Module No.

2
Nature of Fluids
Fluid Mechanics
SCI 103

This course deals with the science of fluids (liquids and gases). It discusses
aerodynamics, the study of air and gases in motion; and hydrodynamics – the study of liquids in
motion. It also explains the fundamental concepts and principles relating to speed, pressure and
forces particularly Bernoulli, Pascal and Archimedes’. It allows students to gain knowledge of
how this topic is applied to daily activities and solve practical problems.

Total Learning Time: 3 hours per week

One thinks of fluids as only liquids, but there are two types of fluids –
liquids and gases. Liquids and gases share some characteristics such as a lack of shear
resistance that make them similarly useful but they also have differing characteristics that require
to approach to make sure that these two types of fluid are different.

This module introduces several topics such as the nature of fluids, kinetic molecular
theory, gas laws and its applications.

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

1. describe the different characteristics and properties of fluids

2. explain the properties of gases in terms of KMT
3. investigate the different relationships between measurable properties of a gas
4. apply equations to solve related problems
5. explain the different gas laws and their relationships therein
6. cite examples of applications of gas laws in day to day activities

1. Nature of Fluids
2. Kinetic Molecular Theory
3. Gas Laws
4. Gas Laws Applications

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 We considered objects that were solid and assumed to maintain their shape except for a
small amount of elastic deformation. We sometimes treated objects as point particles. Now we
are going to shift our attentions to materials that are very deformable and can flow. Such fluids
include liquids and gases. We will examine fluids both at rest (fluid statics) and in motion (fluid
dynamics).

The three common phases or states of matter are solid, liquid, and gas although as of the
present time, there are 5 states of matter that exist. In this module, emphasis is given the 3 major
states only. A solid maintains a generally fixed size and shape; usually it requires a large force to
change the volume or shape of a solid. A liquid does not maintain a fixed shape, it takes on the
shape of its container, and it can flow; but like a solid it is not readily compressible, and its
volume can be changed significantly only by a very large force. A gas has neither fixed shape
nor a fixed volume, it will expand to fill its container. Since liquids and gases do not maintain a
fixed shape, they both have the ability to flow. They are thus referred to collectively known as
fluids.

 Fluid is a substance that is capable of flowing. Fluid It has no definite shape of its own. It
assumes the shape of its container.
 Fluid is defined as a substance that deforms continuously when acted upon by a shearing
stress of any magnitude.
 Matter exist in two states- the solid state and the fluid state
 Molecules in solid state are spaced very closely, solids possess compactness and rigidity
of form.
 Molecules in fluid state can move more freely within the fluid mass and therefore the
fluids do not possess any rigidity of form.
 Thus fluid exist in two forms: Liquid and Gas
 Liquids flow and take the shape of their container but maintain a constant volume;
incompressible
 Gases expand to fill the available volume; compressible.

The properties of of gases can be explained by a model called Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT).
The kinetic molecular theory describes the behavior of a gas at the microscopic level. Also describe as the
theory of moving molecules is a model that help us visualize what happens to gas particles as
experimental condition change. It is a model that helps us understand the physical properties of gases at
the molecular level. This theory was establish by scientists over a period of about 100 years. A systematic
and complete form of the theory was presented by the German physicist Rudolf Clausius (1822-1888) in
his work titled On the Kind of Motion which We Call Heat which was published in 1857.
Kinetic Molecular Theory Postulates
1. Gases consist of particles (molecules or atoms) that are in constant motion and collide with both
one another and the container
2. Gas particles are small and the total volume occupied by gas molecules is negligible relative to
the total volume of their container. Most volume of a gas is empty space.
3. Particles exert pressure when colliding with the container
4. There are no interactive forces (i.e., attraction or repulsion) between the particles of a gas.
Collisions are perfectly elastic that is no energy of motion is lost.
5. The average kinetic energy of gas particles is proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas,
and all gases at the same temperature (kelvin) have the same average kinetic energy.

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Note: When using KMT to explain the
characteristics of gases, assume that these gases
are ideal gases. An ideal gas is one that follows all
the directions of pressure and temperature. KMT
assumes that the particles of an ideal gas have no
volume (that is, they are just points) and they are
not attracted to each other. This is not true for real
gases. Real gases such as LPG (liquefied
petroleum gas) and dry ice, can be condensed to
form a liquid or even a solid at low temperature
and high pressure. This is not possible for ideal
gases. However, under conditions of high
temperature and low pressure, most real gases
behave like ideal gases.

Characteristics of a Fluid

 COMPRESSIBILITY
Compressibility is one of the characteristics
where gases and liquids vary. Gases are highly
compressible. Think about oxygen or nitrogen
tanks which often contain highly pressurized
gas. Putting gas under a lot of pressure allows you
to put a much greater mass of gas into smaller
container. Basically this means that pressure
causes a gas to reduce in volume.
Liquids on the other hand
are barely compressible. Under great pressure or
force a liquid will maintain a volume very close to
the original volume. Often liquids have so little
compressibility that they are
considered incompressible in engineering
calculations.

 SHAPE AND VOLUME

Unlike solids, fluids take the shape of the
container they are stored in. Water in a pitcher is
shaped like a pitcher. Air in a balloon is shaped
like a balloon. It could be the weirdest shaped
container imaginable and liquids and gases will
flow to match the shape of the container.
The difference is in volume. Gases will expand to
fill a container’s volume. The air in a balloon
takes up the entire space of the balloon. Liquids
will maintain a relatively constant volume so they
will not necessarily fill a container’s volume. Does
this mean the glass is half full or half empty? Well
if that glass is filled with air it is completely full.

 SHEAR RESISTANCE
Shear failure occurs when a force is applied to a material and the material fails parallel to that
force – like when you cut paper with scissors. Gases have no shear resistance. When you swing a
knife through the air, the air puts up no resistance to your separating it. The particles just move
around the knife.

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 Liquids also have essentially no shear resistance. Just like with air, you can swing the blade
of a knife through water with almost no shear resistance. There are some liquids that may put up
some resistance such as a liquid with the consistency of something like toothpaste. However
when compared to solids, the shear resistance is almost non-existent. The molecules of both
gases and liquids want to deform constantly around a shear force rather than resist the force.

 VISCOSITY
Viscosity is a fluid’s resistance to flow. The more viscous a fluid is, the harder it is to make
a fluid flow. Ever heard the expression ‘slower than molasses in winter time’? Well molasses is
so slow because it is a very viscous liquid, therefore very resistant to flow. Viscosity also varies
with temperature but how much it varies is based on the fluid itself.
Gases have very very little viscosity. Almost any pressure differential is going to cause a gas to
flow. Liquids run the scale on viscosity. On the more viscous end of the scale are thick liquids
such as jellies, peanut butter, and engine oil. Moving towards the less viscous end of the scale are
liquids such as water and then alcohols.

 MOLECULAR SPACING
In gases, the molecules are spaced relatively far apart. The molecules basically bounce
around all over the place and aren’t held together by strong forces of attraction. Since the
molecules are bouncing all over the place, this means they have a high kinetic energy. This high
kinetic energy makes high pressure gas very useful and also very dangerous. If a high pressure
gas pipe fails, it is likely the failure will have an explosive result.
Liquids when compared to gases, contain molecules that are packed closely together. The
forces of attraction in liquids are much stronger than any found in gases and because of this
liquids also have much lower kinetic energy. This lower kinetic energy makes liquids typically
much safer under high pressures.

TYPES OF FLUIDS
Fluids can be classified into five basic types;
1. Ideal Fluid
An Ideal Fluid is a fluid that has no viscosity. It is incompressible in nature. Practically,
no ideal fluid exists.
2. Real Fluid
Real fluids are compressible in nature. They have some viscosity.
Examples: Kerosene, Petrol, Castor oil
3. Newtonian Fluid
Fluids that obey Newton’s law of viscosity are known as Newtonian Fluids. For a
Newtonian fluid, viscosity is entirely dependent upon the temperature and pressure of
the fluid.
Examples: water, air, emulsions
4. Non-Newtonian Fluid
Fluids that do not obey Newton’s law of viscosity are non-Newtonian fluids.
Examples: Flubber, Oobleck (suspension of starch in water)
5. Ideal-plastic fluid
A fluid in which shear stress is more than the yield value and which shear stress is
directly proportional to shear strain.

GAS LAWS

1. Boyle’s Law - formulated by Robert Boyle in

1662. It states that the pressure (P) of a given
quantity of gas varies inversely with its volume (V)
at constant temperature. This means that if the
pressure increases then the volume will be decreases
and vice versa.
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 Boyle's law is expressed as:
1 1
V ∝ 𝑃 ; V = 𝑘 𝑃 or PV = k
If there are two sets of
pressures and volumes,
Boyle’s La w can be re wri tten
as
P1V1 = P2V2

Where:
P1 = initial pressure V1 = initial volume P2= final pressure V2 = finalvolume

Example 1:
A balloon is filled with helium to a volume of 13.6 L at a pressure of 101 kpa. If the
pressure decreases to 35.0 kPa, what is the new volume of the balloon?
Equation: P1V1 = P2V2

Given:
P1 = 101 kPa V1 = 13.6 L P2 = 35.0 kPa V2 = ?

𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 (𝟏𝟎𝟏 𝒌𝑷𝒂) (𝟏𝟑.𝟔𝑳)

V2 = = = 𝟑𝟗. 𝟐𝟓 𝑳
𝑷𝟐 𝟑𝟓 𝒌𝑷𝒂
Applications:
1. Scuba diving
2. Breathing process
3. Measuring blood pressure

2. Charles’ Law - Charles's law is an experimental gas law that describes how gases tend
to expand when heated. A modern statement of Charles' law is: When the pressure on a
sample of a dry gas is held constant, the Kelvin temperature and the volume will be in
direct proportion. This is in honor of the balloonist pioneer Jacques Charles’ in 1787.
Charles' Law is expressed as:
V1T1 = V2T2
where
V1 = initial volume T1 = initial V2= final volume T2 = final
temperature

NOTE: It is extremely important to remember the temperatures are absolutetemperatures

measured in Kelvin, NOT °C or °F.

Example 2
A 600 mL sample of nitrogen is heated from 27 °C to 77 °C at constant pressure.What is the
final volume?
Given:
T K = 273.15 + °C T1 = initial temperature = 27 °CT1K = 273.15 + 27 = 300.15 K
T2 = 77 °C = 273.15 + 77 = 350.15 K V1= 600 mL V2= ?

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Charles' law is expressed as:
V1T1 = V2T2
𝑉1𝑇1 (600𝑚𝐿)(350.15𝐾 )
𝑉2 = = = 700.3 𝑚𝐿
𝑇2 300𝐾
This law is applied to hot air balloons.
3. Gay Lussac’s Law - is a law which states that the pressure exerted by a gas (of a given
mass and kept at a constant volume) varies directly with the absolute temperature of the gas.
In other words, the pressure exerted by a gas is proportional to the temperature of the gas
when the mass is fixed and the volume is constant. This law was formulated by the French
chemist Joseph Gay-Lussac in the year1808. The mathematical expression of Gay-Lussac’s
law can be written as follows:
𝑃
P ∝ T ; P = kT = 𝑘 = 𝑇

The relationship between the pressure and absolute temperature of a

given mass of gas (at constant volume)can be illustrated graphically
as shown on the figure to the right.
This expression can be derived from the pressure-
temperature proportionality for gas. Since P ∝ T for gases
of fixed mass kept at constant volume:
Therefore, P1/T1 = P2/T2 = or, P1T2 = P2T1
Gay Lussac’s law implies that the ratio of the initial pressure and the temperature is equal to
the ratio of the final pressure and temperature of a gas of a fixed mass
kept ata constant volume. This formula can be expressed as follows:
(P1/T1 = P2/T2)
Where:
P1 is the initial pressure T1 is the initial pressure
P2 is the final pressure T2 is the final temperature
When a pressurized aerosol can (such as a deodorant
can or a spray-paint can) is heated, the resulting
increase in the pressure exerted by the gases on the
container (owing to Gay-Lussac’s law) can result in an
explosion.
Example 3.
The pressure of a gas in a cylinder when it is heated to a temperature of 250K is 1.5 atm. What
was the initial temperature of the gas if its initial pressurewas 1 atm?
Given:
P1 = 1 atm P2 = 1.5 atm T2 = 250.15K T1 =?
𝑃1 𝑇2 (1 𝑎𝑡𝑚)(250.15𝐾 )
𝑇1 = = = 166.77𝐾
𝑃 1.5 𝑎𝑡𝑚
This law applies to pressurize cooking and car tires.

4. Combined Gas Law - both temperature and pressure affect the volume of gases. For
convenience in the application of gas laws, it is necessary to choose a standard temperature and
pressure as reference points. By international agreement, standard temperature and pressure
(STP) are 00C (273.15K) and 1 atm respectively. Boyle’s, Charles’ and Gay – Lussac’s laws can
be combined into a single equation called combined gas law. This law enable you to solve
problems with changes in pressure, volume and temperature when the amount of gas remains
constant. In equation,
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 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2

Example 4
A high altitude balloon is filled with 1.2x104 L of helium at a temperature of 270C and a
pressure of 760 torr. What is the volume of this balloon at a height of 10 km where the
temperature is -250C and the pressure is 63 torr?
Given:
P1 = 760 torr = 1 atm P2 = 63 torr = 0.083 atm
T1 = 270C = 300.15K T2 = - 250C = 248.15K
V1 = 1.2x104 L V2 = ?

𝑃1 𝑇2 (1.2𝑥104 𝐿)(1 𝑎𝑡𝑚)(248.15𝐾 )

𝑉2= 𝑉1 = = 1.2𝑥105 𝐿
𝑃2 𝑇1 (0.083 𝑎𝑡𝑚)(300.15𝐾 )

5. Avogadro's Law - is the relation which states that at

the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of
all gases contain the same number of moles. The law
was described by Italian chemist and physicist Amedeo
Avogadro in 1811. Avogadro's Law is a direct
mathematical relationship. If one gas variable (V or n)
changes in value (either up or down), the other variable
will also change in the same direction. The constant k
will remain the same value. At STP, 1 mole of gas
occupies a volume of 22.4 L. This 22.4 L of gas at STP is referred to as the molar volume of a
gas. This law can be used to determine the molecular mass and density of a gaseous substance.
V ∝ n or V = kn or V1n2 = V2n1

Example 5:
A cylinder with a movable piston contains 2.00 g of helium, He, at room temperature. More
helium was added to the cylinder and the volume was adjusted so that the gas pressure remained
the same. How many grams of helium were added to the cylinder if the volume was changed
from 2.00 L to 2.70 L? (The temperature was held constant.)
Given:
n1 He = 2.00 g / 4.00 g/mol = 0.500 mol V1 = 2.0 L V2 = 2.7 L nHe2 in g= ?
Solution:
V1 V2
= = 𝑛2= 𝑛1𝑉2 = (0.50 mol)(2.7L) / 2.0L = 0.68 mol = 0.68 mol – 0.50 mol
n1 n2 𝑉1
= 0.18 mol (4.0g/mol) = 0.72 g
Application of this law:
1. Blowing up a balloon
2. Breathing

6. Ideal Gas Law – this law was created to show the relationship between pressure, volume,
number of moles of gas and temperature. It is a combination of Boyle's Law, Charles' Law and
Avogrado’s Law. It shows the equation of a hypothetical ideal gas. Pressure and volume have
an inverse relationship with each other (when 1 goes up the other goes down) but have a
direct relationship with temperature (when they go up, temperature goes up). The equation for
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 the Ideal Gas Law is:
PV = nRT where
P = Pressure (atm) V = Volume (L) n = Number of moles (mol)
R = The Ideal Gas Constant (0.08206 L-atm/mol-K) T = Temperature (Kelvin)
Note: Make sure that the values are in proper units before you substitute them in the equation.
This law applies to real gases where they behave like ideal gases under several ordinary
conditions.
Example 6:
How many moles of gas are contained in 890.0mL at 21 °C and 750mm Hg?
Given:
V = 890.0 mL = 0.89 L T = 21°C = 294.15K
P = 750mmHg = 0.987 atm R = 0.08206L-atm/mol-K
PV = nRT
𝑃𝑉
𝑛 = 𝑅𝑇 = (0.987 atm)(0.89L) / (0.08206L-atm/mol-K)(294.15K)
= 0.037 𝑚𝑜𝑙
Note: Not all problems involving ideal gases can be solved by plugging in values using the
above equation. This will be done on the Further Reading part of this module including
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures and Graham’s Law.

Solve the following problems using the gas laws.

1. A sample of oxygen gas (O2) has a volume of 3.0 L at an initial pressure of 760 torr. The same
amount of gas at the same temperature was transferred to a 12.0 L container. What is the
pressure of the O2 gas in the new container?

2. A sample of Nitrogen gas has a volume of 2.0 L at an initial temperature of 10.0 0C. The same
amount of gas was heated to a temperature of 60.0 0C. What will be the gas’s new volume
assuming that pressure was kept constant?

3. A 5.0 L bottle of gas with an initial temperature and pressure at 20.0 0C and 2.5 atm is heated
to 80.0 0C. What is the new pressure inside the bottle at this temperature? Assume that no gas
particle was able to escape out of the bottle during the heating process.

4. At STP, a gas has a volume of 8.0 L. What volume will the gas occupy at 50.0 0C and 600
torr?

5. If a 10.0 L balloon contains 0.80 mol of He, what will be the volume of a balloon that contains
0.20 mol of He at the same temperature and pressure?
6. How many letters of CO2 gas measured at 25.0 0C and 800 mmHg, will contain 22.0 g of CO2
gas?

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Part I. Completing the Table. Complete the table below.

Summary of Gas Laws

Law Statement Equation Constant
Boyle’s
Charles’
Gay – Lussacs’
Avogrado’s
Ideal Gas
Part II. Concept Map. Complete the concept map below.

Part III. Multiple

Choice. Write the letter
that corresponds to the
correct answer.

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1. Read about the following and make a summary table just like in the Evaluation Part I. Make
sure to include your references.

a. Mass, Molar Mass and density of an Ideal Gas

b. Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure

c. Graham’s Law
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a. Books

1. Bayquen, A.V. “Exploring Life Through Science CHEMISTRY”.December 2017.

PhoenixPublishing Company. pp 245- 246.
2. Mapa, A.P, Fidelino, T.B& Rabago, L.M. “CHEMISTRY Textbook in Science and
Technology”. 2001. SD Publications, Inc.
3. Giancoli, S. (2016). Physics Principles with Application. 7 th Ed. Singapore.Pearon
Education
4. Navaza, D. Science and Technology: You and the Natural World Series; Physics Textbook 2 nd
Edition. Phoenix Publishing House
5. Santisteban, CJ. (2009) Breaking Through Physics; C and E Publishing Inc.
6. Baguio, S.S et.al (2015) Breaking Through Science 10. C and E Publishing, Inc.

b. Website
1. https://www.engrsuccess.com/engineering-toolbox/characteristics-of-a-fluid/
2. The Kinetic-Molecular Theory | Chemistry for Majors - Lumen Learning
https://courses.lumenlearning.com
3. http://mechteacher.com/properties-of-fluids/#ixzz5y8x1hE7J
4. https://www.engrsuccess.com/engineering-toolbox/characteristics-of-a-fluid/

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 Name:_____________________Year & Group:_______ Date: _______ Rating:____
Activity No:_____
Gases and the Kinetic Molecular Theory
I. Objective: Explain the properties of gases in terms of kinetic molecular theory
II. Materials: notes or info on KMT
III. Procedure:
1. Summarize the general properties of gases and compare these with the general
properties of solids and liquids
2. Read the different assumptions of the KMT
3. Explain the different properties of gases that you have identified in Table 1 using
the KMT. Use Table 2 (Note: Use the back portion if needed)

Table 1: Comparison of the properties of solid, liquids and gases

Property Solid Liquid Gas
Spaces between
Particles
Shape and volume
Particle movement
Diffusion rate
Density
Compressibility
Table 2: KMT Explanation
Property of Gases Explanation Using KMT

Guide Questions:
1. In terms of KMT, explain why the pressure inside the car tires should be checked
before going on a long trip.

IV. Conclusion

V. Enrichment
Explain why there is a higher probability of vehicle tires exploding during April
than in December.

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