Sensors

Lecture (2)
 Static characteristics (cont.)
6. Sensitivity:
The ratio of the magnitude of the o/p signal to the magnitude of the
I/p signal.
O/P max value − min value
Sensitivity = =
I/P Full range
OR:
The slop of the calibration curve.
change of O/P signal
Sensitivity =
change of I/P signal
 For Linear sensors
O/P

Δ𝑞𝑖
𝑞𝑜
Δ𝑞𝑜

𝑞𝑖 I/P
Δ𝑞0
Sensitivity = =K
Δ𝑞𝑖
 For non-Linear sensors
O/P
𝑞1
𝐾1 =
𝑞𝑖
𝑞2
𝐾2 =
𝑞1
𝑞𝑜
𝐾3 =
𝑞2
I/P
𝑞0 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞0
∴ Overall Sensitivity = = × × = 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3
𝑞𝑖 𝑞𝑖 𝑞1 𝑞2
7. Hysteresis:
The difference in the O/P for a given I/P when this is approached
from the opposite direction.
• A transducer should be
capable of following the
changes of the input
parameter regardless of
which direction the change is
made.
• Approaching a fixed input
value B from a higher value P
will result in a different
indication than approaching
the same value from a lesser
value Q or zero.
• Input value B can be
represented by F(X)1, F(X)2,
or F(X)3 depending on the
immediate previous value
which is an error due to
hysteresis.
8. Dead Zone:
➢ The largest range of values of a measured I/P to which the
instrument doesn’t respond.

O/P

I/P

Dead zone
9. Dead time:
➢ The time taken by an instrument to begin its response.

10.Resolution:
➢ The minimum value of the I/P signal (non-zero value) required to
cause an appreciable change in the O/P (% of full scale (% fs)).

11.Tolerance:
➢ The maximum allowable error in the measurement.
12.Drift:
➢ The change in the O/P of an instrument for a fixed I/P
over a period of time.

13.Offset:
➢ The O/P of an instrument for zero I/P.

14.Bias:
➢ A constant error which exists over the full range of measurement.
15.Linearity:

➢ Maximum deviation from linear relation between I/P and

O/P.
➢ The output of an instrument has to be linearly proportionate
to the measured quantity.

Nonlinearity error as a percentage of full scale percentage (% fs)

Linear value − nonlinear value
= × 100.
O/P Full scale
Example 1:
A bourdon tube pressure gauge requires 10 bar to produce
3 Vernier division changes in the scale. Determine the
sensitivity?

Solution:
I/P = 10 bars & O/P = 3 Vernier division

change of O/P signal 3

Sensitivity = K = = = 0.3 Vernier division/bars
change of I/P signal 10
Example 2:
The individual sensitivities of different elements comprising
a temperature measuring system are:
Transducer = 0.3 Ω/ °C
Wheatstone bridge = 0.01 V/ Ω
Amplifier = 80 V/V
Pen recorder = 1.2 mm/V
Determine: 1- The overall sensitivity?
2- The temperature change corresponding to a
pen recorder movement of 30 mm?
Solution:
K1 = 0.3 Ω/ °C & K2 = 0.01 V/ Ω
K3 = 80 V/V & K4 = 1.2 mm/V
Overall Sensitivity = K1 × K2 × K3 × K4
Ω V V mm
= 0.3 × 0.01 × 80 × 1.2
°C Ω V V
= 0.288 mm/ °C 1

change of O/P signal

∵ Overall Sensitivity =
change of I/P signal
change of O/P signal 30
∴ change of I/P = = = 104.167 °C 2
Overall Sensitivity 0.288
Example 3:
A quartz piezoelectric crystal having a thickness of 2 mm
and a voltage sensitivity of 0.055 V.m/N is subjected to a
pressure of 1.38*106 N/m2. Calculate the voltage output?

Solution:
P = 1.38*106 N/m2
t = 2 mm = 2*10-3 m
Sensitivity = 0.055 V.m/N
∴ O/P voltage = Sensitivity × I/P signal
V.m -3 6 N
= 0.055 × 2 × 10 m × 1.38 × 10 2 = 151.8 V
N m
Example 4:
A thermometer is calibrated from 200 °C to 300 °C. The
accuracy is specified within ± 0.25% of span. What is the
error?

Solution:
∵ Range is from 200 °C to 300 °C.
∴ Span = 300 – 200 = 100 °C.
Error
, ∵ Accuracy =
Span
0.25
∴ Error = Accuracy × Span = ± × 100 = ± 0.25 °C
100
Example 5:
A force sensor measures a range of 0 N to 150 N with a resolution
of 0.1% FS. Find the smallest change in force that can be
measured?

Solution:
∵ Range is from 0 N to 150 N.
∴ Full Scale (FS) = 150 N.

, ∵ Resolution = 0.1% FS
0.1
∴ Resolution = × 150 N = 0.15 N, which is the smallest change in force
100
that can be measured.
Example 6:
A potentiometer which is used to measure the rotational
position of a shaft has 850 turns of wire. The input range is
from -160° to +160°. The output range is from 0 V to 12 V.

Determine: 1- The span?

2- The sensitivity in volts per degree?
3- The average resolution in volts?
Solution:
I/P max = 160° & I/P min = -160°
O/P range = 0 V to 12 V
No of turns = 850

1 The span = I/P max – I/P min = 160 – (-160) = 320°

change of O/P signal 12−0

2 Sensitivity = = = 0.0375 V/deg
change of I/P signal 320

O/P 12
3 Average resolution = = = 0.0141 V
no of turns 850