Magnetostatics and Magnetic Fields In Matter

PYL100: EM Waves and Quantum Mechanics

Semester I 2018-2019

Prof. Rohit Narula1

1 Department of Physics

The Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi

August 30, 2018

Outline

Preliminaries

Lorentz Force Law

The Biot-Savart Law

The Divergence and Curl of B

Boundary Conditions

The Magnetic Vector Potential

Magnetization
References

I Introduction to Electrodynamics, David J. Griffiths [IEDJ]

I Chapter V, Magnetostatics
I Chapter VI, Magnetic Fields In Matter
Current Carrying Wires Exert a Force Upon Each Other
experimental findings

I If the currents are anti-parallel, the wires repel.

I If the currents are parallel, the wires attract.
I Is the force somehow due to attraction/repulsion of charges?
Current Carrying Wires Exert a Force Upon Each Other
experimental findings

I Ans: No1 , in fact, a test charge q of either sign kept near a

wire carrying charge doesn’t seem to exert a force on the wire,
nor is there a force on the test charge.
I But wait, since we have electrons carrying current in our wire,
shouldn’t each of them have an electric field associated with
them?
1
Actually yes, there is an axial electric field due to a current carrying wire in
the direction of its current, but which is usually quite weak. This is briefly
mentioned in the Feynman lectures Vol. II.
The Magnetic Field

I Whereas a stationary charge produces only an electric field E

in the space around it, a moving charge generates, in
addition, a magnetic field B.
I The sense/direction of this magnetic field B is given by the
right hand rule, i.e.,
I It is clockwise to the wire when the conventional current
points into the page, and
I Anti-clockwise when the conventional current points out of the
page.
Magnetic Forces

I the magnetic force on a charge Q, moving with velocity v in

a magnetic field B, is

Fmag. = Q(v × B)

known as the Lorentz Force law which can be generalized to

F = Q[E + (v × B)]

when an electric field E is also present.

Cyclotron Motion

I Problem: What is the motion of a charged particle of mass m

moving with velocity v in a magnetic field B?
I It’s circular with radius R, with the magnetic force providing
the centripetal acceleration.
I Thus from Newtonian mechanics we get the cyclotron
formula,
mv 2
QvB = or, p = QBR
R

I Experimentally, we can find the momentum p by sending it

through a B field, and then measure its radius, and applying
p = QBR
Cyclotron Frequency

I We can also derive the cyclotron frequency, i.e., the angular

frequency with which the charged particle of mass m and
velocity v makes one complete circular orbit as,
v QB
ω = 2πν = 2π =
2πR m

I When there is a non-zero component of the particle’s velocity

in a direction parallel to B, i.e., vk 6= 0 we get motion that
reminds us of a spiral.
Currents

I The current in a wire is the charge per unit time passing

through a given point.
I By definition, negative charges moving to the left count the
same as positive ones to the right.
I Current is measured in coulombs-per-second, or amperes (A)
where,
1A = 1C /s

I Given a current I we can recast the Lorentz force law as,

Z
Fmag. = I (dl × B)
Magnetic forces do no work!!!

I Can you reason why?

I Given the Lorentz Force law,

Fmag. = Q(v × B)

I . . . the work done if Q moves an amount dl = v dt is,

dWmag = Fmag. · dl = Q(v × B) · v dt = 0

since v × B is evidently ⊥ to v
I While magnetic forces may alter the direction2 in which
a particle moves, they cannot speed it up or slow it
down.

2
Because Fmag. is always ⊥ to v .
What’s doing the work?

I The upward force applied by the magnetic field B (which acts

into the plane of the page) is
Z
Fmag . = I (dl × B) = IBaŷ
What’s doing the work?

I If we now increase the current to I 0 , Fmag exceeds the

downward force of gravity, and the loop rises, lifting the
weight, by say, h.
I We might be tempted to conclude that,

Wmag = Fmag h = I 0 Bah

where h is the distance the loop rises.

I However, we know that magnetic fields do no work, so
what gives?
Whose doing the work?

I When the loop starts to rise, the charges in the wire

no longer move purely horizontally –they also acquire an
upward velocity u, the speed of the loop.
I . . . in addition to the preexisting horizontal velocity w
associated with the current (I 0 = λw ) where λ is the line
charge density.
I The net magnetic force Fmag. = q(v × B) is ⊥ to v dt (the
net displacement of the charge), and therefore it does no work
on q.
Whose doing the work?

I The vertical component of the magnetic force is,

Z
Fvert. = Ihorz. (dl × B) = (λw )(ax̂ × −B ẑ) = I 0 Baŷ

I The horizontal component of the magnetic force is,

Fhorz. = q(u × B) = λa(u ŷ × −B ẑ) = −λuBax̂
which opposes the flow of current.
I The horizontal component of the magnetic force is exactly
counterbalanced by the battery as,
Fbatt. = +λuBax̂
It was the Battery!

I In a time dt, the charges move a (horizontal) distance wdt, so

the work done by an external energy source is,
Z
Wbatt. = Fhorz. · dlhorz. = Fhorz. wdt = λaB uwdt = I 0 Bah

demonstrating that instead of the magnetic field, it is the

battery doing all the work.
I The magnetic field redirected the horizontal force of the
battery into the vertical motion of the loop and the weight!
Lorentz Force Law for Surface Currents

I The surface current density K is

dI
K= = σv
dl⊥
and the associated Lorentz Force Law is,
Z Z
Fmag = (v × B)σda = (K × B)da
Lorentz Force Law for Volume Currents

I The volume current density J is

dI
J= = ρv
da⊥
and the associated Lorentz Force Law is,
Z Z
Fmag = (v × B)ρdτ = (J × B)dτ
The Continuity Equation
I
dI
J= ⇒I = J · da
da⊥ S
where we have used the fact that a represents a closed area.
I Invoking the divergence theorem,
I Z
J · da = (∇ · J)dτ
S V

I Now, because charge is conserved

Z Z Z  
d ∂ρ
(∇ · J)dτ = − ρdτ = − dτ
V dt V V ∂t
giving us the continuity equation,
∂ρ
∇·J =−
∂t

I The − means that an outward flow decreases the charge left

in V.
Steady Charges & Currents
I Stationary charges ( ∂ρ
∂t = 0) produce electric fields that are
constant in time; hence the term electrostatics.
I Steady currents ( ∂J
∂t = 0) produce magnetic fields that are
constant in time; the theory of steady currents is called
magnetostatics.
I Formally electro/magnetostatics,
∂ρ ∂J
= 0, =0
∂t ∂t
at all places and all times.
I In the electrostatic regime ( ∂ρ
∂t = 0) the continuity equation
boils down to,
∇·J =0

I Notice that a (collection of) moving point charge(s) cannot

possibly constitute a steady current!
I Magnetostatics only deals with the mathematical fictions of
continuous current distributions.
The Biot-Savart Law

I B due to a steady line current is given by the Biot-Savart

law:
I × ŝ 0 dl 0 × ŝ 0
Z Z
µ0 µ0
B(r ) = dl = I dl
4π s2 4π s2

I The integration is along the current path. l 0 (’ell’) is an

element of length along the wire, and s is the vector from the
source to the point r .
I The constant µ0 is called the permeability of free space:
µ0 = 4π × 10−7 N/A2

I The unit of the magnetic field B is N/(A · m) or Tesla (T ).

Example: Biot-Savart Law
The magnetic field of a current carrying wire.

I (dl 0 × ŝ) points out of the page, and has the magnitude,
dl 0 sin α = dl 0 cos θ

I Since l 0 = z tan θ,
z
dl 0 = dθ
cos2 θ
and z = s cos θ,
1 cos2 θ
=
s2 z2
Example: Biot-Savart Law

I Thus the magnetic field,

µ0 θ2 cos2 θ  z 
Z  
µ0 I
B= cos θdθ = (sin θ2 −sin θ1 )
4π θ1 z2 cos2 θ 4πz

and thus for an inifinite wire we have θ1,2 = ∓π/2 giving us,

µ0 I
B= φ̂
2πz
The force between two current carrying wires

I From the Lorentz force law, the force on wire 2 due to the B
of wire 1 is,
Z  Z
µ0 I1
F2 = I2 (dl2 × B) = I2 dl2
2πd
where clearly the force between two infinite wires is ∞
I However, the force per unit length is well-behaved,
µ0 I1 I2
f = f1 = f2 =
2πd
Straight-Line Currents

I The above Fig. shows the magnetic field of an infinite

straight wire.
I Recall,
µ0 I
B= φ̂
2πr

I Let us integrate it around a closed circular path of radius R,

I
µ0 I
B · dl = 2πR = µ0 Iencl.
2πR
Ampere’s Law
I It doesn’t have to be a circle; any loop that encloses the wire
would give the same answer!
I In fact we obtain Ampere’s Law,
I X Z
B · dl = µ0 Iencl. = µ0 J · da

I Applying Stoke’s theorem,

Z Z
(∇ × B) · da = µ0 J · da

I We finally get3 ,
∂E
∇ × B = µ0 J+µ0 0
∂t
the differential form of Ampere’s Law.
3
Our derivation is not general enough because we had restricted ourselves
to, 1. to a circular path, and 2. to infinite current carrying wires. But for this
course, it will suffice.
Gauss’ law for Magnetism
I The differential form of Gauss’ law for Magnetism states that
∇·B =0
which famously implies that magnetic monopoles do not
exist.
I The integral form of Gauss’ law is then,
I
B · da = 0
S

I Unlike positive, and negative electric charges which act as

sources (hence the non-zero divergence of E due to an
isolated charge), magnetic monopoles are deemed to not exist.
I Magnets only come in pairs, i.e., both the north and south
poles are coincident.
I Since there are no sources, field lines for B are always
closed/loopy, while the field lines for E must start/end at
positive/negative source charges.
The Field Due to a Solenoid

I . . . is a coil whose length is substantially greater than its

diameter, often wrapped around a metallic core, which
produces a nearly uniform magnetic field when an electric
current is passed through it.
I Problem: Find the magnetic field of a very long solenoid,
consisting of n closely wound turns per unit length on a
cylinder of radius R, each carrying a steady current I .
The Field Due to a Solenoid
radial component

I Proposition: If we reverse the direction of the current, Br

should be negative.
I But reversing I is physically equivalent to turning the solenoid
upside down, which shouldn’t alter the radial field.
I The magnetic field cannot have a radial component! i.e.,

Br = 0
The Field Due to a Solenoid
azimuthal component

I What about the circumferential/azimuthal component Bφ ?

I Symmetry demands that Bφ should be constant around an
Amperian loop concentric with the solenoid, and thus,
I
B · dl = Bφ (2πr ) = µ0 Iencl. = 0

since the loop encloses no current through it.4

4
This is only strictly true in the limit n → ∞.
The Field Due to a Solenoid
axial component

I So the magnetic field of an infinite, closely wound solenoid is

purely axial.
I From the right-hand rule, we expect that it points upward
inside the solenoid and downward outside.
I Of course, we expect Bz to approach zero as you go very far
away.
The Field Due to a Solenoid

I Consider the Amperian Loop 1. which gives us,

I
B · dl = [Bz (a) − Bz (b)]L = µo Iencl. = 0

telling us that the field outside the solenoid is zero, since it

must fall of to zero far away from the solenoid.
I Consider the Amperian Loop 2. which gives us,
I
B · dl = Bz L = µ0 Iencl. = µ0 nIL

where B is the axial and constant everywhere inside the

solenoid.
Continuity of B⊥

I Applying Gauss’ Law for magnetism in integral form,

I
B · da = 0

to a wafer-thin pillbox straddling the surface we get,

above below
B⊥ = B⊥
Discontinuity of Bk

I As for the tangential components, an Amperian loop running

perpendicular to the surface current K ,
I
B · dl = (Bkabove − Bkbelow )l = µo Iencl. = µ0 Kl

I and thus,
Bkabove − Bkbelow = µ0 K
Combined Boundary Condition for B

I The boundary conditions for both the normal and tangential

components of B can be combined to give,

Babove − Bbelow = µ0 (K × n̂)

The Magnetic Vector Potential

I We know that,
∇·B =0

I We may utilize the vector identity that,

∇ · (∇ × A) = 0

to write,
B =∇×A
where A is known as the magnetic vector potential.
I From Ampere’s law,

∇ × B = µ0 J = ∇ × (∇ × A)
The Magnetic Vector Potential

I where we can now use the vector identity,

∇2 A = ∇(∇ · A) − ∇ × (∇ × A)

which gives us,

∇(∇ · A) − ∇2 A = µ0 J

I Also given B = ∇ × A we observe that B is invariant under

the transformation,
A → A − ∇ψ
i.e., the vector potential A is undetermined to the gradient of
a scalar field, an example of a gauge freedom.
The Magnetic Vector Potential

I One judicious way of exploting this freedom/redundancy,

particularly convenient for steady currents, is the so-called
Coulomb gauge,
∇·A=0
giving us the vector Poisson’s equation,

∇2 A = −µ0 J

I It’s solution, in analogy with the Poisson’s equation for the

scalar potential V is,

J(r 0 ) 0 I (r 0 ) 0 K (r 0 ) 0
Z Z Z
µ0 µ0 µ0
A(r ) = dτ = dl = da
4π s 4π s 4π s
The Magnetic Flux Φ

I The magnetic flux Φ through an open5 surface S is defined as

the total magnetic flux density passing through it,
Z
Φ = B · da

I Invoking Stoke’s theorem we obtain,

Z I
Φ = (∇ × A) · da = A · dl
S C

over the contour C bounding the surface S.

5
The flux through a closed surface is, of course, zero.
The Magnetic Moment

I Consider a small loop carrying a current I , and enclosing an

area A. The quantity

m = I A = IAn̂

defines the magnetic moment m, and is a vector quantity,

which is positive when the current is anti-clockwise.
I It determines the torque6 the current loop will experience in
an external magnetic field.

N = m × Bext.
6
This torque is valid in the presence of a uniform field; in a nonuniform field
it is the exact torque (about the center) for a perfect dipole of infinitesimal
size.
The Magnetic Moment

I The direction of the magnetic moment points from the south

to north pole of the magnet (inside the magnet).
I Magnetization in a material is due to:
I atomic scale current loops associated with orbital motions of
the electrons and protons around and inside the nucleus
I electron spin
The far-field due to a magnetic moment

I The magnetic vector potential at the far-field of a magnetic

dipole moment m is7 ,
µ0 m × ŝ
A(r ) =
4π s 2

I Very similar to the far-field of an electric dipole, we can derive

the magnetic field for a tiny magnetic moment placed along
the ẑ axis as,
µ0 | m |  
B= 2 cos θ r
ˆ + sin θ θ̂
4π | r |3
7
We will not be deriving this expression in this course.
What then are the poles of a magnet?

I Note that ∇ · B = 0 prohibits the magnetic field from having

any poles!
I What we call pole is usually the place when field-lines
physically impinge the physical source of the field (eg. earth,
magnet).
What then are the poles of a magnet?

I But, in fact these lines continue even through the source and
make ellipsoids.
Electron Orbital Magnetic Moment

I An electron with charge of e moving at constant speed v in a

circular orbit of radius r completes one revolution in time
T = 2πr /v .
I This circular motion of the electron constitutes a tiny loop
with current I given by
e ev
I =− =−
T 2πr
Electron Orbital Magnetic Moment

I The magnitude of the associated orbital magnetic moment

mo is,  
e
mo = I A = − Le
2me
where Le = me (r × p) is the is the angular momentum of the
electron and me is its mass.
I Question: Despite the fact that all materials contain
electrons that exhibit magnetic dipole moments, are most
materials effectively nonmagnetic?
I Ans: This is because, in the absence of an external magnetic
field, the atoms of most materials are oriented randomly, as
a result of which they exhibit a zero, or a very small net
magnetic moment.
Electron Spin Magnetic Moment

I In addition to the magnetic moment due to its orbital motion,

an electron has an intrinsic spin magnetic moment ms due
to its ”spinning” motion about its own axis.
I The magnitude of ms predicted by quantum theory is,
e~
ms ≈ ∓ = ∓µB
2me
where µB is known as the Bohr Magneton, and can only
take the two values ∓µB .
I The e − s of an atom with an even number of e − s usually exist
in pairs, with the members of a pair having opposite spin,
canceling each others’ spin magnetic moments.
I If the number of electrons is odd, the atom has a net nonzero
spin magnetic moment due to its unpaired electron.
Bound Currents in Magnetizable Materials
I In the presence of a magnetic
Pfield, matter
R acquires a net
magnetic moment mtotal = mind. = Mdτ , which will in
turn produce an induced magnetic field.
I Starting from the vector potential for a magnetic dipole,
µ0 m × ŝ
A(r ) =
4π s 2
we can rewrite it as,
M(r 0 ) × s 0
Z
µ0
A(r ) = dτ
4π s3
where M is the magnetic dipole moment per unit volume, or
magnetization.
I Similar to the derivation for bound charges it may be written
as,
Z I 
µ0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
A(r ) = [∇ × M(r )]dτ + [M(r ) × da ]
4π s s
Bound Currents

I The first term is the potential of a volume current density,

Jb = ∇ × M

I The second term is the potential of a surface current

density,
Kb = M × n̂
and thus,
Z I 
µ0 Jb 0 Kb 0
A(r ) = dτ + da ]
4π s s
Magnetization and Auxiliary Field
I We can write the total volume current density as,
1
J = Jb + Jf = (∇ × M) + Jf = (∇ × B)
µ0

I We may define the auxiliary field8 as,

1
H≡ B −M
µ0

I H satisfies its own Ampere’s law,

I
∇ × H = Jf or, H · dl = Ifencl.

where Ifencl. is the total free current passing through the

Amperian loop.
I Basically, H plays a role in magnetostatics analogous to D in
electrostatics.
8
Again, we are neglecting the contribution of the surface current density Kb .
Magnetic Permeability
I Moreover, just as in most dielectrics P and E are linearly
related, in most magnetic materials,

M = χm H

where χm is dimensionless: magnetic susceptibility.

I For diamagnetic (acquire M anti-parallel to H) and
paramagnetic (acquire M parallel to H) materials, χm is a
(T -dependent) constant, resulting in a linear relationship
between M and H at a given T .
I For such materials,

B = µ0 (1 + χm )H = µH or, H = B/µ

where µ, the magnetic permeability of the material, relates

to χm as,
µ = µr µ0 = µ0 (1 + χm )
where µr is the relative permeability.
Diamagnets, Paramagnets, Ferromagnets

I A material is classified as diamagnetic, paramagnetic, or

ferromagnetic on the basis of the value of its χm
I Diamagnetic materials have negative susceptibilities whereas,
I Paramagnetic materials have positive ones.
I However, the absolute magnitude of χm is on the order of
10−5 for both classes of materials,
I which for most applications allows us to ignore χm relative to
1!
Ferromagnets

I Ferromagnetic materials, which include iron, nickel, and

cobalt, exhibit unique magnetic properties due to the fact that
their magnetic moments tend to readily align along the
direction of an external magnetic field.
I Their χm are large, and positive.
I Moreover, such materials remain partially magnetized even
after the external field is removed. Because of these peculiar
properties, ferromagnetic materials are used in the fabrication
of permanent magnets.
Ferromagnets

I The properties of ferromagnetic materials derive from

magnetized domains, microscopic regions (on the order of
10−10 m3 ) within which the magnetic moments of all atoms
(typically on the order of 1019 atoms) are permanently aligned
with each other.
I This alignment, which occurs in all ferromagnetic materials, is
due to strong coupling forces between the magnetic dipole
moments constituting an individual domain.
Ferromagnets

I In the (historical) absence of an external magnetic field, the

domains take on random orientations relative to each other,
resulting in zero net magnetization.
I The domain walls forming the boundaries between adjacent
domains consist of thin transition regions.
I When an unmagnetized sample of a ferromagnetic material is
placed in an external magnetic field, the domains partially
align with the external field.
The Magnetization Curve

I The magnetization behavior of a ferromagnetic material is

described in terms of its BH magnetization curve
The Magnetization Curve

I Suppose that we start with an unmagnetized sample of iron,

denoted by point O.
I When we increase H continuously by, for example, increasing
the current passing through a wire wound around the sample,
B increases also along the BH curve from point O to point
A1 , at which nearly all the domains have become aligned with
H.
I Point A1 represents a saturation condition.
The Magnetization Curve

I If we then decrease H from its value at point A1 back to zero

(by reducing the current through the wire), the magnetization
curve follows the path from A1 to A2 .
I At point A2 , the external field H is zero (owing to the fact
that the current through the wire is zero), but the flux density
B in the material is not. The magnitude of B at A2 is called
the residual flux density Br .
I The material now behaves as a permanent magnet owing to
the fact that a large fraction of its magnetized domains have
remained aligned.
The Magnetization Curve

I Reversing the direction of H and increasing its intensity

causes B to decrease from Br at point A2 to zero at point A3 ,
and if the intensity of H is increased further while maintaining
its direction, the magnetization moves to the saturation
condition at point A4 .
I Finally, as H is made to return to zero and is then increased
again in the positive direction, the curve follows the path from
A4 to A1 . This process is called magnetic hysteresis.
Hysteresis: Hard vs. Soft

I Hysteresis means ”lag behind.”

I The existence of a hysteresis loop implies that the
magnetization process in ferromagnetic materials depends not
only on the prevailing magnetic field H, but also on the
magnetic history of the material.
Hysteresis: Hard vs. Soft

I The shape and extent of the hysteresis loop depend on the

properties of the ferromagnetic material and the
peak-to-peak range over which H is made to vary.
I Hard ferromagnetic materials are characterized by wide
hysteresis loops and cannot be easily demagnetized by an
external magnetic field because they have a large residual
magnetization Br .
I Hard ferromagnetic materials are used in the fabrication of
permanent magnets for motors and generators.
Hysteresis: Hard vs. Soft

I Soft ferromagnetic materials have narrow hysteresis loops, and

hence can be more easily magnetized and demagnetized.
Beware the difference between B − H, and M − H curves

I Recall, B = µ0 (H + M)
I The M − H curve saturates at Hsat ,
I While the B − H curve increases linearly beyond Hsat .