Chapter 25 summary SolutionS to all exampleS

Current and current density: Current is the amount of dQ I

I = = n 0 q 0 vd A (25.2)
charge flowing through a specified area, per unit time. dt S
vd
S
vd
The SI unit of current is the ampere 11 A = 1 C>s2. The S S
S vd vd S
current I through an area A depends on the concentra- J = nqvd
S
(25.4) E
tion n and charge q of the charge carriers, as well as S
vd
S
vd
S
on the magnitude of their drift velocity vd . The current
density is current per unit cross-sectional area. Current
is usually described in terms of a flow of positive
charge, even when the charges are actually negative or
of both signs. (See Example 25.1.)

Resistivity: The resistivity r of a material is the ratio E r

r = (25.5)
of the magnitudes of electric field and current density. J
Good conductors have small resistivity; good insulators
have large resistivity. Ohm’s law, obeyed approximately r1T2 = r0 31 + a1T - T024 (25.6) r0 Slope = r0a
by many materials, states that r is a constant indepen-
dent of the value of E. Resistivity usually increases with T
O T0
temperature; for small temperature changes this varia-
Metal: r increases with
tion is represented approximately by Eq. (25.6), where increasing T.
a is the temperature coefficient of resistivity.

Resistors: The potential difference V across a sample V = IR (25.11) Lower

potential
of material that obeys Ohm’s law is proportional to the
current I through the sample. The ratio V>I = R is the rL Higher
R = (25.10) L
resistance of the sample. The SI unit of resistance is the A potential S I
ohm 11 Ω = 1 V>A2. The resistance of a cylindrical E S
J
conductor is related to its resistivity r, length L, and I V
A
cross-sectional area A. (See Examples 25.2 and 25.3.)

Circuits and emf: A complete circuit has a continuous Vab = E - Ir (25.15) Vab = Va′b′
current-carrying path. A complete circuit carrying a (source with internal resistance) V
steady current must contain a source of electromotive a + b
force (emf) E. The SI unit of electromotive force is the
volt (V). Every real source of emf has some internal I r = 2 Ω, E = 12 V A I
resistance r, so its terminal potential difference Vab
depends on current. (See Examples 25.4–25.7.) a′ R = 4Ω b′

Energy and power in circuits: A circuit element puts P = Vab I (25.17) Va Vb

energy into a circuit if the current direction is from (general circuit element) Circuit
lower to higher potential in the device, and it takes I element I
energy out of the circuit if the current is opposite. The 2
V ab2 a b
P = Vab I = I R = (25.18)
power P equals the product of the potential difference R
Va - Vb = Vab and the current I. A resistor always (power delivered to a resistor)
takes electrical energy out of a circuit. (See
Examples 25.8–25.10.)

Conduction in metals: In a metal, current is due to the m

r = (25.24) S

motion of electrons. They move freely through the ne2t E

metallic crystal but collide with positive ions. In a Net displacement
crude classical model of this motion, the resistivity of
the material can be related to the electron mass, charge,
speed of random motion, density, and mean free time
between collisions. (See Example 25.11.)

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