LABORATORY MANUAL

MEC 234
MECHANICS AND MATERIALS LABORATORY

Name of the Student:……………………………………

Registration Number/Roll No…………………..………

Section and Group……………………………….………..

School of Mechanical Engineering

1
 General guidelines for the students

At the core materials science is an understanding of the microstructure of metals.

"Microstructure" is used broadly in reference to metals viewed at the subatomic (electronic) and
atomic levels. The microstructure of metals at various levels profoundly influences the mechanical,
electronic, and chemical properties of metals. The phenomenological and mechanistic
relationships between microstructure and the macroscopic properties of metals are, in essence,
what materials science is all about.

Materials engineering builds on the foundation of materials science and is concerned with
the design, fabrication and optimal selection of engineering materials that must simultaneously
fulfill property, quality control, and economic requirements. In Engineering Materials Laboratory
investigation of microstructure of materials is done and based on that, properties of the materials
are estimated. The knowledge of principles of material science and procedures learnt in the
laboratory will empower you to engineer the materials and allows you to make technically sound
decisions in designing with engineered materials.

Guidelines for the students: Students should do thorough literature survey regarding the
experiment that’s going to be done viz., basic concepts of specific materials, their phase diagrams,
their heat treatment processes and the resulting ―transformation products".

Dress code: Lab coat and shoes.

Safety Guidelines

Do’s
1. Be on time. At the start of the lab period, there will be a short introduction to the experiment
you will perform that day.
2. Inform the instructor and/or lab assistant if there is a problem.
3. Be aware of all the safety devices. Even though the instructor and lab assistant will take care
of emergencies, you should know where to find the first aid kit, the chemical spill kit.
4. Use gloves while handling chemicals, extensive handling of emery papers is also injurious to
health
5. Wash your hands before you leave the lab for the day.

2
 Don’ts
1. Do not eat, drink, and chew gum in the lab.
2. Do not work with chemicals until you are sure of their safe handling. This includes some
awareness of their flammability, reactivity, toxicity, and disposal.
3. Do not use computer with gloves on your hands.
ABRASIVE GRINDING SELECTION GUIDELINES CHART

Material Objective Recommendation

Soft non-ferrous metals
(aluminum, copper, brass, tin,
zinc, lead, etc.)
Soft ferrous metals (low carbon
steels, stainless steel, case
hardened steel, etc.)
Minimize abrasive embedding and
deformation on the surface
Minimize deformation and
secondary phase damage
P120 grit ALO paper
P220 grit ALO paper
P500 grit ALO paper
P1200 grit ALO paper
240 grit SiC paper
320 grit SiC paper
400 grit SiC paper
600 grit SiC paper
800 grit SiC paper
1200 grit SiC paper

Hard ferrous metals (high carbon
steel, tool steel, case hardened
steel, etc.)
Super alloys (high nickel and
cobalt alloys, titanium alloys)
Ceramics, ceramic matrix
composites, and minerals
Metal matrix composites, polymer Minimize composite fracturing
matrix composites
Planarize specimen and minimize
specimen deformation
Minimize deformation
Minimize surface and subsurface
damage (fracturing and chipping)
and minimizing matrix
Deformation
180 grit SiC paper
240 grit SiC paper
320 grit SiC paper
400 grit SiC paper
600 grit SiC paper
70 micron diamond disk
9 micron SIRIUS composite
Disk
3 micron ORION composite
Disk
30 um polycrystalline
diamond on a Metal Mesh
Cloth
240 or 320 grit SiC paper

3
S. Name of Experiment Page no.
No.
1. Case Hardening of Steels by using Induction Heater 7-10

Study the effect of strain hardening on Mild steel and further

2. studying the effect of normalizing. 11-15

Comparison between Annealing and Normalizing of heavily cold

3. worked mild steel 16-18

Study of microstructure of steels at different cooling rates and further

4. check hardness of the samples.
19-23
To check the hardness using Jominy end quench test and plot the
5. hardness against length. 24-29

To perform tensile test on a specimen material (Ferrous and Non ferrous)

using universal testing machine (UTM)
6. 30-34
To perform torsion test on a specimen and find the modulus of rigidity of the
7. Material. 35-37

To determine the impact strength of a specimen material using Izod

8. and Charpy’s test method 38-40
To determine the hardness of a specimen material using Rockwell
hardness test, Brinell's hardness test and Barcol hardner tester for
9. composite material. 41-44
To perform tensile test on a composite material using universal testing
10. machine 45-47

4
Appendix-1
Metallography technique for sample preparation
In order to identify and evaluate the microstructure of material, it is very important to
prepare the test sample carefully and properly. The various steps in sample preparation for
microstructural examination include:

• Selecting a representative sample of the materials

• Sectioning the sample to avoid altering or destroying the structure of interest.
• Mounting the section without damage to the test sample
• Grinding to achieve a flat sample with a minimum amount of damage to the sample.
• Surface polishing ground sample
• Etching in the proper etchant to reveal the microstructural details.

Grinding

1. Surface layers damaged by cutting must be removed by grinding.

2. Specimens are ground with abrasive paper, with different grit sizes.
3. The grinding procedure involves several stages, using a finer paper (higher number) each
time.
4. Each grinding stage removes the scratches from the previous coarser paper. This can be
easily achieved by orienting the specimen perpendicular to the previous scratches.
5. Typically, the finest grade of paper used is the 1200, and once the only scratches left on
the specimen are from this grade.

Polishing
1. Polishing discs are covered with soft cloth impregnated with abrasive diamond particles
and an oily lubricant or water lubricant.
2. Particles of two different grades are used : a coarser polish - typically with diamond
particles 6 microns in diameter which should remove the scratches produced from the finest
grinding stage, and a finer polish – typically with diamond particles 1 micron in diameter,
to produce a smooth surface.
3. Before using a finer polishing wheel the specimen should be washed thoroughly with warm
soapy water followed by alcohol to prevent contamination of the disc. The drying can be
made quicker using a hot air drier.

Etching
1. Etching is used to reveal the microstructure of the metal through selective chemical
attack.

5
 2. In alloys with more than one phase etching creates contrast between different regions
through differences in topography or the reflectivity of the different phases.
3. The rate of etching is affected by crystallographic orientation, so contrast is formed
between grains, for example in pure metals.
4. The reagent will also preferentially etch high energy sites such as grain boundaries.
5. This results in a surface relief that enables different crystal orientations, grain boundaries,
phases and precipitates to be easily distinguished.
6. The specimen is etched using a reagent.
7. This is applied using a cotton bud wiped over the surface a few of times (Care should be
taken not to over-etch - this is a difficult point to determine.
8. The specimen should then immediately be washed in alcohol and dried.
9. Following the etching process there may be numerous small pits present on the surface.
These are etch pits caused by localized chemical attack, and in most cases they do not
represent features of the microstructure.
10. They may occur preferentially in regions of high local disorder, for example where there
is a high concentration of dislocations.
11. If the specimen is over etched, i.e., etched for too long, these pits tend to grow, and
obscure the main features to be observed
12. After etching observe the microstructure.

Caution:

1. Safety is very important when etching.

2. Be sure to wear the appropriate protective clothing
3. Do not exceed 10% nitric acid in the etchant. It can be explosive.
4. Never add ethanol to nitric acid; always nitric acid to the ethanol. Otherwise vigorous or
explosive reaction may occur.

Specimen preparation for Metallography is prepared under E3-11(2017) standards.

6
Experiment 1: Case Hardening of Steels by using Induction Heater

Equipment and Apparatus required:

1. Induction Heater
2. Emery papers Grit size (refer students general guidelines)
3. Diamond paste 6 microns, 1 micron diameter
4. Disc Polishing machine,
5. Inverted Optical Microscope
6. Drier

Material Required:

S.No. Item Qty Specification

1 Plain carbon steel- EN 8 1 1040 steel
(with min 0.4 % carbon) 1” dia x 1”

Learning objective:
1. To get knowledge of induction process.
2. Student gets the knowledge of induction on workability of material.

Theory:

Case hardening or surface hardening is the process of hardening the surface of a metal object
while allowing the metal deeper underneath to remain soft, thus forming a thin layer of harder
metal (called the "case") at the surface. Various benefits of case hardening are listed below (a)
Increase wear resistance (b) Increase surface strength for load carrying (crush resistance) (c)
Induce suitable residual and compressive stresses (d) Improve fatigue life (e) Improve impact
resistance.

Case hardening by induction heater can be used for local surface heat treatment. Generally, it
is used to surface harden crank shafts, cam shafts, gears, crank pins and axles. In this process,
heating of component is achieved by electromagnetic induction. A conductor coil carries an
alternating current of high frequency which is then induced in the closed steel part placed
within magnetic field of the coil. As a result, induction heating takes place. The heat so
generated affects only the outer surface of the steel component due to skin effect.

The degree of flow of current on the outer surface of a component depends on the frequency,
resistivity and permeability of the component. For a given material, the last two factors

7
 depend on temperature. The depth to which the current, penetrates and raises the temperature
is given by following relation for steel components:
o 1/2
In cold state (at 20 C), d20 = 20/f
o 1/2
In hot state (at 800 C), d800 = 500/f

Where d is the depth (mm) to which current flows and f is the frequency of current carried by
the coil. This frequency is expressed in hertz. This relationship shows that the depth of
hardening decreases with increase in frequency. In addition to direct heating of the skin by
induced current, there is also some heating of the core due to conduction of heat. Hence, the
overall depth of heating is greater than given by above equation. Accordingly, the overall depth
of penetration of heat (d0 in mm) at 800oC is given by relation
(d0)800 = d800 + dc

Where dc is depth of penetration of heat due to conduction and is given by relation

1/2
dc = 0.2 (t) , t is heating time (s).

Applications:

Parts that are subject to high pressures and sharp impacts are still commonly case hardened.
Examples include firing pins and rifle boltfaces, or engine camshafts. In these cases, the surfaces
requiring the hardness may be hardened selectively, leaving the bulk of the part in its original
tough state.

Firearms were a common item case hardened in the past, as they required precision machining
best done on low carbon alloys, yet needed the hardness and wear resistance of a higher carbon
alloy. Many modern replicas of older firearms, particularly single action revolvers, are still made
with case hardened frames, or with case coloring, which simulates the mottled pattern left by
traditional charcoal and bone case hardening.

Another common application of case hardening is on screws, particularly self-drilling screws. In

order for the screws to be able to drill, cut and tap into other materials like steel, the drill point
and the forming threads must be harder than the material(s) that it is drilling into. However, if the
whole screw is uniformly hard, it will become very brittle and it will break easily. This is
overcome by ensuring that only the case is hardened and the core remains relatively soft. For
screws and fasteners, case hardening is achieved by a simple heat treatment consisting of heating
and then quenching.

8
For theft prevention, lock shackles and chains are often case hardened to resist cutting, whilst
remaining less brittle inside to resist impact. As case hardened components are difficult to
machine, they are generally shaped before hardening.

Outline of Procedure:
In case hardening by induction heater, the component is heated usually for a few seconds only.
Immediately after heating, the surface is quenched by jet of cold water. Due to quenching, a
martensite structure is formed, which makes the outer surface hard and wear resistant. Figure
below shows the operation of case hardening by induction heater.

Caution:

1. Proper hardness measurement must be taken.

2. Control the rate of power supply, depending upon the high temperature produced
through induction.
3. Follow the instruction.

9
 Date of Performance Worksheet of the student Registration No:
Name: Roll No:

Aim:
Observation
S.No. Nominal depth of hardening Induction hardening after Difference
(before hardening) performing experiment) Between
Average Average two hardness
1.
2.
3.

Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt)

To be filled by faculty:
S. No. Parameter Marks Obtained Max. Marks
1. Understanding of student about 20
procedure/apparatus
2. Observation and analysis including 20
learning outcome
3. Completion of experiment, discipline, 10
Cleanliness
Signature of Faculty Total Marks 50
Obtained:

10
Experiment 2: Study the effect of strain hardening on Mild steel and further studying the
effect of normalizing

Equipment and Apparatus Required:

1. Emery papers Grit size (refer students general guidelines)

2. Diamond paste 6 microns, 1 micron diameter
3. Disc Polishing machine,
4. Inverted Optical Microscope
5. Drier

Material Required:
1. Material

Material Specification Size

As-rolled Mild steel Min 30% CW (cold worked) 30 mm length

2. Etchants:

11
Learning objective: To understand the changes bought by annealing of cold rolled sample on
microstructure and hardness of mild steel.
Theory:
Cold working is plastically deforming a material at a temperature below its recrystallization
temperature. A material’s recrystallization temperature is the temperature at which new grains with
low dislocation density begin to replace the high dislocation density grains.

Cold working is a useful strengthening mechanism by virtue of strain hardening, but cold working
is also useful for shaping materials.

In this experiment metal specimens were cold rolled, a form of cold working in which a metal
specimen is forced through two rolls that have a gap in between each other. Cold rolling is often
used commercially in order to produce sheet metal, plates, and bars.

When a metal is cold rolled, it is plastically deformed as it is forced between the two rolls. The
metal is compressed by the rolls and the plastic deformation is in the direction of the rolling. Unlike
a tensile test, no necking occurs in the metal specimen.

Metal specimens were cold rolled in this experiment so that the effects of strain hardening could
be studied.

A measure of how much cold work a material received is needed if an investigation into
mechanical property change is desired. The change in cross-sectional area of a metal specimen
that underwent cold work is one means of measurement. This measurement of cross-sectional area
change is known as ―percent cold work‖. Equation 1 below illustrates percent cold work.

%CW= [ A0-Af ] / A0 X 100% (1)

Where A0 and Af are the initial and final cross-sectional area of the specimen, respectively. For
cold rolling in particular, Equation 1 is used with respect to thickness instead of area. This cold
rolling measurement is known as ―percent cold reduction‖. Equation 2 below illustrates this cold
rolling expression.

%CW= [t 0-tf] / t0 X 100% (2)

Where t0 and tf are the initial and final thickness of the specimen, respectively.

Cold working increases the strength of a material, but decreases its ductility and electrical
conductivity. In addition, residual stresses are introduced into the material because of the over-
lapping and tangling of dislocations.

12
Material can also be strain hardened by hammering them as it results in to introduction of defects
mainly the dislocation. Dislocation when get piled up at grain boundaries offer resistant to
deformation and hence showing the phenomenon of strain hardening.

Normalizing is a heat treatment process for making material softer but does not produce the
uniform material properties of annealing.. A material can be normalized by heating it to a specific
temperature and then letting the material cool to room temperature outside of the oven. This
treatment refines the grain size and improves the uniformity of microstructure and properties of
hot rolled steel.

Normalizing is used in some plate mills, in the production of large forgings such as railroad
wheels and axles, some bar products. This process is less expensive than annealing.

Outline of the Procedure:

Sample preparation: Cold rolled sample of Mild Steel is annealed in muffle furnace and it prepared
for analysing microstructure by using standard metallographic techniques as discussed in
Appendix at front.

13
Date of Performance Worksheet of the student Registration No:
Name: Roll No:

Observations:

Hardness
Sample (HRC)
Second
First Third Average Value
Observation
Observation Observation
Sample 1

Sample 2

Sample 3

14
Learning Outcome (what I have learnt):

To be filled by faculty:
S. No. Parameter Marks Obtained Max. Marks
1. Understanding of student about 20
procedure/apparatus
2. Observation and analysis including 20
learning outcome
3. Completion of experiment, discipline, 10
Cleanliness
Signature of Faculty Total Marks 50
Obtained:

15
Experiment 3: Comparison between Annealing and Normalizing of heavily cold worked
mild steel

Equipment and Apparatus Required:

1. Muffle furnace
2. Hardness testing machine

Material required:

S.No Item Quantity Specification

1 Heavily cold worked Mild steel 1 As rolled Mild steel (Minimum
(Minimum 30% cold worked) 30% cold worked)

Leaning Objectives: To study difference in hardness of samples produced by two different heat
treatment processes viz. annealing and normalizing.

Theory:

Annealing refers to a wide group of heat treatment processes and is performed primarily for
homogenization, recrystallization or relief of residual stress in typical cold worked or welded
components. Depending upon the temperature conditions under which it is performed, annealing
eliminates chemical or physical non-homogeneity produced of phase transformations. Few
important variants of annealing are full annealing, isothermal annealing, spheroidite annealing,
recrystallization annealing, and stress relief annealing.

Normalizing process consists of three steps. The first step involves heating the steel component
above the A3 temperature for hypoeutectoid steels and above Acm (upper critical temperature for
o o
cementite) temperature for hypereutectoid steels by 30 C to 50 C. The second step involves
holding the steel component long enough at this temperature for homogeneous austenization. The
final step involves cooling the hot steel component to room temperature in still air. Due to air
cooling, normalized components show slightly different structure and properties than annealed
components. The properties of normalized components are not much different from those of
annealed components. However, normalizing takes less time and is more convenient and
economical than annealing and hence is a more common heat treatment in industries. Normalizing
is used for high-carbon (hypereutectoid) steels to eliminate the cementite network that may
develop upon slow cooling in the temperature range from point Acm to point A1. Normalizing is
also used to relieve internal stresses induced by heat treating, welding, casting, forging, forming,
or machining. Normalizing also improves the ductility without reducing the hardness and strength.

16
Table: Variation in properties of annealed and normalized samples
Normalised Annealed
Slightly more hardness, tensile strength and Less hardness, tensile strength and
toughness. toughness.

Pearlite is fine and usually appears unresolved Pearlite is coarse and usually gets
with optical microscope. resolved by the optical microscope.

Grain size distribution is slightly less uniform. Grain size distribution is more uniform

Internal stresses are slightly more. Internal stresses are least.

Outline of Procedure:

1. Cut the sample from the same given bar stock

2. Check initial hardness of the two samples
3. Heat the specimen above 800⁰C and hold the specimens for an hour for complete
austenitizing
4. Take out one specimen and put it in the still air for normalizing.
5. Turn off the furnace so that second specimen cools along with furnace for annealing.
6. Check the hardness of both the specimens

Caution:

1. Closely examine the time for which samples are heat treated in muffle furnace.
2. Proper hardness measurement must be taken.

17
 Date of Performance Worksheet of the student Registration No:
Name: Roll No:

Observations:

Hardness (Annealed Hardness (Normalized

S.No. Initial hardness
sample) Sample)

Learning outcome:

To be filled by faculty:
S. No. Parameter Marks Obtained Max. Marks
1. Understanding of student about 20
procedure/apparatus
2. Observation and analysis including 20
learning outcome
3. Completion of experiment, discipline, 10
Cleanliness
Signature of Faculty Total Marks 50
Obtained:

18
Experiment 4: Study of microstructure of steels at different cooling rates and further
check hardness of the samples.

Equipment and Apparatus Required:

1. Microscope
2. Oil bath
3. Emery papers Grit size (refer students general guidelines)
4. Diamond paste 6 microns, 1 micron diameter
5. Disc Polishing machine,
6. Inverted Optical Microscope
7. Drier

Material required:

1. Material
Material Specification Size
1080 steel Min 30% CW (cold worked) 10 mm Dia/thick, 30 mm length

2. Etchants:
For
material Etchant Conc. Conditions Comments
Nital
Low carbon 100 ml Seconds to Do not exceed 10% nitric acid-
Ethanol
Steels 1-10 ml minutes Explosive
Nitric acid
Ethanol 80 ml
Nitric acid
10 ml Seconds to
Hydrochloric Grain boundaries
10 ml minutes
High carbon acid
1 gram
Steels Picric acid
Nital
100 ml Seconds to Do not exceed 10% nitric acid
Ethanol
1-10 ml minutes - explosive
Nitric acid

19
Learning Objective: To know the micro structure of steel obtained with
different quenching media.

Theory: Transformation products vary depending on the cooling rate. Figure below shows the
TTT diagram for different Fe-C system. If specimen is rapidly quenched from austenizing
temperature a very hard phase martensite is formed, while very slow cooling results in formation
of pearlite which is the softest phase. If rate of cooling is kept moderate it results in formation of
bainite phase whose hardness is intermediate to that of martensite and pearlite.
Austenite

Quenching
Pearlite Banite

Martensite

Above given TTT diagram gives evidence about the different phases which are formed while
cooling from the austenization temperature by following different cooling rates, as very high rate
of cooling will result in martensite formation while very slow rate of cooling result in formation
of pearlite.

20
Transformation which happen in each path during isothermal annealing is explained below

(Path 1) The specimen is cooled rapidly to 433 K and left for 20 minutes. The cooling rate is too
rapid for pearlite to form at higher temperatures; therefore, the steel remains in the
austenitic phase until the Ms temperature is passed, where martensite begins to form. Since 433
K is the temperature at which half of the austenite transforms to martensite, the direct quench
converts 50% of the structure to martensite. Holding at 433 K forms only a small quantity of
additional martensite, so the structure can be assumed to be half martensite and half retained
austenite.

(Path 2) The specimen is held at 523 K for 100 seconds, which is not long enough to form bainite.
Therefore, the second quench from 523 K to room temperature develops a martensitic structure.

(Path 3) An isothermal hold at 573 K for 500 seconds produces a half-bainite and half-austenite
structure. Cooling quickly would result in a final structure of martensite and bainite.

(Path 4) Austenite converts completely to fine pearlite after eight seconds at 873 K. This phase
is stable and will not be changed on holding for 100,000 seconds at 873 K. The final structure,
when cooled, is fine pearlite.

Outline of the Procedure:

Sample Preparation
Three samples to be cooled by following different cooling rates are prepared by using
standard metallographic technique as discussed in Appendix at front.

21
Date of Performance: Worksheet of the student Registration No:
Name: Roll No:

Observations:
Microstructure of different steels quenched in different media.

22
 Observations:

Normal Hardness Hardness in air Hardness in oil Hardness in Water

cooled sample cooled sample cooled sample.

Learning Outcome:

To be filled by faculty:
S. No. Parameter Marks Obtained Max. Marks
1. Understanding of student about 20
procedure/apparatus
2. Observation and analysis including 20
learning outcome
3. Completion of experiment, discipline, 10
Cleanliness
Signature of Faculty Total Marks 50
Obtained:

23
Experiment No. 5: To check the hardness of given specimen by using Jominy
End Quench test and plot the hardness against length

Equipment and Apparatus Required:

1. High Temperature Oven (Capable of up to 1000⁰C)
2. Controllable Flow Water Source of Room Temperature (24⁰C) Water
3. Standard 4-Inch Jominy Test Bar with Appropriate Mounting Fixture
4. Heat Resistant Gloves
5. Heat Resistant Face-Mask
6. Oven Tongs for Removal of the Jominy Test Bar from the Oven
7. Metallographic Grinding Equipment
8. Hardness Tester (Rockwell Type)

Learning Objective: To quantitatively evaluate the hardenability, or depth of hardness, of

a steel rod through application of the standard (ASTM A255) Jominy End-Quench Test.

Theory:

Hardenability
The influence of alloy composition on the ability of a steel alloy to transform to martensite for a
particular quenching treatment is related to a parameter called hardenability. For every different
steel alloy there is a specific relationship between the mechanical properties and the cooling rate.

Hardenability‖ is a term that is used to describe the ability of an alloy to be hardened by the
formation of martensite as a result of a given heat treatment.

Hardenability is not ―hardness which is the resistance to indentation; rather, hardenability is a

qualitative measure of the rate at which hardness drops off with distance into the interior of a
specimen as a result of diminished martensite content. A steel alloy that has a high hardenability
is one that hardens, or forms martensite, not only at the surface but to a large degree throughout
the entire interior.

24
Continuous Cooling Transformation (CCT) Diagrams

Hardenability: Jominy End-Quench Test

Hardenability refers to the relative ability of a steel to be hardened by the formation of martensite.
The curves shown in Figure 2 are Hardenability Curves produced from Jominy End Quench Tests
where water is sprayed on the end of a heated steel bar. Note the following:

• the 5140 steel is only hard near the quenched end (low hardenability)
• the 4340 steel is relatively hard all along the bar (high hardenability)

Figure 2 - Hardenability Curves for some Common Alloy Steels. [Shackelford, 1996]

25
 Figure 3 - Specimen and Fixture for a Jominy End-Quench Hardenability Test. [Shackelford, 1986]

The Jominy End-Quench test consists of selectively cooling a standard size bar of steel, as is
illustrated in Figure 3. The specimen consists of a cylindrical bar with a 1-in. diameter and 4-in.
length. After the sample has been austenized, it is placed in a fixture, as shown in Figure 4, and a
jet of water is quickly splashed onto one end of the specimen. Note that only the end of the
specimen is actually quenched, and as a result, the transformation of Austenite begins at the water-
cooled end and progresses "up" the bar. The cooling rate decreases with increasing distance from
the quenched end and thus microstructure and material properties are functions of the distance
from the quenched end. After cooling, a flat surface is ground on the test bar and Rockwell C
hardness measurements are made along the surface up to 3 inches from the quenched end. The
results are plotted in the form illustrated in Figure 3 that indicates the hardenability of given steel.

Outline of the Procedure:

1. Preheat the oven to 1500°F (816°C).
2. Check that the Jominy Test Set-Up tank is full of room-temperature water.
3. Adjust the water spout height on the Jominy Test Set-Up to 2 and 1/2 inches above the
final resting position of the Test-Bar bottom when placed in the specimen fixture.
4. Properly place the specimen fixture directly over the water spout of the Jominy Test Set-
Up with the fixture center placed directly above the water spout center. Practice rapidly
placing a cool sample into the fixture before proceeding.
5. Remove the Jominy Sample from the oven with the oven tongs and place it in the Jominy
Fixture as quickly as possible.
6. Let the Test Bar cool to room temperature (approximately 20 to 30 minutes) then turn off
the water.
7. Each group of 2-3 students must check out the lab session’s Jominy Quench Test Bar from
the lab instructor and grind a flat onto the curved surface of the lab session’s Jominy Test
Bar. All Scale (oxide) on the flat should be removed such that a shiny, smooth flat results.
Try to remove the minimal amount of material to obtain a shiny flat!

26
 8. Using a pencil, clearly mark the positions along the bar on the ground flat at the distances
from the Test Bar End as indicated on the blank Jominy End-Quench Data Sheet.
9. Take a single set of Rockwell C hardness measurements along the bar on the ground flat
at the distances marked in Step 8; record the values on the data sheet.
10. Return the Jominy Test Bar to the lab instructor

Determination of hardness no. by Rockwell hardness test

1. The method of determining the hardness consists of measuring the depth of a diamond
cone penetrant that was forced into a metal by applying primary and secondary loads.

2. This method of measuring hardness significant because errors due to mechanical defects
on the system such as backlash are eliminated ad as well as errors resulting from slight
surface imperfections.

3. The specimen is placed on a suitable anvil on the upper end of the elevation screw. A minor
load of 10 kg is applied by raising the anvil by using elevation screw.

4. Then apply the major load by using the leaver. After applying the load for a period of 20
sec, remove the load by turning the lever.
5. Note down the reading on the Rockwell scale.

Cautions:
1. Don’t use the hard water as it leads to formation of scales in nozzles and copper conduits

27
Date of Performance Worksheet of the student Registration No:
Name: Roll No:

Observations: Jominy End-Quench Data Sheet

1. 0 mm 7.5 mm
2. 15mm 22.5mm
3. 15mm 37.5mm
4. 15mm 52.5mm
5. 15mm 67.5mm

Plot between Hardness and test number (distance from quenched end)

28
Date of Performance Worksheet of the student Registration No:
Name: Roll No:

Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt)

To be filled by faculty:

S. No. Parameter Marks Obtained Max. Marks

1. Understanding of student about 20
procedure/apparatus
2. Observation and analysis including 20
learning outcome
3. Completion of experiment, discipline, 10
cleanliness
Signature of Faculty Total Marks 50
Obtained:

29
 Experiment: 6

Aim: To perform tensile test on a specimen material (Ferrous and Non ferrous) using universal testing machine
(UTM)

Equipment Required: Universal Testing Machine, Scale, Vernier caliper.

Material Required: Specimen of MS, CI and Al

Learning Objectives: Understanding of stress-strain diagrams, tensile strength of a material, and significance of
Young's modulus

Introduction: The tensile test is most applied one, of all mechanical tests. In this test ends of test piece are fixed
into grips connected to a straining device and to a load measuring device. If the applied load is small enough, the
deformation of any solid body is entirely elastic. An elastically deformed solid will return to its original form as
soon as load is removed. However, if the load is too large, the material can be deformed permanently. The initial
part of the tension curve which is recoverable immediately after unloading is termed. As elastic and the rest of
the curve which represents the manner in which solid undergoes plasticde formation is termed plastic. The stress
below which the deformations are entirely elastic is known as the yield strength of material. In some material the
onset of plastic deformation is denoted by a sudden drop in load indicating both an upper and a lower yield point.
However, some materials do not exhibit a sharp yield point. During plastic deformation, at larger extensions strain
hardening cannot compensate for the decrease in section and thus the load passes.

This tensile test is conducted on Universal testing machine based on F2099-01(2014) standards.

Outline of the Procedure

 Measure the original length and diameter of the specimen. The length may either be length of
2. gauge section which is marked on the specimen with a preset punch or the local length of the
specimen.
 Insert the specimen into test machine.
 Begin the load application and record load vs elongation data.
 Measure elongation values with the help of dividers and a ruler. Continue the test till fracture
occurs.
 Measure the final length and diameter of specimen.

30
Specimen Geometry (To be drawn neatly using lead pencil on an appropriate scale)

Data and Observations for MS:

Original dimensions:

Length= ----------------------

Diameter= ---------------------

Area= ----------------------

Final Dimensions:

Length= -----------------------

Diameter= --------------------

Area= ------------------------

S. No Load (N) Extension (mm) Stress (N/mm2) Strain

31
Data and Observations for CI:

Original dimensions:

Length= ----------------------

Diameter= ---------------------

Area= ----------------------

Final Dimensions:

Length= -----------------------

Diameter= --------------------

Area= ------------------------

S. No Load (N) Extension (mm) Stress (N/mm2) Strain

Data and Observations for AL:

A) Original dimensions:

Length= ----------------------

Diameter= ---------------------

Area= ----------------------

32
B) Final Dimensions:

Length= -----------------------

Diameter= --------------------

Area= ------------------------

S. No Load (N) Extension (mm) Stress (N/mm2) Strain

Calculations Part:

33
GRAPHS/PLOTS: DRAW STRESS VS STRAIN PLOT AND IDENTIFY YIELD POINT, ULTIMATE TENSILE
STRENGTH, % ELONGATION

YIELD POINT =

ULTIMATE STRESS =

YOUNG’S MODULUS =

GENERAL DISCUSSIONS AND OUTCOME:

CAUTION: MEASURE THE INITIAL AND FINAL DIMENSIONS ON THE MICROMETER/VERNIER CALLIPER
ACCURATELY.

TO BE FILLED IN BY FACULTY:

S. NO PARAMETER MARKS MAX

OBTAINED MARKS
.

1 UNDERSTANDING OF THE STUDENT ABOUT 20

THE PROCEDURE/APPARATUS.

2 OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSISINCLUDING 20

LEARNING OUTCOMES

3 COMPLETION* OF EXPERIMENT, DISCIPLINE AND 10

CLEANLINESS

SIGNATURE OF FACULTY TOTAL MAKS

OBTAINED

34
 Experiment: 7

Aim: To perform torsion test on a specimen and find the modulus of rigidity of the material

Equipment Required: A torsion testing machine, twist meter for measuring angles of twist, steel rule and
Vernier caliper or micrometer.

Material Required: Mild Steel, Cast Iron.

Learning Objectives: To understand the concept of torsion, twist angle and torsional rigidity.

Introduction: A torsion test is quite instrumental in determining the value of modulus of rigidity of a
metallic specimen. The value of modulus of rigidity can be found out thought observations made during
the experiment by using the torsion equation.
This test is conducted on torsion testing machine based on ASTM A938 standards.

Outline of the Procedure

 Select the driving dogs to suit the size of the specimen and clamp it in the machine by
adjusting the length of the specimen by means of a sliding spindle.
 Measure the diameter at about three places and take the average value.
 Choose the appropriate range by capacity change lever.
 Set the maximum load pointer to zero. Set the protector to zero for convenience and clamp
it by means of knurled screw.
 Carry out straining by rotating the hand wheel in either direction.
 Load the machine in suitable increments. Then load out to failure as to cause equal
Increments of strain reading.
 Plot a torque- twist (T- θ) graph. Read off co-ordinates of a convenient point from the
straight line portion of the torque twist (T- θ) graph and calculate the value of C by using
relation.

Data and Observations:

Gauge length of the specimen, l = ………

Diameter of the specimen, d = ………
Polar moment of inertia, J =………

Mild Steel
S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Torque
(T)
N-mm
Angle
of
twist(θ)
(in
radians)

35
 CAST IRON
S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Torque
(T)
N-mm
Angle of
twist(θ)
(in
radians)
Specimen Geometry (To be drawn neatly using lead pencil on an appropriate scale)

Calculations Part:

General Discussions and Outcome:

Modulus of rigidity of MS rod is ------------- N/mm2
Modulus of rigidity of CI rod is ------------- N/mm2

36
 Graphs/Plots: Torque- twist (T- θ) graph.

Cautions:
• Measure the dimensions of the specimen carefully.
• Measure the Angle of twist accurately for the corresponding value of Torque.

To be filled in by Faculty:

S. NO PARAMETER MARKS MAX

OBTAINED MARKS.

1 UNDERSTANDING OF THE STUDENT ABOUT THE 20

PROCEDURE/APPARATUS.

2 OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS INCLUDING LEARNING 20

OUTCOMES

3 COMPLETION* OF EXPERIMENT, DISCIPLINE AND 10

CLEANLINESS

SIGNATURE OF FACULTY TOTAL MAKS

OBTAINED

37
 Experiment: 8

Aim: To determine the impact strength of a specimen material using Charpy's test;

To determine the impact strength of a specimen material using Izod test

Equipment Required: Charpy's test apparatus, Izod test apparatus

Material Required: Specimen of MS and CI

Learning Objectives: To understand the concept of impact strength and the difference between
the two methods of determination of impact strength.

Introduction: An impact test signifies toughness of material that is ability of material to absorb
energy during plastic deformation. Static tension tests of un notched specimens do not always reveal the
susceptibility of a metal to brittle fracture. This important factor is determined by impact test. Toughness takes
into account both the strength and ductility of the material. Several engineering materials have to withstand
impact or suddenly applied loads while in service. Impact strengths are generally lower as compared to strengths
achieved under slowly applied loads. Of all types of impact tests, the notch bar tests are most extensively used.
Therefore, the impact test measures the energy necessary to fracture a standard notch bar by applying an impulse
load. The test measures the notch toughness of material under shock loading. Values obtained from these tests
are not of much utility to design problems directly and are highly arbitrary. Still it is important to note that it
provides a good way of comparing toughness of various materials or toughness of the same material under
different condition. This test can also be used to assess the ductile brittle transition temperature of the material
occurring due to lowering of temperature.

Outline of the Procedure:

(a) Charpy Test

• With the striking hammer (pendulum) in safe test position, firmly hold the steel specimen
in impact testing machines vice as shown in Fig. (a) in such a way that the notch faces is
opposite to the hammer and it is placed horizontally in the vice.

38
 • Bring the striking hammer to its top most striking position unless it is already there, and
lock it at that position
• Bring indicator of the machine to zero, or follow the instructions of the operating manual
supplied with the machine. Release the hammer.
• It will fall due to gravity and break the specimen through its momentum, the total energy
is not absorbed by the specimen. Then it continues to swing.
• At its topmost height after breaking the specimen, the indicator stops moving, while the
pendulum falls back.
• Note the indicator at that topmost final position. The specimen is placed on supports or
anvil so that the blow of hammer is opposite to the notch.
(b) lzod test
• With the striking hammer (pendulum) in safe test position, firmly hold the steel specimen
in impact testing machine‟s vice as shown in Fig. (b) in such a way that the notch face the
hammer and is half inside and half above the top surface of the vice. The specimen is placed
vertically in the vice.
• Bring the striking hammer to its top most striking position unless it is already there, and
lock it at that position.
• Bring indicator of the machine to zero, or follow the instructions of the operating manual
supplied with the machine. Release the hammer.
• It will fall due to gravity and break the specimen through its momentum, the total energy
is not absorbed by the specimen. Then it continues to swing.
• At its topmost height after breaking the specimen, the indicator stops moving, while the
pendulum falls back
• Note the indicator at that topmost final position. Again bring back the hammer to its idle
position and back.
This test is conducted based on ASTM A370 standards.

Data and Observations:

Area of cross section of the given material:

(a) Charpy test

S.No Initial Energy (E1) in Absorb Energy (E2) Residual Energy (E1- Impact Strength
Joule in Joule E2) in Joule (J/mm2)

1
2
3

(b) Izod test

S.No Initial Energy (E1) in Absorb Energy (E2) Residual Energy (E1- Impact Strength
Joule in Joule E2) in Joule (J/mm2)

1
2
3

39
 Specimen Geometry (To be drawn neatly using lead pencil on an appropriate scale)
(a) Charpy Specimen

(b) Izod Specimen

General Discussions and Outcome:

The impact strength for the MS Specimen is _________ J/mm2

The impact strength for the CI Specimen is _________ J/mm2

Cautions:

• Measure the dimensions of the specimen carefully.

• Hold the specimen (lzod test) firmly.
• Locate the specimen (Charpy test) in such a way that the hammer, strikes it at the middle.
• Note down readings carefully.

To be filled in by Faculty:

S. NO PARAMETER MARKS MAX

OBTAINED MARKS.

1 UNDERSTANDING OF THE STUDENT ABOUT THE 20

PROCEDURE/APPARATUS.

2 OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS INCLUDING LEARNING 20

OUTCOMES

3 COMPLETION* OF EXPERIMENT, DISCIPLINE AND 10

CLEANLINESS

SIGNATURE OF FACULTY TOTAL MAKS

OBTAINED

40
 Experiment: 9

Experiment: To determine the hardness of a specimen material using Rockwell hardness test, Brinell's
hardness test and Barcol hardner tester for composite materials.

Equipment Required: Rockwell hardness testing machine, Brinell's hardness testing machine, Brinell
Microscope and Barcol hardner tester for composite materials.

Material Required: Soft and hard specimens (among Mild steel (MS) or Al and composite material.

Learning Objectives: To understand the concept of hardness and the various hardness numbers and
understand the measure of the degree of cure of a plastic

Introduction:

Hardness-the resistance of a metal to plastic deformation against indentation scratching, abrasion or cutting.

The Rockwell hardness is derived from the measurement of the depth of the impression. This method of
test is suitable for finished or machined parts of simple shapes. The depth of penetration of the indenter
measures the hardness of a material by this Rockwell‟s hardness test method. The depth of penetration is
inversely proportional to the hardness. Both ball or diamond cone types of indenters are used in this test.

Brinell‟s hardness test consists of indenting the surface of the metal by a hardened steel ball of specified
diameter (D) mm under a given load (F) kgf and measuring the average diameter (d) mm of the impression
with the help of Brinell microscope fitted with a scale. The Brinell hardness HB is defined, as the quotient
of the applied force F divided by the spherical area of the impression.

The Barcol hardness test is generally used on soft materials such as rigid plastics. It measures hardness
based on indentation of a sharp point with a flat tip. The test is performed using a similar method and
indentation device as that used to measure Shore D hardness however the Shore D indentor has a round
tip. Barcol hardness is not a valid hardness measure for curved surfaces. Barcol hardness is a method that
a hardness value obtained by measuring the resistance to penetration of a sharp steel point under a spring
load. The instrument, called the Barcol impressor, gives a direct reading on a 0 to 100 scale. The hardness
value is often used as a measure of the degree of cure of a plastic.

Outline of the Procedure

a) Rockwell test
• Place the specimen securely upon the anvil.
• Elevate the specimen so that it come into contact with the penetrator and put the specimen
under a preliminary or minor load without shock.
• Apply the major load by loading lever.
• Watch the pointer until it comes to rest. Remove the major load.
• Read the Rockwell hardness number or hardness scale.

41
 7. Brinell’s hardness test
Specimen is placed on the anvil. The hand wheel is rotated so that the specimen along with
the anvil moves up and contact with the ball.
The desired load is applied mechanically (by gear driven screw) and the ball presses into
the specimen.
The diameter of the indentation made in the specimen by the pressed ball is measured by
the use of a micrometer microscope, having transparent engraved scale in the field of view.
The indentation diameter is measured at two places at right angles to each other, and the
average of two readings is taken.
The Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) which is the pressure per unit surface area of the
indentation is noted down.

8. Barcol hardness test

The governing standard for the Barcol hardness test is

ASTM D2583
The specimen is placed under the indentor of the
Barcol hardness tester and a uniform pressure is
applied to the specimen until the dial indication
reaches a maximum.
The depth of the penetration is converted into
absolute Barcol numbers.

Specimen Size: Specimens are required to be a minimum thickness of 1/16th of an inch. The test is
conducted under ASTM E10-18 for Brinell hardness and ASTM E18-19 for Rockwell hardness testing
Data and Observations:

(a) Rockwell Hardness Test

Scale (A or B) Material HRC Reading Mean
1 2 3

(b) Brinell Hardness Test

S. No Material Load Diameter Diameter of the indentation in mm Brinell
of the Hardness
Indenter in Number
mm (BHN)
1 2 3

42
(C) Barcol hardness test

Sr. No Material Barcol Number Mean

1 2 3

Calculations:
(a) Rockwell Hardness Test

(b) Brinell Hardness Test

(c) Barcol Hardness Test

43
General Discussions and Outcome:

The Rockwell hardness of MS Specimen is _________

The Rockwell hardness for the _________ Specimen is _________

The Brinell harndess of MS Specimen is _________

The Rockwell hardness for the _________ Specimen is _________

The Barcol Hardness Value is _________________

Cautions:

1. Hardness test should be performed on smooth, flat specimens from which dirt and scale have been
cleaned.

2. The test should not be made on specimens so thin that the impression shows through the metal, nor
should impression be made too close to the edge of a specimen.

3. Brinell test should be performed on smooth, flat specimens from whom dirt and scale have been cleaned.

4. The test should not be made on specimens so thin that the impression shows through the metal, nor
should impressions be made too close to the edge of the specimen.

To be filled in by Faculty:

S. NO PARAMETER MARKS MAX

OBTAINED MARKS.

1 UNDERSTANDING OF THE STUDENT ABOUT THE 20

PROCEDURE/APPARATUS.

2 OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS INCLUDING LEARNING 20

OUTCOMES

3 COMPLETION* OF EXPERIMENT, DISCIPLINE AND 10

CLEANLINESS

SIGNATURE OF FACULTY TOTAL MAKS

OBTAINED

44
 Experiment: 10

Experiment: To perform tensile test on a composite material using universal testing machine

Equipment Required: Universal Testing Machine, Scale, Vernier calliper

Material Required: Specimen of composite material

Learning Objectives: Understanding of stress - strain diagrams, tensile strength of a given composite
material, significance of Young's modulus.

Introduction: The tensile test is most applied one, of all mechanical tests. In this test ends of test piece are
fixed into grips connected to a straining device and to a load measuring device. If the applied load is small
enough, the deformation of any solid body is entirely elastic. An elastically deformed solid will return to
its original form as soon as load is removed. However, if the load is too large, the material can be deformed
permanently. The initial part of the tension curve which is recoverable immediately after unloading is
termed. As elastic and the rest of the curve which represents the manner in which solid undergoes plastic
deformation is termed plastic. The stress below which the deformations are entirely elastic is known as the
yield strength of material. In some material the onset of plastic deformation is denoted by a sudden drop in
load indicating both an upper and a lower yield point. However, some materials do not exhibit a sharp yield
point. During plastic deformation, at larger extensions strain hardening cannot compensate for the decrease
in section and thus the load passes through a maximum and then begins to decrease. This stage the “ultimate
strength”‟ which is defined as the ratio of the load on the specimen to original cross-sectional area, reaches
a maximum value. Further loading will eventually cause „neck‟ formation and rupture.
This test for composite material based on ASTM D3039/D039M-17 standards.

Outline of the Procedure

• Measure the original length and diameter of the specimen. The length may either be length of gauge
section which is marked on the specimen with a preset punch or the local length of the specimen.
• Insert the specimen into test machine.
• Begin the load application and record load vs elongation data.
• Measure elongation values with the help of dividers and a ruler. Continue the test till fracture
occurs.
• Measure the final length and diameter of specimen.

Data and Observations:

C) Original dimensions:
Length= ----------------------
Diameter= ----------------------
Area= ----------------------

45
 D) Final Dimensions:
Length= -----------------------
Diameter= -----------------------
Area= ------------------

S. No Load (N) Extension (mm) Stress (N/mm2) Strain

Calculations Part:

46
Graphs/Plots: Draw Stress vs strain plot and identify yield point, ultimate tensile strength, %
elongation.

General Discussions and Outcome:

Ultimate Stress =

Young’s Modulus =

Caution: If the strain measuring device is an extensometer it should be removed before necking
begins. Measure deflection on scale carefully and accurately

To be filled in by Faculty:

S. NO PARAMETER MARKS MAX

OBTAINED MARKS.

1 UNDERSTANDING OF THE STUDENT ABOUT THE 20

PROCEDURE/APPARATUS.

2 OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS INCLUDING LEARNING 20

OUTCOMES

3 COMPLETION* OF EXPERIMENT, DISCIPLINE AND 10

CLEANLINESS

SIGNATURE OF FACULTY TOTAL MAKS

OBTAINED

47
48