amount of induced current flow will depend on the dielectric constant and
conductivity of the material.

Magnetic Fields in Tissue

From the previous discussion it should now be apparent that three factors determine
the effect of an alternating magnetic field on a material:

the permeability, µ, which is a measure of the 'magnetizability' of a material. This

determines the magnetic field strength around and within a material placed in the
field. The permeability is very close to unity for most biological materials: only
ferromagnetic substances have a significant effect on the field strength.

the conductivity, σ , which determines the amount of current flow in response to the
applied (alternating) magnetic field. The higher the conductivity the greater will be the

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ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS 159

induced current.

the dielectric constant, ε , which measures the 'polarizability' of a material. The

higher the dielectric constant the greater will be the amount of charge movement as a
result of polarization of the material.

A significant difference between electric and magnetic fields in tissue is that biological
tissue is 'transparent' in a magnetic field. The permeability, µ, is close to 1.000
meaning that the magnetic field is virtually unaffected by the presence of biological
tissue. This contrasts with biological tissue in an electric field, where the field
intensity varies according to the electrical properties of different tissues. While the
electrical properties of fat, muscle and bone are quite different, the magnetic
properties are almost identical.

This means that for a body segment in an electric field, the field within tissue will vary
according to tissue type. The field in muscle is lower than in the fatty tissue or bone
(figure 6.19). In a magnetic field, no such variation occurs. The field intensities in fat,
muscle and bone are virtually identical. Thus if, for example, a limb segment is
exposed to a magnetic field by a surrounding coil as in figure 6.22, the magnetic field
intensity (and consequently the induced EMF) within fatty tissue, muscle and bone will
be the same.

The differences between current induced by an alternating electric field and that
induced by an alternating magnetic field will be discussed further in chapter 7.

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