DEVELOPMENT AND CHANGE

1.1 FORMS OF DEVELOPMENT

In general terms, “development” means an “an event constituting a new stage or a changing situation.”
Because development usually means an important, either in the general situation of the system, or in some of
its constituent elements. It also stands for improvement in quality of life and conditions of living. Development
is implicity intended as something positive or desirable.
The post Second World War period and the period of decolonization witnessed the emergence and the
dominance of the concept of development in academic literature. The word “develop” has come from an Italian
word “voluper” meaning to unwrap or unfold. The definition of development has been always controversial over
time. As Thomas argues, development as a concept is “contested, complex, and ambiguous”.
Although development has been a constant concern of governments, policymakers, economists and
other social scientists and has touched the lives of more people than ever before.

1.1.1 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

It refers to the process by which a child learns to interact with others around them. As they develop and
perceive their own individuality within their community, they also gain skills to communicate with other people
and process their actions. Social development most often refers to how a child develops friendships and other
relationships, as well how a child handles conflict with peers.
 Child development

Social development can actually impact many of the other forms of development a child experiences. A
child’s ability to interact in a healthy way with the people around her can impact everything from learning new
words as a toddler, to being able to resist peer pressure as a high school student, to successfully navigating
the challenges of adulthood. Healthy social development can help your child:
 Develop language skills
 Build self-esteem
 Resolve conflicts
 Establish positive attitude.
Child’s social development is a complex issue that is constantly changing. But the good news is that
parents can have a big impact on how it progresses. By modeling healthy relationships and staying connected
with your child, you can help them relate to the people around them in positive, beneficial ways. By
encouraging them to engage with other children and adults, you’re setting them up to enjoy the benefits of
social health—from good self-esteem to strong communication skills to the ability to trust and connect with
those around them.

1.1.2 YOUTH AND ADULT DEVELOPMENT

Adolescents will begin to form many different types of relationships, and many of their relationships will
become more deeply involved and more emotionally intimate. During adolescence, teens' social networks
greatly expand to include many more people, and many different types of relationships. Therefore, adolescent
social development involves a dramatic change in the quantity and quality of social relationships. Younger
children will often use the word "friend" to refer to any other child whom they happen to know. However, as
children mature and become adolescents they begin to differentiate friends from acquaintances, indicating a
more mature understanding of the qualitatively different ways to know another person.
Likewise, youth develop the capacity to form closer, more intimate relationships with others. They also
begin to form romantic attachments; and, as the desire for a romantic relationship increases, youth may begin
to question their sexual orientation and gender identity. Youth must also learn to balance multiple relationships
that compete for their time, energy, and attention. Instead of just a single teacher and coach as in grade
school, there are now several teachers and several coaches each with different requirements and priorities.
Higher education and gainful employment also require increasingly sophisticated social skills such as the
ability to form cooperative relationships with classmates in order to complete group projects or assignments;
learning to interact with their boss in an appropriately deferential and respectful manner; or working alongside
a diverse set of co-workers in a team-like atmosphere. New communication technologies enable youth to
create and to maintain social bonds in completely different ways: email, chat rooms, mobile phones with
"texting," online social networks such as Facebook and Twitter, video communication such as Skype, and
online gaming.
Adulthood has no signpost to announce its onset (as adolescence is announced by puberty).
Developmental psychologists usually consider early adulthood to cover approximately age 20 to age 40 and
middle adulthood approximately 40 to 65.

 Early adulthood
In early adulthood, an individual is concerned with developing the ability to share intimacy, seeking to
form relationships and find intimate love. Long‐term relationships are formed, and often marriage and children
result. The young adult is also faced with career decisions.
Choices concerning marriage and family are often made during this period. Research shows that divorce is
more likely among people who marry during adolescence, those whose parents were divorced, and those who
are dissimilar in age, intelligence, personality, or attractiveness. Separation is also more frequent among those
who do not have children. Most people who have divorced remarry; consequently, children may experience
more than one set of parents. Such alternatives to marriage as “living together” (cohabitation) have become
more common.
 Middle adulthood
In middle adulthood, an important challenge is to develop a genuine concern for the welfare of future
generations and to contribute to the world through family and work. Robert Havighurst lists seven major tasks
in the middle years.
1 accepting and adjusting to physiological changes, such as menopause

2 reaching and maintaining satisfaction in one's occupation

3 adjusting to and possibly caring for aging parents

4 helping teenage children to become responsible adults

5 achieving adult social and civic responsibility

6 relating to one's spouse as a person

7 developing leisure‐time activities

While a midlife crisis is not regarded as a universal phenomenon, during one's 40s and 50s comes the
recognition that more than half of one's life is gone. That recognition may prompt some to feel that the clock is
ticking and that they must make sudden, drastic changes in order to achieve their goals, while others focus on
finding satisfaction with the present course of their lives.

1.1.3 COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Community development is a process where community members come together to take collective
action and generate solutions to common problems. Community wellbeing (economic, social, environmental
and cultural) often evolves from this type of collective action being taken at a grassroots level. Community
development ranges from small initiatives within a small group to large initiatives that involve the broader
community.
Community development is a grassroots process by which communities:
 become more responsible
 organize and plan together
 develop healthy lifestyle options
 empower themselves
 reduce poverty and suffering
 create employment and economic opportunities
 achieve social, economic, cultural and environmental goals

Community development seeks to improve quality of life. Effective community development results in
mutual benefit and shared responsibility among community members.
Community development helps to build community capacity in order to address issues and take
advantage of opportunities, find common ground and balance competing interests. It doesn’t just happen –
capacity building requires both a conscious and a conscientious effort to do something (or many things) to
improve the community.

1.1.4 TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

Humans have always been developing new technologies for communication, going back to the printing
press and even the act of writing itself. But the past 120 years, or so, has seen especially rapid technological
advancement in communication, from the first telephones through the modern internet.

 Technological Advancements in Communication

Notable technological advancements in communication since the late 1800s include the telephone and
related technologies like the answering machine and fax machine, the internet and the cellular telephone.
Mass communication also brought revolutionary changes, including movies, broadcast radio and television and
tremendous advances in printing and photography.
 The Landline Phone
 While the invention of the wired telegraph enabled people to rapidly communicate over long distances,
the telephone was the first instantaneous communications device to find its way into large numbers of homes
and businesses.
Alexander Graham Bell patented the invention in the 1870s, and within a few decades millions of the
devices were in use. The technology gradually improved to enable calls without operator assistance and,
eventually, to allow direct-dial long-distance and international calls.
Landline phones gradually evolved from models that connected the user simply to an operator who
would place a call to rotary phones, enabling automatic dialing, then to touch-tone phones, allowing for
speedier calls. Answering machines were developed to record messages from callers when recipients were
away or busy and public pay phones popped up to let people make calls on the go.
Fax machines also became common in offices, especially starting in the 1980s. These allowed use of
telephone lines for sending document copies relatively quickly without having to mail them or send them by
private messenger.
 Computers and Internet

As computing technology rapidly evolved after World War II, scientists and engineers quickly grasped
the importance of connecting computers across long distances to share information.
By the late '70s and '80s, as home computers became somewhat common, local bulletin board systems
popped up, allowing computer users to connect to an often free-and-hobbyist-run system where they could
exchange messages, play games and otherwise share information with other users.
National commercial online services, such as CompuServe, Prodigy and America Online, also popped
up during the '80s and grew during the '90s. The services were slow, expensive and primitive-looking by
today's standards, but they allowed users from around the U.S. to communicate, read news, get weather
information and more from their home computers.
By the mid-'90s, many of these services and new dial-in internet service providers allowed users to
connect to the rapidly growing internet. As telephone companies and cable companies began offering faster
connections by the late '90s, the internet began to be more mainstream and more useful for things like
shopping and business.
 Cellular Phones

Early portable phones began to appear in the '70s, and car phones began to be popular by the '80s, but
the devices were still large, clunky and expensive.
By the late '80s, portable handheld cellular phones become available, and by the late '90s, the devices
were mainstream. Pagers, which allowed users to receive notifications – and simple messages – when they
were called, also became popular during the '90s, though they required availability of a pay phone or other
landline phone to return a call. Pagers gave way to pocket-sized cellphones, which, for the first time, let users
receive and make phone calls outside their homes or businesses. Early plans offered limited calling time and
roaming ability outside a home network, but those features rapidly developed, and cellphones started to
displace landline phones for some users. Text messaging also boomed in popularity in the early 2000s, and
some cellphones allowed limited access to the internet and email.
 Smart Phones and Social Media

In 2007, Apple CEO Steve Jobs famously debuted the iPhone, the first modern smart phone. The
device enabled full access to the World Wide Web and email, as well as traditional phone features like calling
and texting. The iPhone, and Google's rival platform, Android, soon had support for third-party apps that would
let users do anything from ordering food to checking bank balances.
At the same time, social media companies like Facebook and Twitter took off, allowing users to connect
and share information online without requiring the IT skills needed to build a traditional website. As smart
phone popularity grew, they became natural hubs for social networking, and these two technological
advancements in communication grew in tandem.
New kinds of phone-first social media, including Instagram and Snapchat, appeared, as did smart
phone-focused messaging tools like WhatsApp and Telegram. Many of these tools took advantage of
increasingly powerful cameras built into modern smart phones.
 Medical Technology

Advancements in medical technology have allowed physicians to better diagnose and treat their
patients since the beginning of the professional practice of medicine. In today’s world, technology plays an
important role in every industry as well as in our personal lives. Out of all of the industries that technology plays
a crucial role in, healthcare is definitely one of the most important. This merger is responsible for improving and
saving countless lives all around the world.
Medical technology is a broad field where innovation plays a crucial role in sustaining health. Areas like
biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, information technology, the development of medical devices and equipment,
and more have all made significant contributions to improving the health of people all around the world. From
“small” innovations like adhesive bandages and ankle braces, to larger, more complex technologies like MRI
machines, artificial organs, and robotic prosthetic limbs, technology has undoubtedly made an incredible
impact on medicine.
In the healthcare industry, the dependence on medical technology cannot be overstated, and as a
result of the development of these brilliant innovations, healthcare practitioners can continue to find ways to
improve their practice – from better diagnosis, surgical procedures, and improved patient care.
 Information Technology and Medicine

Information technology has made significant contributions to our world, namely in the medical industry.
With the increased use of electronic medical records (EMR), telehealth services, and mobile technologies like
tablets and smart phones, physicians and patients are both seeing the benefits that these new medical
technologies are bringing.
Medical technology has evolved from introducing doctors to new equipment to use inside private
practices and hospitals to connecting patients and doctors thousands of miles away through
telecommunications. It is not uncommon in today’s world for patients to hold video conferences with physicians
to save time and money normally spent on traveling to another geographic location or send health information
instantaneously to any specialist or doctor in the world.
With more and more hospitals and practices using medical technology like mobile devices on the job,
physicians can now have access to any type of information they need – from drug information, research and
studies, patient history or records, and more – within mere seconds. And, with the ability to effortlessly carry
these mobile devices around with them throughout the day, they are never far from the information they need.
Applications that aid in identifying potential health threats and examining digital information like x-rays and CT
scans also contribute to the benefits that information technology brings to medicine.
 Medical Equipment Technology
 Improving quality of life is one of the main benefits of integrating new innovations into medicine.
Medical technologies like minimally-invasive surgeries, better monitoring systems, and more comfortable
scanning equipment are allowing patients to spend less time in recovery and more time enjoying a healthy life.
The integration of medical equipment technology and telehealth has also created robotic surgeries,
where in some cases, physicians do not even need to be in the operating room with a patient when the surgery
is performed. Instead, surgeons can operate out of their “home base”, and patients can have the procedure
done in a hospital or clinic close their own hometown, eliminating the hassles and stress of health-related
travel. With other robotic surgeries, the surgeon is still in the room, operating the robotic devices, but the
technology allows for a minimally-invasive procedure that leaves patients with less scarring and significantly
less recovery time.
 Technology and Medical Research

Medical scientists and physicians are constantly conducting research and testing new procedures to
help prevent, diagnose, and cure diseases as well as developing new drugs and medicines that can lessen
symptoms or treat ailments.
Through the use of technology in medical research, scientists have been able to examine diseases on
a cellular level and produce antibodies against them. These vaccines against life-threatening diseases like
malaria, polio, MMR, and more prevent the spread of disease and save thousands of lives all around the globe.
In fact, the World Health Organization estimates that vaccines save about 3 million lives per year, and prevent
millions of others from contracting deadly viruses and diseases.

 Medical Technology and The Law

As technology in the world of healthcare continues to evolve, rules and regulations concerning its use
must be established and adjusted to adapt to the new methods of administering care. Regulations like HIPAA
and its Privacy and Security Act target the concerns about the confidentiality of patient information and the
steps that must be taken to maintain privacy in our digital world. Medical providers and healthcare
administration must be careful when choosing to implement new products and technologies into their services,
and should ensure that all technologies are “HIPAA compliant” before investing in their implementation. Other
initiatives, like the 2010 Health Care Reform bill, state the steps that must be taken by hospitals and other care
providers to integrate medical technology into their practices.
Technological innovations in the healthcare industry continue to provide physicians with new ways to
improve the quality of care delivered to their patients and improve the state of global healthcare. Through
technology’s integration with areas like disease prevention, surgical procedures, better access to information,
and medical telecommunications, the medical industry and patients around the world continue to benefit.

1.1.4 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

 It is the process by which emerging economies become advanced economies. In other words, the
process by which countries with low living standards become nations with high living standards.
 Economic development is all about improving living standards. “improved living standards” refers to
higher levels of education and literacy, workers income, health, and lifespans.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STANDARD OF LIVING AND QUALITY OF LIFE

 STANDARD OF LIVING

 refers to people’s level of prosperity (wealth), comfort, material goods, and necessities available to a
certain socioeconomic class or a certain geographic area.
 The standard of living includes basic material factors such as income, GDP, life expectancy, and economic
opportunity.
 When we calculate a society’s standard of living, we consider factors such as employment, poverty rates,
affordable housing and GDP. We also consider inflation, the cost of goods and services, infrastructure, and
economic and political stability.

 QUALITY OF LIFE

 refers to how well we live. The general well- being of people and societies. It is the standard of happiness,
comfort and health that a person or group of people experience.
There are many indicators that reflect the quality of life such as:
 Liberty
 Freedom (freedom from slavery, and torture, freedom of thought, religion, free choice of employment etc.)
 Happiness
 Human rights (right to be treated equally without regard to gender, race, language, religion, political beliefs,
nationality etc., right to education and right to vote etc.)
CHARACTERISTICS OF HIGH INCOME, MIDDLE INCOME, AND LOW-INCOME COUNTRIES

 HIGH INCOME COUNTRIES

 The world bank defines a high- income country as one that has a Gross National Income per capita
exceeding $12, 056.
 In 2019, there are 81 countries and territories classified by the World Bank as high-income countries. Some
of these countries, such as the United States, have held this classification consistently since the 1980s,
other nations like Saudi Arabia, Russia, Venezuela.
 High income countries have a higher levels of gender equality, low birth rates and population growth, high
employment levels, high levels of education, developed social security system, developed health system,
and has access to technology.

 MIDDLE INCOME COUNTRIES

 According to the World Bank, middle income countries have a per capita Gross National Income between $
1, 006 to $ 12, 235. Approximately, 5 million people live within Middle Income Countries.
 MICs are further broken down into two additional groups:

a. Upper Middle- Income countries have a Gross National Income per capital of $ 3, 956 to $ 12, 235.
b. Lower Middle- Income countries have a Gross National Income per capital of $1, 006 to $3, 995.

 According to the World Bank, these nations have a lower middle- income economy as of 2019:
 Angola, Bangladesh, Bhutan
 Bolivia, Cambodia, India
Upper middle- income economies:
 Algeria, Colombia, Cuba
 Iran, Armenia, Brazil

 LOW INCOME COUNTRIES

 According to World Bank, low income countries have Gross National Income per capital of $ 1, 025 per
less.
 According to the most recent World Bank data from 2017, Burundi has the lowest GNI per capita of just $
280. Malawi has $ 320 and Niger has $360.
 Low income countries are often associated with other characteristics such as: poor health and education,
high unemployment, and rapid population growth.

 NORTH- SOUTH DIVIDE IN THE WORLD

 It is a socioeconomic and political categorization of countries.

 The origin of diving countries into North- South Divide arose during the Cold War of the Mid 20 th
century. During this time, countries were primarily categorized according to their alignment between Russia
East and American West. Countries in the East like the Soviet Union and China which became classified
as a Second World countries. In the west, the United States and its allies were labeled as First World
countries. The division left out many countries which were poorer than the First World and Second World
countries. The poor countries were eventually labeled as Third World countries. This categorization was
later abandoned after the Second World countries joined the First World countries. New criteria were
established to categorize countries which was named the North- South Divide where First World countries
known as the North while Third World countries comprised the South.

 THE NORTH (First World Countries)

 Also known as developed countries. It comprised of countries which have developed economies and
account for over 90% of all manufacturing industries in the world.
 About 95% of the population in countries in the North have enough basic needs and have access to
functioning education systems.
 The North is constituted of countries like USA, Canada, Western Europe, developed parts of Asia, Australia
and New Zealand- which are wealthy, industrialized and democratic capitalist.

 THE SOUTH (Third World Countries)

 The countries of the south are dubbed as less developing and struggling economies.
 The lack of ownership of the productive factors like land, labor, capital and entrepreneurial ability makes
the South Countries dependent to the rich countries like the North.
 An important characteristic of countries in the south is the relatively low GDP and the high population.
 Lack of basic amenities. As little as 5% of the population can access basic needs such as food and
shelter.
 The South is constituted by regions of Asia, Africa, Middle East, and South and Latin America.

Basic Comparison The North The South

(Developed Countries) (Developing Countries)
Meaning A country having an effective rate A country which has slow rate of

Unemployment and poverty
Rates
Living conditions
Generates more revenue from
Growth
Standard of living
Distribution of income
Factors of Production
of industrialization and individual
income known as developed
country.
Low
Infant mortality rate, birth rate,
death rate is low while the life
expectancy rate is high.
Good
Industrial sector
High industrial growth
High
Equal
Effectively utilized
industrialization and low per capita
income.
High
High infant mortality rate, birth rate
and death rate along with low life
expectancy rate.
Moderate
Service sector
They rely on the developed
countries for their growth
Low
Unequal
Ineffectively utilized

 GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP)

 It is the market value off all final goods and services produced within the national borders of a country for a
given period.
 GDP can be evaluated by using an output approach, income approach, expenditure approach.

a. Output Approach- focuses on finding the total output of a nation by directly finding the total value of all
goods and services a nation produces.
b. Income Approach- equates the total output of a nation to the total factor income received by residents or
citizens of the nation.
c. Expenditure Approach - is basically an output accounting method. It focuses on finding the total output of
a nation by finding the total amount of money spent.

 Components of GDP
GDP (Y) is a sum of Consumption (C), Investment (I), Government Spending (G) and Net Export (X-M).
Y= C+I+G+(X-M)

 Consumption- It is normally the largest GDP component in the economy, consisting of private (household
final consumption expenditure) in the economy.

 Investment- Includes for instance, business investment in equipment but does not include exchanges of
assets.

 Government Spending- The sum of government expenditures on final goods and services. It includes
salaries of public servants, purchase of weapons for military, and any investment by government.
 Export- Any good or commodity, transported from one country to another country in a legitimate fashion,
typically for use in trade.

 Import - To bring something in from a foreign country, especially for trade or sale.

 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX (HDI)

 It is an index that is used to rank countries based on human development.

 HDI was first developed by Pakistan economist Mahbub Ul Haq in 1990 and is being presented by UNDP
(United Nation Development Program) in annual Human Development Report since 1993.
 The three indicators are: life expectancy, per capita income, and education

a. Life- Expectancy – refers to the life of expectancy at birth which implies that number of years a newly born
baby is expected to live.

b. Educational Attainment – refers to the level of education attained by the people of the country on an
average basis.

c. Per capita income- measured by Gross National Income per capita.

 HDI is broken down into four tiers: very high development (0.8- 1.0), high human development (0.7- 0.79),
medium human development (o. 55- 70), and low human development (below 0.55).

 ENVIRONMENTAL DEVELOPMENT

 It is the direct result of investment in infrastructure, scenic surroundings, green areas, and public places.
The planning of green areas considers water conservation issues, as well as how best to adapt vegetation
to the local climate, while all new facilities are constructed in line with the specific needs of the local
community.

 LAND DEVELOPMENT

 It is the conversion of raw land into construction ready for housing, commercial, or industrial building sites.
 Land development process involves improvements that have indefinite life, such as draining, dredging,
excavating, and paving etc.
a. Rural Development- is the process of improving the quality of life and economic well- being of people living
in rural areas, often relatively isolated and sparsely populated areas.
b. Urban Development- is a system of residential expansion that creates cities. It occurs by expansion into
unpopulated areas or the renovation of decaying regions.

 ECO DEVELOPMENT
 Refers to development at regional and local levels, consistent with the potentials of the area involved, with
attention given to the adequate and rational use of natural resources , technological styles and
organizational forms that respect the natural ecosystems and local social and cultural patterns.

1.2 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

1.2.1 Definition
 The potential to address fundamental challenges for humanity, now and into the future.
 According in the Brundlant Report, sustainable development is “the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generation to meet their needs”
 According to the World Conservation Union, 1991, sustainable development defined as “improving the
quality of life where living within the carrying capacity of ecosystems”.

1.2.2 The 3R’s

 Reduce- reducing on the amount of plastics an individual use in their daily life.
 Reuse- putting use plastics that have already been used.
 Recycle- collection of waste materials processed and manufactured it in to a new product.

1.2.3 Waste Management

 WASTE DISPOSAL

 Landfill- burying the waste in the land.

 Incineration/ Combustion- wastes are burned at high temperature so as to convert them in to
residue and gaseous products.
 Recovery and Recycling- takes useful discarded items for a specific next use.
 Plasma Gasification- an electrically charged which produces temperature that exceed 12,600
Fahrenheit. A vessel uses characteristic of plasma, creating gasification, for the conversion of soil
and liquid waste in to a syngas.

 EDUCATION AND AWARENESS

.
 Raising awareness among local elected public representatives and other officials can lead to the
adoption of waste management laws (e.g., bans on open dumping) in an effective way and
increased financial support for waste management activities.
 National or Provincial governments can support city waste management efforts by enforcing
policies (e.g. bans on open burning) and providing assistance when city activities contribute to
national-level goals.
 Other stakeholders can strengthen messages about waste management (e.g., business community
that is aware of the economic benefits of proper waste management activities might encourage
elected officials to fund them.
 One of the plan’s strategies involves conducting targeted outreach to students. Incorporating waste
education into the school curriculum is an effective way to deliver messages to households.
  Governments should make adequate provision (in form of technical and financial support) for
recycling facilities and infrastructure.
 Governments should introduce and enforce the laws and regulations which are adoptable by
community and community should adopt.
 Penalties should be levied on any waste producer that violates the regulations.
 Governments should promote house– to–house awareness campaign about door to door collection
and segregation at source and its importance.
 The householders must be sensitized and educated through mass media about waste management
programs.
 Private bodies who are interested in recycling business should be encouraged by the government,
by providing enabling ground for them to operate.

 CHALLENGES

 Lack of funds and capacity.

 Embedded cultural practices behavioral norms and beliefs.
 Lack of familiarity with the economic opportunities associated with waste management.
 lack of technical and financial resources
 Lack of time or interest from key stakeholders.

1.2.4 Pollution
1. Air pollution
Refers to the release of pollutants like toxic gases biological molecules and particulate matter
into the atmosphere. Derived from both natural process and human activity. Such pollution can be
highly detrimental to the health and well-being of all life forms on earth.
2. Light Pollution
Caused by an excessive lighting of the streets flood lights used in stadium. Negative effects of
light pollution include the spoilage of the aesthetic environment of a place, creating disturbances in the
ecosystem, and also harming the health of living creatures.

3. Noise Pollution
Source of noise pollution are transport vehicles machinery industries loud music people yelling.
4. Plastic Pollution
Plastic is a non-biodegradable substance. Caused by plastic accumulation in the environment.
Animal and other marine systems are affected.
5.Thermal Pollution
Leads to the degradation of water does not provide ideal living conditions for aquatic flora and
fauna.

6.Visual Pollution
When human activity installs ugly barriers to this vision of open and clutter-free landscapes. It
generates distraction, eye fatigues, diversity in opinions, and other psychological problems.

7.Water Pollution
Contamination of water bodies like lakes, rivers, ponds, and aquifers by the pollutants.
 8.Radio Active Contamination
When radioactive substances are present in areas where their presence is undesirable or
unintended. Such substances that are highly toxic to all life on earth.

9. Soil Contamination
When the soil of an area is contaminated. Degradation in the soil quality translates to lower
yields and poor health of crops grown on such soil. Industrial and agricultural chemicals are the
common pollutants contaminating the soil.

10. Littering
When waste products generated by humans are not dispose properly. Caused by humans after
use like bottles, glass, packaging material, electronic waste, metal waste, etc. Some of these pollutants
like electronics, batteries, tires, that are hazardous to the health of the environment.

1.2.5 Sustainable use of Natural Resources

 use renewable resources, like wind and solar energy, instead of non-renewable resources, like fossil
fuels.
 use those resources which cause less harm to the environment.
 cut back on the amount of natural resources, and in particular non-renewable resources we use, by
reducing, reusing and recycling

 RESOURCE DEPLETION

It is when human use a resource at a rate that not sustainable or when the resource cannot be
replenished fast enough. Non-renewable resources always get depleted when they’re used. Renewable
resources an get replace easier but also depleted if they’re used too fast.

1. Deforestation - the cutting down of forests

2. Agriculture and Soil – nutrients of the soil are depleted and agriculture affected
1.2.6 Global Warming
 CAUSES

 Fossil Fuels
 Deforestation
 Intensive farming
 Waste Disposal
 Mining
 Over consumption
EFFECTS
 On biodiversity
 On oceans
 On humans
 On the weather
PREVENTIONS
  Renewable energies
 Energy and water efficiency
 Sustainable transportation
 Sustainable infrastructure
 Sustainable agriculture and forest management
 Responsible consumption & recycling

1.2.7 Malta's Contribution to Global Warming

 INTERNATIONAL CLIMATE CHANGE POLICY

 Malta introduced a resolution to the UN General Assembly of 1988 calling for international action on
climate change
 Michael Zammit Cutajar, first UNFCCC Executive Secretary (till 2002). At present chairing the
UNFCCC AWG on post-2012 Kyoto Protocol commitments.

 MALTA’S CLIMATE CHANGE POLICY

 UNFCCC First National Communication (2004) Financed by GEF through UNDP.

 FNC Steering committee included main stakeholders, including NGOs.
 Compilation of an annual greenhouse gas inventory for 1990-2000.

 IMPLEMENTATION

 Greenhouse gas abatement analysis.

 Public Awareness through two national symposia, workshops, publications, comprehensive project
website, TV and radio programmes, feature articles in newspapers,
 Co-operation between many experts and organizations,
 Training of consultants for future national communications - capacity building and project sustainability.

 TWO POLICY OPTION

 Mitigation needs considerable external funding and help with capacity building and technology transfer
…first of all from the EU
 Adaptation, would benefit from sharing development of adaptation strategies/exchanging best
practices, expertise with other semi-arid countries with similar ecosystems, climatic conditions …and
tourist developments …i.e. the other Mediterranean countries.

 MELLINIUM DEVELOPMENT GOAL MDG’S

 Goal 1 Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

 Goal 2 Achieve universal primary education
 Goal 3 Promote gender equality and empower women
 Goal 4 Reduce child mortality
 Goal 5 Improve maternal health
 Goal 6 Combating HIV/AIDs, malaria, and other diseases
 Goal 7 Ensure environmental sustainability
  Goal 8 Develop a global partnership for development

 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

 Goal 1 End poverty in all its forms everywhere
 Goal 2 End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture
 Goal 3 Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages
 Goal 4 Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote life-long learning opportunities for
all
 Goal 5 Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls
 Goal 6 Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all
 Goal 7 Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all
 Goal 8 Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment,
and decent work for all
 Goal 9 Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization, and foster
innovation
 Goal 10 Reduce inequality within and among countries
 Goal 11 Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable
 Goal 12 Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns
 Goal 13 Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts
 Goal 14 Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources for sustainable
development
 Goal 15 Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage
forests, combat desertification, halt and reverse land degradation, and halt biodiversity loss

1.2 POPULATION

1.3.1 DEMOGRAPHY
Is the study of human populations, their size, composition and distribution across space, and the
process through which populations change? Births, deaths and migration are the ‘big three’ of demography,
jointly producing population stability or change.
 Pattern of birth rates
According to the results of the 2015 Revision of World Population Prospects, total fertility is now 2.5
children per woman globally. This global average masks wide regional differences. Africa remains the region
with the highest fertility at 4.7 children per woman. Europe has the lowest fertility of 1.6 children per woman.
Both Asia and Latin America and the Caribbean have total fertility of 2.2 children per woman, closely followed
by Oceania with 2.4 children per woman. Middle and Western Africa stand out as having particularly high
fertility of over five children per woman. Eastern Asia, Eastern Europe and Southern Europe have very low
fertility at under 1.6 children per woman.
 Pattern of death rates
2·6 million deaths occurred in people aged 10–24 years in 2004. 2·56 million (97%) of these deaths
were in low-income and middle-income countries, and almost two thirds (1·67 million) were in sub-Saharan
Africa and southeast Asia. Pronounced rises in mortality rates were recorded from early adolescence (10–14
years) to young adulthood (20–24 years), but reasons varied by region and sex. Maternal conditions were a
leading cause of female deaths at 15%. HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis contributed to 11% of deaths. Traffic
accidents were the largest cause and accounted for 14% of male and 5% of female deaths. Other prominent
causes included violence (12% of male deaths) and suicide (6% of all deaths).
 Importance of Population census
Population census may be defined as a regular counting of the number of women, men, children, able
and disabled people in a country by the government for the purpose of economic planning and development.

1.3.2 POPULATION IN THE 21ST CENTURY

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the total world population crossed the threshold of 1 billion
people for the first time in the history of the homo sapiens sapiens. Since then, growth rates have been
increasing exponentially, reaching staggeringly high peaks in the 20th century and slowing down a bit
thereafter. Total world population reached 7 billion just after 2010 and is expected to count 9 billion by 2045.
The causes of population explosion are the involving poverty and food security, the impact on the natural
environment, and migration flows.

Demographic growth was and is not equally distributed around the globe. The population explosion first
occurred on a small scale and with a relatively moderate intensity in Europe and America, more or less
between 1750 and 1950. From 1950 on, a much more substantial and intensive population explosion started to
take place in Asia, Latin America and Africa. Asia already represented over 55% of the world population in
1950 with its 1.4 billion citizens and by the year 2010 this had increased to 4.2 billion people or 60%. Of those
people, more than 1.3 billion live in China and 1.2 billion in India, together accounting for more than one third of
the world population.

 It is now clear that the 21st century will feature a major transformation in world population. Population
growth in the industrialized countries has essentially stopped. Demographic growth has now shifted almost
entirely to the less developed countries of Africa, Asia, and Latin America.

Currently, of the 83 million people added to global population each year by the difference between
births and deaths, only 1 million are in the industrialized countries,” said PRB demographers Carl Haub and
Diana Cornelius, who prepared the Data Sheet. “The result will be a very different world in terms of population.
In 1950, there were twice as many people in the less developed countries. By 2050, that difference could be
almost six to one. The developing world’s population is projected to increase by 2.9 billion by 2050, compared
with only 49 million in the more developed countries. Population growth this century will depend on how
quickly, or how slowly, birth rates decline in the areas of the world where we have seen either no decline or
moderate decline.

1.3.2 POPULATION MOBILITY

 Mobility refers to the movement of people from place to place, or job to job, or social class to social
class. Population mobility refers to the geographic movement of people where there has been a change in the
place of usual residence.

 Permanent movement is when someone moves from one place to another and has no plans to return to
their original home. Temporary migration is limited by time. This could be for seasonal employment. 

 Temporary movement is migration to a country that is not intended to be permanent, for a specified and
limited period of time, and usually undertaken for a specific purpose. Host countries admit temporary
migrants for the purposes of employment, study, tourism, business activities, and religious or cultural
visits and exchanges. This entry focuses on employment- or labor-related temporary migration.

 Work related or Residential

Most theoretical models attribute the desire to relocate to the impact of wages and
salary and employment on personal expected earnings. The prospect of gainful employment in another
region leads to movement to capitalize on new opportunities and resources unavailable in the original
community. Perceptions, gaps in prospective incomes, availability of accurate information, and geographic
distance all play a part in the decision to migrate. Studies have shown that unemployment
rates statistically correlate to measured migrations in the EU a relatively mobile society.
A residential change model is derived that allocates migrants to housing vacancies using a Luce-type
choice process. The residential change model is then used as the basis for a mall area forecasting model
designed to predict changes in the size and composition of the population residing in designated areas of the
city.
 Factors leading to population mobility
Better transport to have a sustainable and better society. It plays an indispensable role to make the
cities livable and less polluted. Current urban mobility patterns are also having considerable negative impacts
on air quality, noise pollution, safety and usage of public space. Therefore, sustainable urban mobility plans
and transport strategies aim to reduce these impact, by shifting to environmentally friendly modes of transport
such as walking, cycling and car sharing, by increasing the share of public transport and clean vehicles, and by
using the state-of-art technology for the remaining individual motorized transport.
 High level of education in modern industrial societies help or hurt economic transitions, education
increases job duration and therefore inhibits job mobility.
 Technological development is also one of the reason why there is a population mobility, in business they
have the role in operating and how business users interact with prospects and customers by moving in the
other country.

1.3.4 Migration
  Is the movement of people from one place to another with the intentions of settling, permanently or
temporarily at a new location (geographic region)? The movement is often over long distances and from one
country to another, but internal migration is also possible; indeed, this is the dominant form globally. People
may migrate as individuals, in family units or in large groups.

Immigration is the international movement of people to a destination country of which they are not
natives or where they do not possess citizenship in order to settle or reside there, especially as permanent
residents or naturalized citizens, or to take up employment as a migrant worker or temporarily as a foreign
worker.

Emigration is the act of leaving a resident country or place of residence with the intent to settle
elsewhere. Conversely, immigration describes the movement of persons into one country from another. Both
are acts of migration across national or other geographical boundaries.

 Transmigrate is to cause to go from one state of existence or place to another.

Returning migrants are persons returning to their country of citizenship after having been
international migrants (whether short-term or long- term) in another country and who are intending to stay in
their own country for at least a year.

TYPES OF MIGRATION
1. INTERNAL MIGRATION
This refers to a change of residence within national boundaries, such as between states, province,
cities, or municipalities. An internal migrant is someone who moves to a different administrative territory.
2. INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
This refers to change of residence over national boundaries. An international migrant is someone who
moves to a different country. International migrants are further classified as legal immigrants, illegal
immigrants, and refugees.
3. SEASONAL MIGRATION
Is the movement of people from one area to another with each season in pursuit of better conditions for
themselves and their livestock. This type of movement is typically carried out by nomadic farmers who are
mostly found in the Sub-Saharan regions of Africa. Once conditions improve, they usually head back.
TWO KINDS OF MIGRATION
1. VOLUNTARY MIGRATION
Is where the migrant has a choice whether or not to migrate
2. FORCED MIGRATION
A government or authority forces someone to move.
Jay Weinstein and Vijayan Pillai (2001) denote a third classification which is the forced migration. Forced
migration exists when a person is moved against their will (slaves), or when the move is initiated because of
external factors (natural disaster or civil war).
LEGAL MIGRATION
Movement conforming to the rules and regulations of the country of origin, transit and destination. Legal
immigrants are those who moved with the legal permission of the receiver nation.
ILLEGAL MIGRATION
 Migration becomes illegal if people do not have the permission of the country or borders they are
entering into.

REFUGEE
A refugee is someone who has been forced to flee his or her country because of persecution, war or
violence. A refugee has a well-founded fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality, political
opinion or membership in a particular social group. Most likely, they cannot return home or are afraid to do so.
War and ethnic, tribal and religious violence are leading causes of refugees fleeing their countries.
Two-thirds of all refugees worldwide come from just five countries namely Syria, Afghanistan, South Sudan,
Myanmar and Somalia.
JESUIT REFUGEE SERVICE
The Jesus Refugee Service(JRS) is an international Catholic organization with a mission to
accompany, serve, and advocate on behalf of refugees and other forcibly displaced persons, that they may
heal, learn, and determine their own future. As representatives from the Society of Jesus gather in Rome from
all over the world for their General Congregation, there is a relatively new ministry that they can be very proud
of—the Jesuit Refugee Service.
This program was initiated by Fr. Pedro Arrupe, the Jesuit superior general, who had seen the
devastating impact of war on people in Japan where he cared for the victims of the atomic bomb in Hiroshima.
Today Jesuit Refugee Service works in 45 countries serving 724,000 people, 55 percent of whom are
Muslim. It has a staff of 1,800 people and a budget of about $50 million.
Jesuit Refugee Service’s motto is to accompany, serve, and advocate for and with refugees.
UNITED NATIONS HIGH COMMISSION FOR REFUGEES (UNHCR)
UNHCR is mandated by the United Nations to lead and coordinate international action for the
worldwide protection of refugees and resolution of refugee problems.
UNHCR’s primary purpose is to safeguard the rights and well-being of refugees. In its efforts to achieve
this objective, UNCHR strives to ensure that everyone can exercise the right to seek asylum and find safe
refuge in another state, and to return home voluntarily. By assisting refugees to return to their own country or
to settle permanently in another country, UNCHR also seeks lasting solutions to their plight.
UNHCR is an impartial organization, offering protection and assistance to refugees and others on the
basis of their needs and irrespective of their race, religion, political opinion or gender. In all of its activities,
UNCHR pays particular attention to the needs of children and seeks to promote the equal rights of women and
girls.

PUSH FACTORS
These are factors which encourage people to move out of an area.
PULL FACTORS
These are factors which encourage people to move into of an area.
URBANIZATION
Urbanization is the increase in the proportion of people living in towns and cities.
ADVANTAGES OF URBANIZATION
The convenience of goods and services.
Better access to public health
Increase in labor productivity
Availability of more jobs
Better possibilities to boost the economy
Better sanitary services
Social and cultural integration
Improve technology at a faster rate
Companies also would have a shorter distance to transport their products since everyone is in the urban area.
Easier to find another job
Creation and dissemination of knowledge
DISADVANTAGES OF URBANIZATION
An impact on the environment and quality of life
Price of the home
Cost of mobility
Crime index
Pollution
Poverty
Floods
A strain on infrastructure
Hot and humid environment
Less arable land
Human trafficking and prostitution
URBAN SPRAWL

Urban sprawl refers to the expansion of poorly planned, low density, auto-dependent development,
which spreads out over large amounts of land, putting long distances between homes, stores, and work and
creating a high segregation between residential and commercial uses with harmful impacts on the people living
in these areas and the ecosystems and wildlife that have been displaced.

POPULATION DENSITY

Population density is the number of individuals per unit geographic area, for example, number per
square meter, per hectare, or per square kilometer.

1.4 GLOBALIZATION
Globalization is the process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments
worldwide.
 It describes the way countries and people of the world interact and integrate. Many things have
become globalized as people come into contact. Economic globalization is how countries are coming
together as one big global economy, making international trade easier.

1.4.1 What are the Benefits of Globalization?

 Improved Living Standards

One of the main benefits of globalization is the massive rise in living standards in developing nations.

 Increased Creativity and Innovation

Global competition can encourage creativity and innovation, helping companies to stay one step
ahead of competitors.
Movement of labor and capital means that ideas from developing nations can drive innovation around the
world.
Before globalization, getting funding for an idea in an underdeveloped country was extremely difficult.
Since communications have evolved, individuals without access to funding can still make a difference in both
their home market and around the
world.

 Lowered Costs for Goods and Services

Lowered costs help people in both developing and developed countries live better on less money. Huge
cost reductions from inexpensive manufacturing and logistics have lowered the cost of living for everyone
around the world. The world trade system has also created an unprecedented variety of food at lower costs.

 Easy Access to Foreign Culture

Globalization has also made it easier to access foreign culture, including food, movies, music, and art.
The free flow of people, goods, and information has made it possible to have Thai food delivered to your
apartment as you listen to your favorite Norwegian death metal band and stream the latest Brazilian movie.

1.4.2 What are the Challenges of Globalization?

 Job Mobility- Lower-skilled workers who lose manufacturing jobs in developed countries often have a
difficult time finding new, comparably compensated work. Job loss in developed countries creates a
double-strain on those countries’ social welfare systems.

 Loss of Cultural Identity -While globalization has made foreign cultures easier to access, it has also
begun to meld cultures together. The success of certain cultures throughout the world have caused other
countries to emulate these lifestyles and culture. When cultures begin to lose their distinctive features, we
lose our global diversity.

 Partner with a Globalization Expert -Working with an experienced partner like Velocity Global can help
your business take advantage of the many opportunities of going global. Our International PEO
(Professional Employer Organization) solution helps organizations establish a presence in new
international markets—without the time and costs associated with entity establishment.
1.4.3 There are about seven major types of globalization.

 Financial globalization.
 Economic Globalization.
 Technological Globalization.
 Political Globalization.
 Cultural Globalization.
 Ecological Globalization.
 Sociological Globalization.

1.4.4 Political globalization

 Political globalization refers to the growth of the worldwide political system, both in size and complexity.
 The growing interconnection between countries and international organizations, free trade
 Rise of non-state actors has brought a new dimension to international politics.
 Refers to the increasing number and power of human associations.
 At the political makeup of the international system there have been a new number of institution and organization
such as international alliance

1.4.5 Benefits of Political Globalization

 Globalization of Politics. Traditionally politics has been undertaken within national political systems. National
governments have been ultimately responsible for maintaining the security and economic welfare of their
citizens, as well as the protection of human rights and the environment within their borders.

 The advancement of globalized politics is one aspect of how the world is becoming increasingly
interconnected. This is happening in the midst of numerous other advances in technology, communication and
transportation. The rise in the Internet is another occurrence that has led to the governments of the world
becoming increasingly interconnected. Globalization is a significant topic as the nations of the world increasingly
trade and invest in one another, and the new challenges of global warming, social inequality and terrorism are
further indicators of how globalized politics may be integral to the shaping of future international policies.

Examples of political Globalization

 There are many examples of political globalization, like the European Union, where political integration joins
multiple nations together to make decisions and establish policies. Because the nations of the world have
become much more connected, there is a growing prevalence of intergovernmental agencies, like the
International Monetary Fund, World Trade Organization and the United Nations. Political activity has
transcended the old barriers of national divisions, where global agencies, international organizations and
worldwide political movements have become much more common.

1.4.6 Economic Globalization

 Economic globalization is the increasing economic interdependence of national economies across the world
through a rapid increase in cross-border movement of goods, service, technology, and capital.

 Economic globalization is the best-known aspect of globalization. The main example of this is simply that
so many things that we own are made in other countries. The bookshelf I just bought was made in China. I
 used cooking oil from Canada last night. When I call a help center for technical support, I might talk to
someone in the Philippines. All of these connections are examples of economic globalization.

 Economic globalization primarily comprises the globalization of production, finance, markets, technology,
organizational regimes, institutions, corporations, and labor.

 Over the past two to three decades, under the framework of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT) and World Trade Organization, economic globalization has been expanding at a much faster pace.
Countries have rapidly been cutting down trade barriers and opening up their current accounts and capital
accounts.

 Economic globalization is a worldwide phenomenon, one popular activity under globalization is international
trade, in which products and services are exchanged between or among nations, even economic globalization
can affect the laws of a country system and culture.

1.4.7 Advantages of Economic Globalization

 Economic Globalization has granted many great benefits on Asian society, as well as providing policy-
makers with an increasing number of problems. All across Asia, freer market regulation has pulled millions of
people out of poverty. It has also created poverty for many of those who are unable to compete with global
competition. It has improved cross-border co-operation as well as strengthening the proliferation of Islamic
Radicalism-A major threat to peace in South East Asia. It is the job of Asian governments, to help their
countries best take advantage of the positive impacts of Globalization and limit the negative externalities
through regulatory policy.

 The aim of globalization is to benefit individual economies around the world by making markets more
efficient, increasing competition, limiting military conflicts, and spreading wealth more equally.

1.4.8 Disadvantages of Economic Globalization

 Developed countries can stifle development of undeveloped and under-developed countries.

 Economic depression in one country can trigger adverse reaction across the globe.

 It can increase spread of communicable diseases.

 Companies face much greater competition.

Examples Economic Globalization

 Parts of automobile being assembled in United States while coming from Japan.

 A shirt sold in France could have been made from Chinese cotton by workers from Thailand.

 Dozens of Asian restaurant in Western countries.

 A fashion trend on Europe can come all the way to Pakistan.

1.4.9 Cultural Globalization

 Cultural globalization refers to the transmission of ideas, meanings, and values around the world in such a
way as to extend and intensify social relations. This process is marked by the common consumption of cultures
that have been diffused by the Internet, popular culture media, and international travel.

 Cultural globalization involves the formation of shared norms and knowledge with which people associate
their individual and collective cultural identities. It brings increasing interconnectedness among different
populations and cultures.

1.4.10 Impact of Cultural Globalization

 The patterns of cultural globalization are a way of spreading theories and ideas from one place to another.
Although globalization has affected us economically and politically, it has also affected us socially on a wider
scale. With the inequalities issues, such as race, ethnic and class systems, social inequalities play a part within
those categories.

 Trend that will eventually make all of human experience and customs the same since all cultures are
coming together into one.

 Occurs in everyday life, through wireless communication, electronic commerce, popular culture, and
international trade.

1.4.11 Contributing factors

 New technology and forms of communication around the world help to integrate different cultures into each
other

 Transportation technologies and services along with mass migration and individual travel contribute to this
form of globalization allowing for cross-cultural exchanges

 Infrastructures and institutionalization embedded change (e.g. teaching languages such as English across
the world through educational systems and training of teachers).

1.4.12 Benefits

 Allows for profits to companies and nations

 Offers opportunities for development and advancement in economics, technology, and information and usually
impacts developed countries

 Creates a more homogeneous world

 Generates interdependent companies amongst companies

Examples of Cultural Globalization

 Cultural globalization integrates scholars from several disciplines, such as anthropology, sociology,
communication, cultural studies, geography, political science and international relations.

I. Discussion: SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

FAMILY AS A SOCIAL INSTITUTION
Types of Families:
 Traditional family- Is a family structure that consists of a man, woman, and one or more of their
biological or adopted children.
 Symmetrical- Is where a family divides all responsibilities equally between partners.
 Patriarchal- Is a family in which the father is considered head of the household.
 Matriarchal- Is a family in which the mother is the head of the family.
Characteristics of the Family
1. The family as a social group is universal and is a significant element in man's social life.
2. It is the first social group to which individuals is exposed. It is the basic autonomous unit in any given
society.
3. Family contact and relationships are repetitive and continuous.
4. The family is a very close and intimate group.
5. It is the setting of the most intense emotional experiences during the lifetime of individual.
6. The affects the individual's social values, dispositions, and outlook in life.
ROLES, RESPONSIBILITIES, and RIGHTS of FAMILY MEMBERS
 Fathers are to preside over their families in love and righteousness and are responsible to provide the
necessities of life and protection for their families.
 A mother needs to spend time with her children and teach them the gospel. She should play and work
with them so they can discover the world around them. She also needs to help her family know how to
make the home a pleasant place to be. 
 Children share with their parents the responsibilities of building a happy home. They should obey the
commandments and cooperate with other family members.
 Children should honor and respect their parents
The father and mother use their rights and carry out their duties by making decisions in place of their child.
Their objectives are to protect the child and to secure the child an education, development, security, health and
morality.
 Establishing the residence of the child
 Schooling and education of the child
 Supervision of the child
 Decision making in health matters for the child
 Maintenance for the child
Functions of The Family

1. Sex regulation. Sex is an important drive in human beings, and it has the potentials for disrupting
relationships in social groups.
2. Biological reproduction. All societies need to reproduce their members. For any society to survive
from one generation to the next, it must have some replacing its members.
3. Organizing production and consumption. In pre-industrial societies, the economic system is often
dependent on each family’s producing much of what it consumed. In almost all societies, the family
consumes food and other necessities as a social unit.
4. Socializing children. The family is responsible not only for producing children but also for ensuring
that their children are encouraged to accept the lifestyle it favors, to master the skills it values, and to
perform the work it requires.
5. Providing emotional intimacy and support. In most societies, the family serves as the primary group
for its members, giving individuals a sense of security, belonging and personal worth.
6. Providing care and attention. Every human being needs food and shelter. He needs people who will
care for him emotionally to help him with the problems that arise in daily life, and back him up whenever
he comes into conflicts with others.
7. Providing social status. Since every individual is born into a family, each individual inherits both
material goods and socially recognized position defined by ascribed statuses.
8. Providing mechanism for social control. To maintain the good name of the family, the family has to
keep its members within bounds in the various aspects of living.
9. The family also serves as the individuals first and foremost school where every child learns the
basic lesson in life. As such, the parents serve as the real and foremost teachers performing a very
vital role in the child’s development and formation.
10. Providing maintenance order. It provides means of communication, establishes types of intensity of
interaction, patterns of attention and affection, and sexual expression.
11. Providing placement of members in the larger society. It protects members from any undesirable
outside influence.
12. Maintaining motivation and morals. It rewards members for achievements, satisfies individual needs
for acceptance, encouragement, and affection, meets personal and family crises, refining a philosophy
of life, and gives a sense of Family Loyalty Through Rituals And Festivities.
Forms of Families
 Nuclear Family- This is also known as the primary or elementary family. It is composed of a husband
and his wife, and their children in the union recognized by the society.
 Extended Family- this is composed of two or more nuclear families related to each other economically
and socially.
 Modified extended – The modified extended family is when a family lives apart but they keep their
family ties alive. This can be done by maintaining the relationship through social media, letters and
emails.
 Lone Parent- Refers to families containing only one parent with his or her child(ren).
 Gay and Lesbian- Refers to lesbian and gay individuals or same sex couples and their children. A
stepfamily is a family unit in which one or both adult partners have children from a previous relationship.
 Step family- A stepfamily is a family unit in which one or both adult partners have children from a
previous relationship.
  Cohabitation- A living arrangement in which an unmarried couple lives together in a long-term
relationship that resembles a marriage. Couples cohabit, rather than marry, for a variety of reasons.
Types of Marriage
 Monogamy- Permits the man to have only one spouse at any time.
 Polygamy- It is a plural marriage. It assumes any of the following forms: polygyny, polyandry and
group marriage.
 Polygyny- Refers to the marriage of one man to two or more women at a time.
 Polyandry- Refers to the marriage of one woman to two or more man at a time.
 Group marriage- Refers to the marriage of several man and several women at a time.
 Same sex- The practice of marriage between two men or between two women.
 Levitate marriage- is a type of marriage in which the brother of a deceased man is obliged to marry his
brother's widow.
 Sororate marriage- is a type of marriage in which the husband engages in marriage or sexual relation
with the sister of his wife, usually after the death of his wife or if his wife has proven infertile.
The Changing Family and Family-Friendly Measures
Family-friendly workplaces and a family-friendly society are goals for a healthy community. There are
really two definitions to the term "family-friendly" in this section. One has to do with the operation of the
workplace, the other with government policies that affect that operation.
FAMILY-FRIENDLY Workplace Policies
 Family-friendly workplace policies can take many forms. Some possible family-friendly workplace
policies:
 Flex-time
 Job sharing
 Temporary or permanent switch to part-time
 Allowing work away from the worksite
 Maternity/paternity leave
 Parental leave
 Family medical leave
 Flexible emergency leave
 Employee and family health benefits
 Child care
 Elder care
 Family-oriented events
 Family-oriented environment
 Tuition for employee education
 College scholarships or loans for employees' children
 Including family issues as part of an employee assistance program
EDUCATION AS A SOCIAL INSTITUTION
Education as basic Human Right
 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), which set outs fundamental human rights, including
education, to be universally protected.
 Article 26 'everyone has the right to education'.
Education as a human right means:
 The right to education is legally guaranteed for all without any discrimination
 States have the obligation to protect, respect, and fulfil the right to education
 There are ways to hold states accountable for violations or deprivations of the right to education

Difference between education and learning

 Learning is the acquisition of knowledge or skills through study, experience, or being taught.
 Education is the process of receiving or giving systematic instruction, especially at a school or
university

Knowledge:
 In education, knowledge is gained through a teacher or a textbook.
 In learning, knowledge is gained through various sources.

Guidance:
 Education frequently takes place under the guidance of an educator.
 Learning does not require an educator or guidance.

Motivation:
 Education is prompted by extrinsic motivation.
 Learning is prompted by intrinsic motivation.

State and Non-State Education

 Non-state education is characterized by a diversity of providers, including religious schools, non-profit
schools run by NGO’s or foundations, publicly funded schools operated by private boards, community
owned schools, and for-profit schools that operate as enterprises.
 State education generally encompasses primary and secondary education (kindergarten to twelfth
grade, or equivalent), as well as post-secondary educational institutions such as universities, colleges,
and technical schools that are funded and overseen by government rather than by private entities.
Formal, Non-Formal, Informal Education
 Formal education: A hierarchically structured, chronologically graded ‘education system’, Organized,
guided by a formal curriculum, leads to a formally recognized credential such as a high school
completion diploma or a degree
 Informal education: No formal curriculum and no credits earned whereby every individual acquires
attitudes, values, skills and knowledge from daily experience.
 Non-formal education: Any organized educational activity outside the established formal.

The National Minimum Curriculum and Hidden Curriculum

 The National Minimum Curriculum (NMC) is a framework establishing parameters within which every
school will be empowered to design and propose an educational provision that meets its
particular curricular needs.
  National curriculum framework (NCF) is a document seeks to provide a framework within which
teachers and schools can choose and plan experiences that they think children should have. It
addresses four issues such as educational purpose, educational experience, an organization of
experience and assessing learner.Abr 18, 2019
 Hidden curriculum refers to the unwritten, unofficial, and often unintended lessons, values, and
perspectives that students learn in school.

System of Formal Education

 Education is the process by which people learn:
 Instruction refers to the facilitating of learning, usually by a teacher.
 Teaching refers to the actions of a real live instructor to impart learning to the student.
 Learning refers to learning with a view toward preparing learners with specific knowledge, skills, or
abilities that can be applied immediately upon completion.

The Systems of Formal Education

 Adult Education
 Higher Education
 Preschool Education
 Primary Education
 Secondary Education
Inclusive Education
 Inclusive education is based on a commitment, on the part of the learning community, to fully
acknowledge individual difference and to professing as well as implementing inclusionary politics.

Lifelong Learning
 “Development after formal education: the continuing development of knowledge and skills that people
experience after formal education and throughout their lives” (Encarta, 2008).
 A traditional definition of lifelong learning is “all learning activity undertaken throughout life, with the aim
of improving knowledge, skills and competences within a personal, civic, social and/or employment-
related perspective” (European Commission [EC], 2001, p. 9). Jarvis (2006, p. 134)

Student Mobility and Opportunity In Study Abroad

 Student mobility refers both to the outward flow of domestic students to other increasing
Diversity Abroad Expanding Opportunities for Students
 Student mobility is any opportunity for students to work or study abroad whilst undertaking their degree
programme – whether undergraduate or postgraduate. Student Mobility can be both incoming and
outgoing in the form of Bilateral Exchange or one-way Study Abroad.

RELIGION AS A SOCIAL INSTITUTION

I. Definition of Religion

Religious Institutions- this is the institution that satisfies man’s basic social need for a relationship with
God. Religion is a social institution that answers questions and explains the seemingly inexplicable.
Religion provides explanations for why things happen and demystifies the ideas of birth and death.
- From the Latin RELIGION (respect for what is sacred) and RELIGARE (to bind, in the sense of an
obligation), the term religion describes various systems of belief and practice that define what people
consider to be sacred or spiritual (Fasching and De Chant 2001; Durkheim 1915).
II. Functions of Religion
 The structural-functional approach to religion has its roots in Emile Durkheim’s work on religion. Durkheim
argued that religion is, in a sense, the celebration and even (self-) worship of human society. Given this
approach, Durkheim proposed that religion has three major functions in society:
 It provides social cohesion to help maintain social solidarity through shared rituals and beliefs
 Social control to enforce religious-based morals and norms to help maintain conformity and
control in society; and
 It offers meaning and purpose to answer any existential questions

Social Control - any control, either formal or informal, that is exerted by a group, especially by one’s peers
Social Cohesion - The bonds or “glue” that maintain stability in society.
III. Major World Religions

Most of the world subscribes to one of the following religions:

1. Christianity
 a monotheistic religion
 Christians believe in one eternal God who is creator of all that is.
 He is viewed as a loving God who offers everyone a personal relationship with himself now in
this life.
 centered around the personage of Jesus of Nazareth, or Jesus Christ
 Christianity arose in the 30s–50s CE as a religious offshoot of Judaism based on the teachings
of Jesus, who was himself Jewish.
 Jesus claimed to be God in human form
2. Islam
 monotheistic faith founded by the prophet Muhammad in the year 607 in present-day Saudi
Arabia
 world's second largest religion, mostly concentrated in the Middle East and Southeast Asia.
 Muslims believe there is the one almighty God, named Allah, who is infinitely superior to and
transcendent from humankind
 Allah is viewed as the creator of the universe and the source of all good and all evil
 A follower's relationship with Allah is as a servant to Allah.
 Muhammad is considered the last prophet
 At death -- based on one's faithfulness to these duties -- a Muslim hopes to enter Paradise. If
not, they will be eternally punished in hell.
 After death a person is rewarded or punished according to their religious devotion. Muslims
believe that giving up one’s life for Allah is a sure way of entering Paradise.
To be a Muslim, one must follow five religious duties: 1. Repeat a creed about Allah and
Muhammad; 2. Recite certain prayers in Arabic five times a day; 3. Give to the needy; 4. One
month each year, fast from food, drink, sex and smoking from sunrise to sunset; 5. Pilgrimage once
in one's lifetime to worship at a shrine in Mecca.
3. Buddhism
 do not worship any gods or God
 religious tradition founded by Gautama Buddha in the early 400s BCE
 the Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama) never claimed to be divine, but rather he is viewed by
Buddhists as having attained what they are also striving to attain, which is spiritual
enlightenment and, with it, freedom from the continuous cycle of life and death.
 or opposing) many of the same Vedic traditions that inform Hinduism
  Buddhism continued to grow and develop in East Asia, being the majority religion of many
countries in Southeast Asia, and with nearly 200 million practitioners in China.
 Buddhists believe a person has countless rebirths, which inevitably include suffering. A Buddhist
seeks to end these rebirths. Buddhists believe it is a person's cravings, aversion and delusion
that cause these rebirths. Therefore, the goal of a Buddhist is to purify one's heart and to let go
of all yearnings toward sensual desires and the attachment to oneself.
 When a Buddhist meditates it is not the same as praying or focusing on a god, it is more of a
self-discipline. Through practiced meditation a person may reach Nirvana -- "the blowing out" of
the flame of desire.
4. Hinduism
 oldest religion in the world, due to its origins in Vedic beliefs dating as far back as the 1500s
BCE
 religion has no founder
 dominant religion on the Indian subcontinent
 Hindus worship one Being of ultimate oneness (Brahman) through infinite representations of
gods and goddesses
 Hindus believe their position in this present life was determined by their actions in a previous
life. If a person’s behavior before was evil, they might justifiably experience tremendous
hardships in this life
 Hindu's goal is to become free from the law of karma...to be free from continuous
reincarnations. Only the soul matters which will one day be free of the cycle of rebirths and be at
rest.

There are three possible ways to end this cycle of karma: 1. Be lovingly devoted to any of the
Hindu deities; 2. Grow in knowledge through meditation of Brahman (oneness)...to realize that
circumstances in life are not real, that selfhood is an illusion and only Brahman is real; 3. Be
dedicated to various religious ceremonies and rites.
5. Judaism
 is a monotheistic religion that predates Christianity, built on the belief that they are the “chosen
people” of God
 practiced by the Jewish people, an ethnic and religious nation descended from the historic
peoples of Israel and Judah
 Judaism as it would be recognized today originated in the Middle East in at least the 500s BCE,
although certain religious traditions or beliefs can be traced back much further. Its adherents
have long faced persecution from dominant religious groups around them

In looking at these major belief systems and their views of God, we find tremendous diversity:
 Hindus acknowledge multitudes of gods and goddesses.
 Buddhists say there is no deity.
 New Age Spirituality followers believe they are God.
 Muslims believe in a powerful but unknowable God.
 Christians believe a loving God who created us to know him.

IV. Religious Organization

 Sociologists group religious organizations into three categories: church, sect, and cult.
a) Church is a religious group integrated with society; a large, bureaucratically organized religious
organization that is closely integrated into the larger society. Two types of church organizations
exist. The first is the ecclesia, a large, bureaucratic religious organization that is a formal part of the
state and has most or all of a state’s citizens as its members. As such, the ecclesia is the national or
state religion. People ordinarily do not join an ecclesia; instead they automatically become members
when they are born. Denomination, a large, bureaucratic religious organization that is closely
integrated into the larger society but is not a formal part of the state. In modern pluralistic nations,
several denominations coexist. Most people are members of a specific denomination because their
parents were members.
b) Sect is a religious group that sets itself apart from society as a whole. A sect is a relatively small
religious organization that is not closely integrated into the larger society and that often conflicts with at
least some of its norms and values. Sect has broken away from a larger denomination in an effort to
restore what members of the sect regard as the original views of the denomination. Because sects are
relatively small, they usually lack the bureaucracy of denominations and ecclesiae and often also lack
clergy who have received official training.
c) Cult is a religious group that is outside standard cultural norms, typically centered around a charismatic
leader. A cult is a small religious organization that is at great odds with the norms and values of the
larger society. Cults are similar to sects but differ in at least three respects. First, they generally have
not broken away from a larger denomination and instead originate outside the mainstream religious
tradition. Second, they are often secretive and do not proselytize as much. Third, they are at least
somewhat more likely than sects to rely on charismatic leadership based on the extraordinary personal
qualities of the cult’s leader. Although the term cult today raises negative images of crazy, violent, small
groups of people, it is important to keep in mind that major world religions, including Christianity, Islam,
and Judaism, and denominations such as the Mormons all began as cults. 
V. Secularization and Social Change
Secularization is a cultural transition in which religious values are gradually replaced with nonreligious
values. In the process, religious figureheads such as church leaders lose their authority and influence over
society. In the field of sociology, the term is used to describe societies that have become or are becoming
modernized—meaning that features of society such as the government, the economy, and schools are more
distinct, or less influenced by religion.
POLITICS AS A SOCIAL INSTITUTION
POLITICS
 Denotes a social activity
 The creation, maintenance and amendment of social norms or rules.
 Is an art and science of government

POWER
 The main source of reign of the government.
 The possession to govern or rule the state.

AUTHORITY
 The power to enforce rules or give orders
TYPES OF AUTHORITIES by MAX WEBBER
1. TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY
 Power legitimized by respect for long-established cultural patterns.
 “It has always been that way.”

2. CHARISMATIC AUTHORITY
 The leader is believed to be magical by employing various tactics.
 Power legitimized by exceptional, unusual, and extraordinary personal abilities which inspire devotion
and obedience.

3. RATIONAL-LEGAL AUTHORITY
 Elected Leaders
 Status allows them to rule
 Electing anchors legitimacy

GOVERNMENT
 Group of people with the authority to govern a country or state.
STATE
 A political unit that has sovereignty over a particular piece of land.
ELEMENTS OF A STATE
 Population- the people who make the state.
 Territory- geographical area that is owned and controlled by a government or country to exercise such
state sovereignty.
 Government- is the political organization of the state.
 Sovereignty- is the quality of having supreme, independent authority over a territory.
a. Internal sovereignty- the power of the state to order and regulate the activities of all the people, groups and
institutions which are at work within its territory.
b. External sovereignty- complete independence of the state from external control.

Recognition- The acknowledgement or acceptance by the member of International Community that a new state
has acquired by international personality.
1. The community of new State must be politically organized.
2. Should be control over a definite territory.
3. Such community must be independent and it must possess the essential for being a State.

POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES
 Democracy- form of government in which power belongs to the people.
 Dictatorship- is a form of government where one person or political party has the power to do whatever
they want.
 Totalitarianism- refers to a political system in which all authority is in the hands of the state.
 Monarchy- states in which supreme authority is vested in the monarch, an individual ruler who functions
as the head of state and who achieves his or her position through heredity.

SEPARATIONS OF POWERS
-The branches of governments has its own power and duties.
a. Legislative branch- to make laws. Congress is made up of two houses, the senate and the house of
representatives.
b. Executive branch- to enforce laws
c. Judiciary branch- to interpret laws

CHECKS AND BALANCES

A system that allows each branch of a government to amend or veto acts of another branch so as to
prevent any one branch from exerting too much power.

SOCIAL ISSUES
Issues that relates to society’s perception of people’s personal lives.
Examples: ♦ Anti– social behavior
♦ Poverty
♦ Prostitution
♦ Economic Deprivation
♦ Unemployment

SOCIAL ISSUES ELEMENTS

♦ A condition or situation presented as objectionable by a significant number of people.
♦ It is considered as undesirable because of its injurious consequences.
♦ All social problems want a correction through collective action.
♦ All aberrant behaviors or deviations from accepted norms are termed as social problems.
♦ Social problems are not static change with the change in time and space.

TYPES OF SOCIAL PROBLEMS

♦ Social problems at the Individual level
Include juvenile delinquency, drug addiction, suicide, etc.
♦ Social problems at the Collective level
Emerge when the mechanisms of social control fail to regulate the behaviors of its members and when there is
breakdown of effective institutional.
♦ Social problems due to social factors
Several cultural factors have been responsible for a number of social problems.
♦ Social problems due to economic factors
Are also responsible for some social problems being faced by the contemporary society. It is more conspicuous in
societies of developing countries.
♦ Social problems due to political and legal factors
In order to win elections and come to power, political parties do not shy away communal modes of mobilization.
♦ Social problems due to ecological factors
The ecological consequence of such an attempt has now emerge as a social problem. Rapid industrialization has led to
increase in environmental pollution that includes air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution, and degradation and
desertification of the land.
GENDER
Gender is a term that refers to social or cultural distinctions associated with being male or female. Gender identity is
the extent to which one identifies as being either masculine or feminine.
SEX
Sex refers to physical or physiological differences between males and females, including both primary sex
characteristics (the reproductive system) and secondary characteristics such as height and muscularity.

GENDER DISCRIMINATION
Describes the situation in which people are treated differently simply because they are male or female, rather than on
the basis of their individual skills or capabilities.

GENDER ROLES
The term gender role refers to society’s concept of how men and women are expected to act and how they should
behave. These roles are based on norms, or standards, created by society.
GENDER STREOTYPES
A stereotype is a widely accepted judgment or bias about a person or a group even though it’s overly simplified and
not always accurate.
FOUR KINDS OF GENDER STEREOTYPES
♦ Personality traits
♦ Domestic Behaviors
♦ Occupations
♦ Physical Appearance
SEXISM
A stereotype about gender can cause unequal and unfair treatment because of a person’s gender.
FEMINISM
The belief in social, economic, and political equality of the sexes. Although largely originating in the West, feminism is
manifested worldwide and is represented by various institutions committed to activity on behalf of women’s rights and
interests.

YOUTH IN A CHANGING SOCIETY

YOUTH Youth is best understood as a period of transition from the dependence of childhood to adulthood’s
independence. Youth is the age group of adolescent children.

DEVELOPMENTS (video presentation)

♦ Psychological Development ♦ Physical Development

ROLE OF YOUTH

♦ SOCIAL STABILITY Range of life structure and reliable routine that is protective against further situational hazards
and helps maintain connections with social resources and social expectations. ♦ SOCIAL CHANGE Changes in human
interactions and relationships that transform cultural and social institutions. “Ang kabataan ang pag-asa ng Bayan.” -
Jose Rizal

SOCIAL PROBLEMS FACED BY YOUTH

♦ Substance Abuse –When you take drugs that are not legal. ♦ Teenage Pregnancies -Also known as adolescent
pregnancy, is pregnancy in a female under the age of 20. ♦ Sexually Transmitted Diseases -Refers to a condition
passed from one person to another through sexual contact. ♦ Deviance -Violation of social norms and conventions. ♦
Delinquency -Minor violation of laws (done by youth).
PROBLEMS WITH THE PHILIPPINE EDUCATION SYSTEM (video presentation)

YOUTH REHABILITATION PROGRAMMES

♦ TM Sports Para sa Bayan ♦ Self Enhancement for Life Foundation ♦ Tokhang “youth for rehab treatment”

HOW YOUTH ENJOY THEIR LEISURE TIME

Youth usually spend their leisure time with: ♦ Family ♦ Mobile Devices ♦ Adventures

MASS MEDIA AND CONSUMERISM IN YOUTH

Mass media The means used to communicate with the general public.

Consumerism Is a human desire to own and obtain products and goods in excess of one’s basic needs.

Impact of mass media and consumerism on youth (video presentation)

WELFARE AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION

WELFARE Welfare as a social protection. Welfare state and welfare society. Welfare programs are government
subsidies to the poor. Recipients must prove their income falls below the target., which is some percentage of the
federal poverty level.

MONETARY COMPENSATION In the context of employment, it is the money paid to an employee in exchange for the
use of the employee’s labor, as opposed to non-monetary compensation such as health insurance.

SOCIAL EXCLUSION

POVERTY Poverty is the situation of being below a certain level of income one needs for a basic standard of living.

TYPES OF POVERTY

♦ Generational poverty -Involves the birth of 2 generations into poverty ♦ Situational poverty -It is usually
temporary as it involves a crisis or loss occurring. ♦ Absolute poverty -People in absolute poverty don’t even have
basic necessities. ♦ Relative poverty -It is relative to the average standard of living in that person’s society. ♦ Rural
-Occurs only in nonmetropolitan areas with a population below 50,000 ♦ Urban -This particular poverty is only for
metropolitan areas with population over 50,000

INDICATORS OF POVERTY

♦ Levels of Education ♦ Healthcare ♦ Income ♦ Food Provision ♦ Employment ♦ Environment and Housing ♦ Poverty

FORMS OF SOCIAL EXCLUSION

♦ Age and Class ♦ Gender ♦ Race and Belief System ♦ Digital Divide ♦ Links between Social Exclusion ♦ Crime and
Poverty
 SOCIAL INSTITUTION

“An institution is a stable cluster of values, norms, status, roles and groups that develops around a basic social
need.” – Ian Robertson
“A set of interaction of Folk ways, mores and laws built around one or more functions is defined as the
institution.” – Kingley Davis
“An institution is an organized system of social relationships which embodies certain common values and
procedures and meets certain needs of the society.” – Harton and Hunt
“A social institution means a structural skeleton through which the societies complete and guide the
organizations of different activities regarding satisfaction of human needs.” – Barnus
“Social institutions are organized patterns of beliefs and behaviour centered on basic social needs.” – RT.
Schaefer

A stable and widely accepted cluster of values, norms, statuses, roles and groups that develops around
a basic need in society. As such, an institution is a complex phenomenon, much more complicated than the
mere sum of its parts. This pertains to a group of people united by common interest endowed by material
equipment, following rules of their tradition or agreement and contributing to the work of culture as a whole. –
Malinowski
Institution are system of social relationships for meeting various human needs. – Bertrand. Institution as
“an established forms or the condition of a form”. A social group of social positions, connected by social
relations, performing or social role. Any institution in a society that works to socialize the group of people in it.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

1. Stable Position and Permanent Structure:
Social institution is of permanent nature with a special structure just as, family, husband, wife, parents
and children formulate its entity. This structure has been existing since ancient times and in spite of numerous
changes this structure has not been changed.
2. Fulfils Specific Needs and Goals:
A social institution is a source of completion of specific needs and objectives just as, a religious
institution functions as a, spiritual peace, social security and integrity.
3. Specific Relation Patterns:
A social institution is a collection of social values, norms, status, role status and customs and on the
basis of this, it established relations. A family comes into existence through Nikah for conjugal relations of
husband and wife and abides by all the mores, method of domestic working, marriage, engagement and
deaths.
4. Permanent Behavior Pattern:
In a social institution, behaviors are fixed and individuals are accustomed to these, therefore,
institutions prevent the changes, coming into the society which causing damage to the values. They think that
change brings about a decrease in stability and mutual respect, therefore, these do not hesitate to attack
changes.
5. Tend to be Interdependent:
Social institutions depend on each other and have a mutual co-existence. A family provides men forces
for other institutions. Religious institution provides spiritual relief. A political institution provides security and
stability to a society.
6. Tend to be the Site of Major Social Problems:
When social institutions do not function properly or are not'in harmony with the social needs, problems
are created. For example, if economic institution fails to provide food, employment and supply according to
demand, then problems of famine and unemployment will be produced, if a political institution fails in
maintaining peace, order and justice and then lawlessness, crimes and disorder will appear.

7. Tend to Change Together:

Social institutions present the change but it does not happen that if a change is brought about in an
institution, other institutions are not affected because they are interdependent. Other institutions are bound to
change. A change is in an agrarian economy then an industrial economy is bound to affected, family institution
from common family to simple family, etc.

FUNCTIONS OF AN INSTITUTIONS
1. Provide ready-made forms of social relations and social roles for individual.
2. Act as agencies of coordination and stability for the total culture.
3. Control behavior.
4. Social institutions are the social patterns directing human behavior in the performance of basic
activities.
5. Social institutions provide better chances for human survival.
6. Social institutions have manifest and latent functions tending to make the stability and setting Up of
complicated relations in the society. These functions are discussed below:
 Preservation of Human Race:
The family institution basically functions to preserve the human race and its growth by socially
approved way of conjugal relations (marriage), provides food and dress for survival of life. The political
institution provides security. Educational institutions and religious institutions help for better relations in the
society, keeping the existence of society.
 Transmission of Culture:
Social institution not only plays an important role in keeping the culture but also transmits it to the next
generation. The family teaches values, traditions, language, dress and customs to the individuals.
Educational institution transmits experiments through knowledge. Religious institution teaches to hold
beliefs and values about sacred things and ways of worship in the minds of new generation.
 Satisfaction of Basic Needs:
All social institutions aim at providing basic human needs and their satisfaction. The family institution
provides sex satisfaction and survival of race. Economics institution provides food and political institution
provides security to life and property. Religious institution provides moral training. Family and school arrange
for education of children, teaches different skills. In short, all social institutions are for the satisfaction of basic
needs of members of a society.
 Social Solidarity:
Social institution plays a role in keeping law and order and unity. Family institution saves from sexual
waywardness, keeps children safe from disorder by providing training of norms, values and traditions of the
society. Religious institution keeps the society free from dispersion by teaching regard for social sanctions.
Political institution provides stability by saving the society from external changes and by keeping law and order.
The economic institution provides biological needs of the individuals of the society.
 Social Welfare and Development
Social institutions do the jobs of welfare of the society. Political institution establishes orphan houses,
knitting centers for women, recreation for elders and old people through welfare institutions and for physically
disabled persons to promote their welfare. Similarly, to establish schools, colleges, universities, professional
colleges, research centers, industrial centers to promote modern inventions are the responsibilities of the
social institutions.

 Provision of Recreational Activities:

Social institutions provide peace, satisfaction and pleasant environment to the individuals of a society
through a strong system of family. Different festivals are arranged to provide recreations to the individuals of a
society just as, family provides such joys through function of marriage and engagement. Educational
institutions do this through plays, games, Speech contest and other recreational programs. Political institutions
provide national athletic games competitions. Films, TV and setting up of theater also provide recreational
chances to make a society healthy to enjoy pleasant activities.
 Mental and Physical Security:
Social institution provides relief to the individuals in trouble and worry and provides mental peace and
security. Religious institution makes the individuals hopeful and peaceful during failures and worries. Family
provides a sense of security to the old, the rich and with refuge a mental and physical peace by providing an
emotional, social and physical support. Political institution establishes departments of police, judiciary and jails
to provide a security of life, property, honor and prestige. Welfare centers are established for refuge-less
orphans and disabled people to provide them a mental and physical security.

7. Control behavior.

MAJOR SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS:

 The economy
 The political system
 Religious systems
 The educational system
 The health system
 The family

ECONOMY, WORK AND LEISURE

Economy is the production, consumption and trade of goods and services in an area. The system of
making money and producing and distributing goods and services within a country or region.
ECONOMY AS A SOCIAL INSTITUTION
The economy is the social institution that organizes a country's production, distribution and
consumption of goods and services. It fulfills society's bed for products, services and an organized system of
distribution.
Economic institutions refer to specific agencies or foundations, both government and private devoted to
collecting or studying economic data or commissioned with the job of supplying a good or service that is
important to the economy of a country.
This also means a well-established arrangements and structures that are part of the culture or society
such as kids’ allowances, customary tipping and a system of a property rights.
EXAMPLES OF ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS
 General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs
 International Monetary Fund
 World Trade Organization
TYPES OF ECONOMIES
1.Market-based economies - a supply and demand.
2.Pure market economies - government intervention or central planning.
3.Command - based economies and dependent on a central political agent, which controls the price and
distribution of goods.
4.Green economies - depend on renewable, sustainable forms of energy.

ROLE OF ECONOMY
They make sure that resources are properly allocated and ensure that the poor or those with fewer
economic resources are protected. They also encourage trust by providing policing and justice systems which
adhere to a common set of laws.

WORK
Work is an activity such as a job that a person uses physical or mental effort to do usually for money.
This is what we do because we have to (usually for money).
For individuals, work is an important feature in structuring: personal and social identities, family and
social bonds, ways of making money, and thereby accessing a number of essential and non-essential goods,
services and activities, daily routines, level of activity, physical and mental well-being, self-confidence and self-
esteem, a sense of self-worth provided by the feeling of contributing to a society or the common good.
Economic and labor market institutions are also critically important to modern societies. Their function
is to provide an environment that ensures the production and distribution of goods and services. In all
societies, work is the basis of human existence.
Where do we work?
There are two different economies that exist; the formal and informal economy.
Formal economy includes all employment that is legal and taxed. While the formal economy has two
elements:
1. Hidden economy is non-taxed work and sometimes illegal.
2. Domestic/Voluntary (or community economy) pertains on a work that is done for love or duty and is
unpaid.

SECTORS OF WORK

The primary sector is involved with the collection of raw materials: farming, mining and fishing.

The secondary sector is involved with making things: factories and workshops.
The tertiary or service sector is concerned with providing a service such as salespeople, teachers, lawyers,
nurses, shop workers, office lawyers.
In recent years mining and manufacture have declined, whilst there has been a huge increase in
service sector jobs.
For society, it promotes social and economic development, organizing social life and macro level.
 LEISURE
Leisure is a term that describes free time or a time for enjoyment. This means an opportunity afforded
by free time to do something. This is what we do in our free time.
Leisure is often defined by time and activity:

1. Time: free time for enjoyment.

2. Activity: recreation activities.
Leisure is often viewed as freely choosing to do activities after responsibilities are completed. These
activities enjoyable, pleasing, and relaxing that are done during time that are done during time that is not
meant for other jobs.
Leisure can be associate with recreation. When we say recreation this refers to different activities in
which people participate when they are not working.
RECREATIONAL AND LEISURE INSTITUTIONS
Are institutions that fill the needs of the normal and physically challenged people in a society. Such as
health fitness gym, Zumba stations etc.
FUNCTIONS
To build Physique
To provide relaxation
To provide happiness
To provide love
IMPORTANCE OF LEISURE
Leisure activities are important to bring about a positive flow of energy in a person. These activities help
to refresh the mind. There are various recreational activities one can choose from to suit individual tastes. At
the end of the day, the increased positivity that you experience only reflects the importance of recreation in
your life. It also decreases conflicts and crime

ROLE OF LEISURE
Like culture and art, recreation, leisure and sports activities play an important role in communities these
include improving health and well-being of individuals, contributing to the empowerment of individuals and
promoting the development of inclusive communities.
MASS MEDIA
This is the means used to communicate to the general public. A communication that reaches and
influences a large number of people. The concept was first addressed during Progressive era of 1920’s.
Mass Media Examples:
television advertising internet magazine
radio movies newspapers
4 TYPES OF MASS MEDIA:
 PRINT MEDIA
 BROADCAST MEDIA
 OUTDOOR OR OUT HOME (OOH) MEDIA
 INTERNET
IMPORTANCE OF MASS MEDIA
1. It gets your message across to a wider audience.
2. It can help you target your message to the people you want to hear it.
3. It can sway opinion.
4. It can help establish your group as ‘’legitimate’’ and its activities as important or notable.

THE MASS MEDIA AS A PART OF SOCIAL INSTITUTION

 Mass media had become one of the most powerful that connect people to other people. Mass media is
considered as a significant agent on socialization.
 Mass media help people in shaping their own kinds of beliefs and that realities they shall choose to
promote (both) because the impact of media, both in content and on process on all areas of societies is
undeniable.
 Mass media is one of the most significant agents of socialization that help people in their formation of
beliefs and norms.
 Mass media have emerged as social institution, assuming many of the functions formerly served by
traditional social institution such as school, church, government and family instead, the primary
objective of a privately own media organization is to make a profit for the company.

ROLE OF MASS MEDIA

The press, the radio, television and any mass media company or institutions plays a vital role in society
because the inform, educate and entertain people. They also influence the way of people at the world and
make them change their views. Their main role is organizing public opinion.

HEALTH
Health is a state of complete well-being: physical, mental, and emotional. This definition emphasizes
the importance of being more than disease free and recognizes that a healthy body depends upon a healthy
environment and stable mind.
Sociology assumes that a function society depends upon healthy people upon controlling illnesses.

Health Institutions
Organizations that provides health care and related services to the provision of inpatient and outpatient
care, such as diagnostic or therapeutic services, laboratory services, medicinal drugs and other health
services.
 Healthcare institutions usually has been thought as a hospital, a nursing home, a rehabilitation facility
or another such single-site entity. A such institution consists of the human beings who work in many different
capacities within it, the leaders who direct and manage it and its governing body which is usually a board of
trustees that is responsible for hiring and firing the chief executive officer (CEO) or the president of the
institution and for setting policy and direction in partnership with the employed leaders.

ROLE OF HEALTH SYSTEM

The primary focus of public health system strengthening is to build the workface needed to staff key
national public institutions, conduct the core functions of public health, to implement and manage critical health
programs.
5 Types of Health Care Facilities
1. Hospital – which primary task is to provide short-term care for people with severe health issues
resulting injury, disease or genetic anomaly.

The social role of hospitals extends far beyond their function in the treatment of patients and has been
the subject of the best-known work in the sociology of healthcare. To a large degree, the current social
role of hospitals reflects their historical development over time (Cockerham, 2014).

2. Ambulatory Surgical Center – are designed to provide these types of procedures.

3. Doctor’s office – is a medical facility where one or more doctors provide treatment to patients.
4. Urgent Care Clinic – this offers basic medical care without an appointment
5. Nursing Home – designed for patients who require constant care but do not need hospitalized and
cannot be cared at home.