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pD 370.529 tD 137.582 tD 5.69549(tD )1.5
(10-35)
328.834 265.488 tD 45.2157 tD (tD )1.5
The dimensionless pressure derivative can then be approximated by
E
p
(10-36)
D
F
where E 716.441 46.7984 (tD)0.5 270.038 tD 71.0098 (tD)1.5
F 1296.86 (tD)0.5 1204.73 tD 618.618 (td)1.5
538.072 (tD)2 142.41 (tD)2.5
Example 10-9
Rework Example 10-7 by using the Carter-Tracy method.
Solution
Example 10-7 shows the following preliminary results:
Step 1. For each time step n, calculate the total pressure drop pn pi pn
and the corresponding tD
N t, days pn pn tD
0 0 2500 0 0
1 182.5 2490 10 180.5
2 365.0 2472 28 361.0
3 547.5 2444 56 541.5
4 730.0 2408 92 722.0
Step 2. Since values of tD are greater than 100, use Equation 6-92 to cal-
culate pD and its derivative pD , i.e.,
pD 0.5 [ln (tD) 0.80907]
pD 1/(2 tD)
N t tD pD pD
0 0 0 — —
1 182.5 180.5 3.002 2.770 103
2 365 361.0 3.349 1.385 103
3 547.5 541.5 3.552 0.923 103
4 730.0 722.0 3.696 0.693 103
We 12,266 bbl
42,546 bbl
We 104,406
We 202,477 bbl
The following table compares results of the Carter-Tracy water influx
calculations with those of the van Everdingen-Hurst method.
0 0 0
6 12,266 7080
12 42,546 32,435
18 104,400 85,277
24 202,477 175,522
t i i Wei
Wei
where (–pa)n 1 is the average aquifer pressure at the end of the previous
time step. This average pressure is calculated from Equation 10-39 as:
(We )n1
(p ) p 1 (10-44)
a n1 i
Wei
Infinite (10-47)
0.00708 kh f 0.001 k wh
J m ln (a / r ) J 0.0633kt
e m / (f m ct )
a 0.0142 kt / (fm ct )
Wei ct Wi pi f
Step 4. Calculate the incremental water influx (We)n from the aquifer
during the nth time interval by using Equation 10-42. For exam-
ple, during the first time interval t1:
Wei
(W ) p
Jpi t1
exp
(p )
1 r 1
e 1 i
pi
with Wei
(pr )1 pi (pr )1
2
For the second time interval t2
W
(W ) ei (p )
(p ) Jpi t2
exp
r 2 1
e 2
pi
a 1
Wei
Figure 10-17. Aquifer-reservoir geometry for Example 10-10.
where (–pa)1 is the average aquifer pressure at the end of the first
period and removing (We)1 barrels of water from the aquifer to
the reservoir. From Equation 10-43:
(p ) (We )1
p 1
a 1 i Wei
Step 5. Calculate the cumulative (total) water influx at the end of any
time period from:
n
We (We )i
t1
Example 10-102
2
Data of this example are given by L. P. Dake, Fundamentals of Reservoir Engineering,
Elsevier Publishing Company, 1978.
Time, days pr, psi
0 2740
365 2500
730 2290
1095 2109
1460 1949
Solution
e 140
r (2374) (43, 560)
360 9200 ft
a 140
r (1, 000, 000) (43, 560)
360 46, 000 ft
rD ra/ re
46, 000/9200 5
Step 4. Calculate initial water in place Wi.
W (r2 r2 ) h 5.615
i a e
Wei ct Wi pi f
140
Wei 7 106 (28.41 109 ) (2740) 211.9 MM bbl
360
Step 6. Calculate the productivity index J of the radial aquifer from Equa-
tion 10-45.
J
0.00708(200) (100)
140
Jpit / Wei 3
1e 1 e1.506 10 365
(We )n 211.9
[(pa )n1 (pr )n ] (0.4229)
106
2740
t (We)n (We)
n days pr (p–r)n (–pa)n 1 ( –pa)n 1 (p
– r)n MM bbl MM bbl
PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the cumulative water influx that results from a pressure drop
of 200 psi at the oil-water contact with an encroachment angle of 50°.
The reservoir-aquifer system is characterized by the following
properties:
Reservoir Aquifer
t, days p, psi
0 4000
120 3950
220 3910
320 3880
420 3840
Boundary pressure,
Time, months psi
0 2610
6 2600
12 2580
18 2552
24 2515
Reservoir Aquifer
radius, ft 2000
h, ft 25 30
k, md 60 80
, % 17 18
w, cp 0.55 0.85
cw, psi1 0.7 106 0.8 106
cf, psi1 0.2 106 0.3 106
If the encroachment angle is 360°, calculate the water influx as a
function of time by using:
The aquifer geological data estimate the water influx constant at 551
bbl/psi. After 1,120 days of production, the reservoir average pressure
has dropped to 3,800 psi and the field has produced 860,000 STB of
oil. The field condition after 1,120 days of production is given below:
p 3800 psi
Np 860,000 STB
Bo 1.34 bbl/STB
Bw 1.05 bbl/STB
We 991,000 bbl
tD 32.99 (dimensionless time after 1120 days)
Wp 0 bbl
It is expected that the average reservoir pressure will drop to 3,400 psi
after 1,520 days (i.e., from the start of production). Calculate the
cumulative water influx after 1,520 days.
6. A wedge reservoir-aquifer system with an encroachment angle of 60°
has the following boundary pressure history:
Time, days Boundary Pressure, psi
0 2850
365 2610
730 2400
1095 2220
1460 2060
Given:
h 120 cf 5 106 psi1 cw 4 106 psi1
w 0.7 cp k 60 md 12%
reservoir area 40,000 acres aquifer area 980,000 acres T 140°F
Calculate the cumulative influx as a function of time by using
Fetkovich’s method.
REFERENCES
1. Allard, D. R., and Chen, S. M., “Calculation of Water Influx for Bottom
Water Drive Reservoirs,” SPE Reservoir Engineering, May 1988, pp. 369–
379.
2. Carter, R. D., and Tracy, G. W., “An Improved Method for Calculations
Water Influx,” Trans. AIME, 1960.
3. Chatas, A., “A Practical Treatment of Nonsteady-State Flow Problems in
Reservoir Systems,” Petroleum Engineering, May 1953, 25, No. 5, B-42;
No. 6, June, p. B-38; No. 8, August, p. B-44.
4. Coats, K., “A Mathematical Model for Water Movement about Bottom-
Water- Drive Reservoirs,” SPE Jour., March 1962, pp. 44–52; Trans. AIME,
p. 225.
5. Craft, B., and Hawkins, M., Applied Reservoir Engineering. Prentice Hall,
1959.
6. Craft, B., Hawkins, M., and Terry, R., Applied Petroleum Reservoir Engi-
neering, 2nd ed. Prentice Hall, 1991.
7. Dake, L. P., Fundamentals of Reservoir Engineering. Amsterdam: Elsevier,
1978.
8. Dake, L., The Practice of Reservoir Engineering. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1994.
9. Edwardson, M. et al., “Calculation of Formation Temperature Disturbances
Caused by Mud Circulation,” JPT, April 1962, pp. 416–425; Trans. AIME,
p. 225.
10. Fetkovich, M. J., “A Simplified Approach to Water Influx Calculations-
Finite Aquifer Systems,” JPT, July 1971, pp. 814–828.
11. Hurst, W., “Water Influx into a Reservoir and its Application to the Equation
of Volumetric Balance,” Trans. AIME, Vol. 151, pp. 57, 1643.
12. Lee, J., and Wattenbarger, R., Gas Reservoir Engineering. SPE Textbook
Series, Vol. 5, SPE, Dallas, TX, 1996.
13. Schilthuis, R., “Active Oil and Reservoir Energy,” Trans. AIME, 1936, pp.
37, 118.
14. Van Everdingen, A., and Hurst, W., “The Application of the Laplace
Transfor- mation to Flow Problems in Reservoirs,” Trans. AIME, 1949, pp.
186, 305.
C H A P T E R 1 1
OIL RECOVERY
MECHANISMS AND THE
MATERIAL BALANCE
EQUATION
733
734 Reservoir Engineering Handbook
2. Provide the basic principles of the material balance equation and other
governing relationships that can be used to predict the volumetric per-
formance of oil reservoirs.
Both of the above two factors are the results of a decrease of fluid
pressure within the pore spaces, and both tend to reduce the pore volume
through the reduction of the porosity.
As the expansion of the fluids and reduction in the pore volume occur
with decreasing reservoir pressure, the crude oil and water will be forced
Oil Recovery Mechanisms and the Material Balance Equation 735
out of the pore space to the wellbore. Because liquids and rocks are only
slightly compressible, the reservoir will experience a rapid pressure
decline. The oil reservoir under this driving mechanism is characterized
by a constant gas-oil ratio that is equal to the gas solubility at the bubble
point pressure.
This driving mechanism is considered the least efficient driving force
and usually results in the recovery of only a small percentage of the total
oil-in-place.
gas will also begin a vertical movement due to the gravitational forces,
which may result in the formation of a secondary gas cap. Vertical per-
meability is an important factor in the formation of a secondary gas cap.
• Ultimate oil-recovery: Oil production by depletion drive is usually
the least efficient recovery method. This is a direct result of the forma-
tion of gas saturation throughout the reservoir. Ultimate oil recovery
from depletion-drive reservoirs may vary from less than 5% to about
30%. The low recovery from this type of reservoirs suggests that large
quantities of oil remain in the reservoir and, therefore, depletion-drive
reservoirs are considered the best candidates for secondary recovery
applications.