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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The use of soil as a construction material dates back into the ancient ages. Soil is

primarily used to support structural foundations of practically all civil engineering

projects and structures. The record of man’s first use of soil as a construction material

can no longer be ascertained but the understanding of geotechnical engineering began in

the early 18th century (Skempton, 1985). During the ancient civilization, the art of

geotechnical engineering was solely based on experimentation. Structures were built

without a thorough study of the soil characteristics. Some of those structures were able to

withstand the test of time, some crumbled. While it did not entirely crumble, the leaning

tower of Pisa a very notable example of a structure which was built upon a faulty soil

foundation. The sorry state of the tower could have been avoided has there been a

scientific analysis of the soil upon which the structure was built upon.

Soil in its natural state has poor mechanical properties. Improving soil based on

requirements has posed a great challenge to civil engineers, not an easy task considering

that requirements vary from site to site, weather conditions and economic considerations.

Soil can often be regarded as a combination of four basic types: gravel, sand, clay, and

silt. It generally has low tensile and shear strengths and its characteristics depend

strongly on environmental conditions i.e. dry or wet.

Reinforcement is a method or technique of incorporating certain materials with

some desired properties within other materials which lack those properties. For example,

concrete is weak in resisting tensile forces therefore it is reinforced with steel, a material

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that resists tensile forces when applied to concrete. Reinforcement in different forms is

applied to soil in order to improve its mechanical properties. Soils are strong in

compression but weak in tension. This weak property of soil can be improved by

introducing reinforcing elements in the direction of tensile stress. Reinforcement

materials generally consist of galvanized or stainless steel strips, bars, grids of fabrics of

selected materials like wood, polymer, plastic and others. These reinforcement materials

are incorporated into the soil basically in the same manner as that of steel in concrete.

The end product is called reinforced soil, and is very effective when used as retaining

structures, embankments, footings, sub grades and many other similar applications.

1.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SOIL REINFORCEMENT

There has been no systematic or rational study of soil reinforcement. The formal

study was pioneered by Henry Vidal, a French engineer, when he published his

investigation on soil reinforcement in 1966 and started the use of the term “Reinforced

Earth”. He demonstrated the rationality of the concept by employing it in a retaining wall

construction. The trust reposed by him in this technique has been amply demonstrated by

hundreds of civil engineering structures built using reinforced technique over the past

three decades which were proven to have performed satisfactorily.

Randomly Distributed Fibers in Soil, also called RDFS, is one of the latest

techniques in which fibers of desired type and quantity are added into the soil, mixed and

laid in position. Randomly Distributed Fibers in Soil is different from other reinforcing

method because of its orientation. In a reinforced earth, the reinforcement is in thr form

of sheets etc is laid horizontally at specific intervals, while in Randomly Distributed

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Fibers in Soil; the fibers are randomly mixed in the soil thus making a homogeneous

mass and maintain isotropy in strength. The improvement of soil characteristics by

mixing a fibrous material on it is likened to the roots of a tree holding the soil into a

homogeneous mass to make it strong and stable.

Experimental works done by various researchers in the last few years have

established beyond doubt that addition of fiber in soil improves its overall engineering

performance. Among the notable properties which are improved are: greater

extensibility, minimal loss of post peak strength, isotropy in strength and absence of

planes of weakness. This has made Randomly Distributed Fibers in Soil more popular in

many civil engineering projects in various countries in the recent past and further

research is in progress for its other undiscovered potentials.

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

Main Objective:

This study aims to determine the effects of fiber inclusion of water hyacinth to

the shear strength of the soil in terms of its maximum shear stress at failure and friction

angle.

Specific Objective:

1. To classify the soil mass using USCS soil classification with the aid of the

following laboratory test:

 Grain Size Distribution Analysis

 Plastic limit Test

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 Liquid limit Test

2. To determine at the optimum percentage of water hyacinth fiber will the

highest shear stress and friction angle occur.

1.4 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Main Problem:

What is the effect of randomly distributed water hyacinth fiber considering the

shear stress and friction angle.

Sub Problem:

1. What USCS Soil classification category does the soil mass belongs to?

2. What selected fiber inclusion percentage by weight will the highest shear stress and

friction angle occur.

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study is undertaken with the end in view of studying the effects of water

hyacinth fiber as soil reinforcement through random distribution. It is hoped that this

study would reveal the important aspects of the Randomly Distributed Fiber in Soil

which would provide necessary inputs for its further improvement.

The industry will find this study helpful in cutting down cost on construction

projects by tapping a natural resource which is very abundant and practically costless.

The result of the study is significant to the academic research society as the

findings will become an additional body of knowledge in the field of civil engineering,

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which could be used by incoming researchers as standards and basis for future similar

studies.

This study will benefit the community since the use of water hyacinth in civil

engineering projects will control its massive proliferation and invasion of lakes, esteros

and other water ways, obstructing the normal flow of water, causing flooding during the

rainy season. Processing of these materials into a usable form is an employment

generation activity in rural areas of the country.

Garbage and waste materials due to rapid industrialization has become a major

problem in recent years. Researchers must gear their efforts towards the utilization of

waste materials in the development of new products. This research is one such study,

harnessing the potentials of water hyacinth, widely regarded as a nuisance and a waste

material that obstructs the natural flow of water, in the development of a new and very

economical construction material, thus turning a waste material into something that is

beneficial to society in several ways.

1.6 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

This study is conducted to investigate the effects of water hyacinth fiber as soil

reinforcement. All tests conducted (Grain Size Distribution Analysis, Plastic Limit and

Liquid Limit Test and Direct Shear tests) were in accordance with American Society of

Testing and Materials (ASTM). Laboratory tests that determine the other strength

behavior of the soil such as California Bearing Ratio, Triaxial Tests, Consolidation were

not applied in this study. To determine the strength behavior of soil considering its shear

strength, direct shear test were used.

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S.M. Hejazi et al., 2012 stated in their review paper that the optimum fiber

content inclusion in the soil mass ranges from 0.2%-4.0% by weight, the percentages

used were patterned from that range. Percentages used were 2.0%, 4.0% and 6.0 %. Fiber

inclusion of 6.0% was used to confirm that beyond 4% the shear parameters will not

increase anymore. The researchers tested the each three fiber inclusion percentages with

three different normal loads 20kg, 40kg and 60kg. On each fiber inclusion percentages,

three test trials were conducted. Direct Shear Test was used in data gathering. All tests

were performed at the Civil Engineering Laboratory of the Adamson University.

The water hyacinth fibers used in the study were collected from the Manila Bay

and were brought to PTRI Taguig for extraction of the fiber. Right after extraction of

fiber, the researchers treated it by applying Bitumen Primer on its surface. Then the fiber

was cut into various lengths. Because of the fibers non uniform diameter and various

lengths of it was considered. The researchers did not consider its aspect ratio.

The soil mass used in the research was acquired from the 1.3 meter excavation of

the Adamson University Christmas Tree.

The chemical treatment used in the study was Dr. Seal Bitumen Primer which

was patterned from the work of S.M. Hejazi et al., 2012 and P. Methacanon et al., 2010.

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CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the review of literatures; both related and research.

Extensive studies were made from different sources to gain a clear understanding of all

aspects of the study especially on the parameters and tests conducted involved.

2.1 WATER HYACINTH

Water Hyacinth is a free-floating aquatic plant which can be found mainly in

rivers and in other water system that grows rapidly. This plant spreads rapidly which

may cause many problems to local and rural areas. These problems can cause damage

and disruption to the environment, economy, water transportation, human health or

fishing. These are much evidence that water hyacinth must be controlled that needs an

immediate action. There have been many ways to control water hyacinth: biological, it is

the preferred long term method in the most of the situations and the most successful of

all control methods, chemical, this is the primary method which is commonly used and

less expensive but the effect only last for short term, mechanical, the most effective

method but the most expensive of all in terms of equipment, labor and time.

Recently, water hyacinth is used as a cheap and abundant resource in many

countries and many products have been produced. It is also said that Water hyacinth

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possesses the ability of removing toxic metals from wastewater (Talat, & Rai. 2007:

Milik, 2007). The objective of this research is to solve the problem involving water

hyacinth in local areas by finding a significant use of the plant.

At the present time, there is a greater awareness that landfills are filling up,

resources are being used up, the planet is being polluted and that non-renewable

resources will not last forever. So, there is a need to more environmentally friendly

materials. That is why there have been many experimental investigations and a great deal

of interest has been created worldwide on potential applications of natural fibers for soil

reinforcement in recent years.

2.2 NATURAL FIBERS

Many types of natural fiber are abundant in the Philippines, Some of these fibers

are: abaca (Internationally known as Manila Hemp), coir, sisal, jute, bamboo and banana.

These locally available fibers are recommended to be used in the design of Randomly

Distributed Fibers in Soil primarily to cut down on construction cost. However, extreme

precaution should be taken into consideration in the use of the fiber in the design of

Randomly Distributed Fibers in Soil so as not compromise time stability and life of the

structure which should be the foremost considerations in the design of any reinforcing

technique. Most of the raw fibers mentioned have been found through various tests that

they lose their strength when subjected to "wetting and drying" environments. In order

to prevent the loss of strength and degradation of fibers, these are subjected to chemical

treatment. Common chemical treatment like bitumen primer, enamel coating, polymer

coating et cetera were found to be effective in retarding the degradation of raw fibers.

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But there are some natural fibers like coir that are really strong and very durable. These

are suitable for use, with proper treatment, in the reinforcement of cohesion-less soils

and also as a filter fabric in cohesive soils.

Water Hyacinth is a free-floating aquatic plant which can be found mainly in

rivers and in other water system that grows rapidly. This plant spreads rapidly which

may cause many problems to local and rural areas. These problems can cause damage

and disruption to the environment, economy, water transportation, human health or

fishing. These are much evidence that water hyacinth must be controlled that needs an

immediate action. There have been many ways to control water hyacinth: biological, it is

the preferred long term method in the most of the situations and the most successful of

all control methods, chemical, this is the primary method which is commonly used and

less expensive but the effect only last for short term, mechanical, the most effective

method but the most expensive of all in terms of equipment, labor and time.

The stalk of water hyacinth (Eichhoria Crassipes) is a possible natural source of

alternative textile material, according to the Department of Science and Technology's

Philippine Textile Research Institute (PTRI). Researchers at PTRI are studying water

hyacinth fibers as a raw material in producing home fabrics and clothing.

In the Philippines, the large amount of water hyacinth, an invasive aquatic pest in

fresh water bodies such as lakes, ponds and rivers. The abundance of this potential raw

material has led the researchers to study the plant's alternate uses as soil reinforcement

through random distribution of water hyacinth fiber.

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The use of natural fiber materials are cost competitive and locally available

compared with other materials. Unlike lime, cement and other chemical stabilization

methods, the construction using fiber-reinforcement is not significantly affected by

weather conditions and is Eco-friendly to the soil. Alternatively, the presence of plant

roots is a natural means of incorporating randomly oriented fiber inclusions in the soils.

These plant fibers improve the strength of the soils and the stability of natural slopes

(Kaniraj R. et al. 2003).

COCONUT (COIR) FIBER

According to S.M. Hejazi et al. (2012), the outer covering of fibrous material of a

matured coconut, termed coconut husk, is the reject of coconut fruit. The fibers are

normally 50–350 mm long and consist mainly of lignin, tannin, cellulose, pectin and

other water soluble substances. However, due to its high lignin content, coir degradation

takes place much more slowly than in other natural fibers. So, the fiber is also very long

lasting, with infield service life of 4–10 years. The water absorption of that is about 130–

180% and diameter is about 0.1–0.6 mm. mainly, coir fiber shows better resilient

response against synthetic fibers by higher coefficient of friction. For instance, findings

show that coir fiber exhibits greater enhancements (47.50%) in resilient modulus or

strength of the soil than the synthetic one (40.0%) (Parag M. et al. 2013). Ayyar et al.

and Viswanadham, (2012) have reported about the efficacy of randomly distributed coir

fibers in reducing the swelling tendency of the soil (S.M. Hejazi et al. 2012, R.K. Kar et

al. 2014).

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The main advantages of coir fibers compared to other natural fibers are its high

initial strength, stiffness, and hydraulic properties. If the requirement is for a shorter

period, then coir is the best choice due its biodegradability compared to synthetic fibers.

If it has to be used for longer period, then chemical treatment and polymer coating will

improve the life of the coir product. Hence, various tests such as direct shear tests,

unconfined compression tests and consolidation tests are done quantify the improvement

in engineering properties of expansive soil due to the addition of coir fibers (Ajinkya

Mane 2010).

SISAL FIBER

Sisal is a lingo-cellulosed fiber in which its traditional use is as reinforcement for

gypsum plaster sheets in building industry with 60–70% of water absorption and

diameter about 0.06–0.4 mm. Sisal fibers are extracted from the leaves of the plants,

which vary in size, between 6–10 cm in width and 50–250 cm in length. In general,

Brazil, Indonesia and East African countries are the world’s main producers of sisal

fibers (S.M. Hejazi et al. 2012). Ghavami et al. found that inclusion of 4% sisal, or

coconut fiber, imparted considerable ductility and slightly increased the compressive

strength. It was also found that introduction of bitumen emulsion did not improve the

bonding between the soil and fibers; but did significantly improve soil durability (S.M.

Hejazi et al. 2012, P. Methacanon et al. 2010).

Prabakar and Siridihar, (2002) used 0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75% and 1% of sisal fibers

by weight of raw soil with four different lengths of 10, 15, 20 and 25 mm to reinforce a

local problematic soil. They concluded that sisal fibers reduce the dry density of the soil.

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The increase in the fiber length and fiber content also reduces the dry density of the soil.

As well it was found that the shear stress is increased non-linearly with increase in length

of fiber up to 20 mm and beyond, where an increase in length reduces the shear stress.

The percentage of fiber content also improves the shear strength. But beyond 0.75%

fiber content, the shear stress reduces with increase in fiber content (P. Methacanon et al.

2010).

KENAF OR ROSELLE FIBERS

The fiber of kenaf is found in the bast (bark) and core (wood). The bast

constitutes 40% of the plant. These fibres are long (2 – 6 mm) and slender. The cell wall

is thick (6.3 µm). The core is about 60% of the plant and has thick (ø 38 µm) but short

(0.5 mm) and thin walled (3 µm) fibres. It is said that kenaf has similar properties of jute.

S. Artidteang et al (2012) proved that kenaf fiber can be used as soil reinforcement and it

has long fiber and high tensile strength. The increase in shear strength and angle of

friction is showed in the results. Application of kenaf fiber is also used as geotextile for

it showed its unique properties such as low moisture absorption and high strength, which

would provide a good performance geotextile for soil reinforcement because strength

and durability are the major characteristic properties needed for this application type of

geotextiles (S. Artidteang et al. 2012, P. Methacanon et al. 2010).

PALM FIBERS

The palm fibers in date production have filament textures with special properties

such as low costs, plenitude in the region, durability, lightweight, tension capacity and

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relative strength against deterioration (Yusoff M. et al. 2010). According to Swamy N.

(2010), Fibers extracted from decomposed palm trees are found to be brittle, having low

tensile strength and modulus of elasticity and very high water absorption.

S.M. Marandi et al. (2008) studied the use of palm fiber as soil reinforcement and

test the following parameter; the moisture absorption characteristics of the palm fibers

were examined by soaking the fiber samples and weighing two hours intervals. The

average results are obtained and the results indicate that the maximum water absorption

of 187% was achieved after a period of 24 hours (there was insignificant increase in

water content above this level). The fiber strength characteristics were obtained through

tensile strength tests. The stress-strain plot curve of the test fibers is shown and the

results show that; the maximum tensile strength of 63.32 MPa was achieved at a strain of

11%. Other significant characteristics identified were: fiber specific gravity (of solids) of

0.92, elastic modulus of 600.8 MPa and average diameter of 0.35mm.

Jamellodin et al. (2010) found that a significant improvement in the failure

deviator stress and shear strength parameters (C and ǿ) of the soft soil reinforced with

palm fibers can be achieved. It is observed that the fibers act to interlock particles and

group of particles in a unitary coherent matrix thus the strength properties of the soil can

be increased.

Ahmad et al. mixed palm fibers with silty sand soil to investigate the increase of

shear strength during triaxial compression. The specimens were tested with 0.25% and

0.5% content of palm fibers of different lengths (i.e. 15 mm, 30 mm and 45 mm).

Reinforced silty sand containing 0.5% coated fibers of 30 mm length exhibited

approximately 25% increase in friction angle and 35% in cohesion compared to those of

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unreinforced silty sand. In addition, palm fibers coated with acrylic butadiene styrene

thermoplastic increased the shear strength of silty sand much more compared to uncoated

fibers (S.M. Hejazi et al. 2012).

JUTE

Jute is abundantly grown in Bangladesh, China, India and Thailand. Jute fibers

are extracted from the fibrous bark of jute plants which grow as tall as 2.5 m with the

base stem diameter of around 25 mm. According to Swamy N. (2010) new there are

different varieties of jute fibers with varying properties.

Jute is mainly environmental-friendly fiber that is used for producing porous

textiles which are widely used for filtration, drainage, and soil stabilization. For instance,

Geo Jute is the commercial name of a product woven from jute fibers used for soil

stabilization in pavement engineering. Aggarwal and Sharma (2010) used different

lengths (5–20 mm) of jute fibers in different percentages (0.2–1.0%) to reinforce soil.

Bitumen was used for coating fibers to protect them from microbial attack and

degradation. They concluded that jute fiber reduces the MDD while increases the OMC.

Maximum CBR value is observed with 10 mm long and 0.8% jute fiber, an increase of

more than 2.5 times of the plain soil CBR value. According to H. P. Singh (2013) jute

fiber reinforced soil can be used as foundation soil for supporting heavier loads of civil

engineering structures.

FLAX

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Flax is probably the oldest textile fiber known to mankind. It has been used for

the production of linen cloth since ancient times. Flax is a slender, blue flowered plant

grown for its fibers and seeds in many parts of the world. In an effort, Segetin et al.

(2007) improved the ductility of the soil–cement composite with the addition of flax

fibers. An enamel paint coating was applied to the fiber surface to increase its interfacial

bond strength with the soil. Fiber length of 85 mm along with fiber content levels of

0.6% was recommended by the authors.

BARELY STRAW

It is important to know that during the Egyptian times, straws or horsehairs were

added to mud bricks, while straw mats were used as reinforcements in early Chinese and

Japanese housing construction. From the late 1800s, straw was also used in the United

States as bearing wall elements. Barely straw is claimed to be the most cost-effective

mulch practice to retain soil in artificial rainfall tests (S.M. Hejazi et al. 2012).

Bouhicha et al. (2005) proved the positive effects of adding straw in decreasing

shrinkage, reducing the curing time and enhancing compressive strength if an optimized

reinforcement ratio is used. Flexural and shear strengths were also increased and a more

ductile failure was obtained with the reinforced specimen. Abtahi et al. (2008) showed

that barley straw fibers are most effective on the shear strength of the soil than Kenaf

fibers. The optimized fiber content was 1%.

BAMBOO

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Bamboo fiber is a regenerated cellulose fiber. It is a common fact that bamboo

can thrive naturally without using any pesticide. The fiber is seldom eaten by pests or

infected by pathogens. So, scientists found that bamboo owns a unique anti-bacteria and

bacteriostatic bio-agent named ‘‘Bamboo Kun’’. It is important to know that the root

rhizomes of bamboo are excellent soil binders which can prevent erosion (Qin Y et al.

2009, Lin D et al. 2010).

Bamboo fibers are remarkably strong in tension but have low modulus of

elasticity about 33–40 kN/mm2 and high water absorption about 40–45%. The tests

undertaken by Coutts, (2000) showed that the bamboo fiber is a satisfactory fiber for

incorporation into the cement matrix. Therefore, Ramaswamy et al. (2009) studied the

behavior of concrete reinforced with bamboo fibers. The results show that these fibers

can be used with advantage in concrete in a manner similar to other fibers. It seems that

the combination of cement and the root rhizomes of bamboo open a new window for soil

reinforcement process.

CANE

Cane or sugarcane belongs to grass family and grows up to 6 m high and has a

diameter up to 6 cm and bagasse is the fibrous residue which is obtained in sugarcane

production after extraction of the juice from the cane stalk. The fiber diameter is up to

0.2–0.4 mm (S.M. Hejazi et al. 2012).

Ghavami K et al. (2000) stated that Vegetable fibers used with cement mortar can

produce high-performance fiberboard, which can be used as a substitute for asbestos-

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cement. A higher economy can be achieved when vegetable fibers are used together with

soil to form load bearing structures.

2.3 SYNTHETIC FIBER

Soil reinforcement using synthetic fibers, materials, and products is widely used

at present in a variety of applications and is fast replacing the conventional ground

improvement techniques. Products using these materials are generally have a long life

and do not undergo biological degradation, but these can create an environmental

problems in the long run. The main advantage of these materials is that they are locally

available in the market and are easy to use. (Rabindra Kumar KAr et al. 2014). Synthetic

fiber is most often use as soil reinforcement as they’re widely used and accepted in the

industry. Many studies prove that the inclusion of synthetic fiber in the soil helps in

increasing the strength of the soil and its parameters.

POLYPROPYLENE (PP) FIBERS

Polypropylene fiber is the most widely used inclusion in the laboratory testing of

soil reinforcement (S.M. Hejazi et al. 2012, Jian Li et al. 2014). Currently, PP fibers are

used to enhance the soil strength properties, to reduce the shrinkage properties and to

overcome chemical and biological degradation.

Setty, Rao and Murthy (2008) carried out tri-axial tests, CBR tests and tensile

strength tests on silty sand and black cotton soil, reinforced with PP fibers. The test

results illustrated that both of the soils showed a significant increase in the cohesion

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intercept and a slight decrease in the angle of internal friction with an increase in fiber

content up to 3% by weight (S.M.Hejazi et al., 2012, B.J Freilich et al. 2010).

Inclusion of Polypropylene fiber only changes the physical properties of soil and has no

impact on the environment and it only improves the mechanical properties of the soil

sample (R.K. Kar et al., 2010). The effects of PP fiber inclusions on the soil behavior

could be visually observed during the triaxial testing and/or UCS testing. Axial

deformation of the unreinforced specimen resulted in the development of a failure plane,

while PP reinforced specimens tended to bulge, indicating an increase in the ductility of

fiber–soil mixture (S.M. Hejazi et al. 2012).

The efficacy of combination of fly ash and PP fibers in reducing swelling and

shrinkage characteristics has been also reported. The available reports show that PP fiber

reinforcements reduce the swelling potential of expansive clays (Chao-Sheng Tang et al.

2012). Adding more percentage of Polypropylene fiber decreases the Shear strength of

the soil sample (R.K. Kar et al. 2010). Direct shear test results show that the shear

strength of polypropylene fiber reinforced soil increases with inclusion of fibers up to

0.4%, beyond which it decreases. For fiber length of 20 mm (l/d = 100) the increase is

maximum, when compared with the unreinforced soil. The cohesion value of soil

increases with increased fiber content. On the other hand, the friction angle either

increases or does not change significantly with fiber content. (Shivanand Mali et al.

2014).

Consoli et al. (2009) conducted a set of drained standard triaxial tests on

artificially cemented sand specimens reinforced with randomly oriented PP fibers. The

fiber reinforcement increased peak strength just up to a certain cement content (up to

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about 5%), increased ultimate strength, decreased stiffness, and changed the cemented

sand brittle behavior to a more ductile one. The triaxial peak strength increase due to

fiber inclusion is more effective for smaller amounts of cement, while the increase in

ultimate strength is more efficacious when fiber is added to sand improved with higher

cement contents.

POLYESTER (PET) FIBERS

Consoli et al. (2009) indicated that inclusion of PET fiber in fine sand improves

both peak and ultimate strength which is dependent on fiber content.

Kumar et al. (2014) tested highly compressible clay in UCS test with 0%, 0.5%, 1.0%,

1.5% and 2.0% flat and crimped polyester fibers. Three lengths of 3 mm, 6 mm and 12

mm were chosen for flat fibers, while crimped fibers were cut to 3 mm long. The results

indicate that as the fiber length and/or fiber content increases, the UCS value will

improve. Crimping of fibers leads to increase of UCS slightly. These results are well

comparable to those found by Tang et al (2008).

Maheshwari, (2011) mixed polyester fibers of 12 mm in length with highly

compressible clayey soil vary from 0% to 1%. The results indicated that reinforcement of

highly compressible clayey soil with randomly distributed fibers caused an increase in

the ultimate bearing capacity and decrease in settlement at the ultimate load. They

concluded that the soil bearing capacity and the safe bearing pressure (SBP) both

increase with increase in fiber content up to 0.50% and then it decreases with further

inclusion of fibers.

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Japanese scientists have been found that short PET fiber (64 mm) reinforced soil

had high piping resistance, and that the short fiber reinforced soil layer increased the

stability of levee against seepage of rainfall and flood. As it can be seen environmental

purposes are the main reason of using PE fibers and/or strips in geotechnical engineering

to landfill the waste PE-based materials (S.M. Hejazi et al. 2012).

GLASS FIBERS

Consoli et al. (2009) indicated that inclusion of glass fibers in silty sand

effectively improves peak strength. In another work of Consoli et al. (2004) examined

the effect of PP, PET and glass fibers on the mechanical behavior of fiber-reinforced

cemented soils. Their results showed that the inclusion of PP fiber significantly

improved the brittle behavior of cemented soils, whereas the deviator stresses at failure

slightly decreased. Unlike the case of PP fiber, the inclusion of PET and glass fibers

slightly increased the deviator stresses at failure and slightly reduced the brittleness.

Nowadays, fiberglass threads termed ‘‘roving’’ can be used to reinforce cohesion less

soils. The volume of fiberglass fibers is generally between 0.10% and 0.20% of the

weight of the soil mixture by weight. Experimental studies have indicated that embedded

roving increases soil cohesion between 100 and 300 kN/m2. It is interesting to know that

the fiberglass roving is an effective promoting seed adhesion and root penetration.

NYLON FIBER

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Gosavi et al. (2008) reported that by mixing nylon fibers and jute fibers, the CBR

value of soil is enhanced by about 50% of that of unreinforced soil, whereas coconut

fiber increases the value by as high as 96%. The optimum quantity of fiber to be mixed

with soil is found to be 0.75% and any addition of fiber beyond this quantity does not

have any significant increase in the CBR value. Kumar, S. et al. (2003), works on Nylon

fibers as reinforcing material on silty clayey soil. They studied the relative strength gain

in terms of unconfined compression and concluded that the effect of addition of nylon

fibers is significantly higher on the residual strength of soil compared to the effect of

peak strength. The results obtained from their study also showed that the strain at peak

strengths increases with the increase of the amount of fibers.

STEEL FIBERS

Steel fiber reinforcements found in concrete structures are also used for the

reinforcement of soil–cement composites. In addition, steel fibers can improve the soil

strength but this improvement is not compared with the case of using other types of

fibers (S.M. Hejazi et al. 2012).

However, Ghazavi and Roustaie, (2010) recommended that in cold climates,

where soil is affected by freeze–thaw cycles, polypropylene fibers are preferable to steel

fibers. Since, polypropylene fibers possess smaller unit weight than steel fibers. In other

words, the former fibers decrease the sample volume increase more than steel fibers.

POLYVINYL ALCOHOL (PVA) FIBERS

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Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fiber is a synthetic fiber that has recently been used in

fiber-reinforced concrete, since its weather resistance, chemical resistance (especially

alkaline resistance), and tensile strength are superior to that of PP fiber. PVA fiber has a

significantly lower shrinkage from heat than nylon and/or polyester. It has a specific

gravity of 1.3 g/cm3, a good adhesive property to cement; and high anti-alkali

characteristics. For this reason, it is suitable for using PVA fiber as a soil reinforcing

material. Therefore, the inclusion of PVA fiber seems to produce more effective

reinforcement in terms of strength and ductility when compared to other fibers under the

same cementation (S.M. Hejazi et al. 2012).

Park et al. (2009) found that the addition of 1% polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fiber to

4% cemented sand resulted in a two times increase in both the UCS and the axial strain

at peak strength when compared to non-fiber-reinforced specimen. Additionally, Park

reported that at 1% fiber dosage, the values of ductility are greater than four, regardless

of cement ratios.

2.4 SOIL REINFORCEMENT

Over the years, methods of soil stabilization have been developed in particular

and ground improvement in general. These methods are divided into three types, such as

mechanical methods, chemical methods, and physical methods. The concept of soil

reinforcement was first developed by Vidal in 1966. He introduced the use of reinforcing

materials in a soil mass which will result in the increases of the shear resistance of the

soil medium. Soil reinforcement is also defined as a technique of improving the

engineering characteristics of soil in order to increase the parameters such as shear

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strength, compressibility, density; and hydraulic conductivity (S.M. Hejazi et al. 2012).

It is an effective and reliable technique for improving strength and stability of soil.

Staring the invention of Vidal, about 4000 structures have been built in more than 37

countries so far using the concept of soil reinforcement (S.M. Hejazi et al. 2012). One of

the earliest workers on fiber reinforced soil studied the stress deformation response of

dry sand reinforced with geotextile fabric layers as opposed to randomly distributed

synthetic and natural fibers (Gray, D.H. and Al-Refeai T.)

Several studies have been conducted to investigate the influence of randomly

oriented discrete inclusions (fibers, mesh elements, waste material e.g. plastic strips, tire

chips, etc.) on the highly compressible clayey soils (A.I. Dhatrak et al. 2013, Gopal

Ranjan et al. 1997). One of the primary benefits of the inclusion of the fiber

reinforcement includes the decrease of the tensile crack propagation after the initial

formation. Prior to cracking, the fibers show no noticeable effect on the material

behavior, because the inclusion of fibers changes the failure mechanism by preventing

the formation of tension cracks in the soil (S.M. Hejazi et al. 2012, Chao-Sheng Tang et

al. 2012). Miller and Rifai reported that increasing fiber content will lead to an increase

of shrinkage crack reduction and hydraulic conductivity of compacted clay soil.

There have been numerous papers in the past that published on the topic of fiber

strengthening of soils. Examples include Hoare, Maher and Gray, Ranjan et al, Consoli

et al. All of the papers listed above have generally shown that; using fiber reinforcement

will improve the shear strength and stiffness of the soil medium. The increase in strength

and stiffness was reported to be a function of:

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- Fiber characteristics; such as; aspect ratio, skin friction, weight fraction; and

modulus of elasticity;

- Sand characteristics; such as shape, particle size and gradation; and

- Test condition; such as; confining stress.

Many fiber reinforcement techniques have been introduced in the industry one of which

is the study of geosynthetic which the concentrate on the material pressure stresses and

vertical deformations through the soil. Even if the value of deformations and pressures is

higher than the one for the same foundation made in unreinforced soil, the use of a

reinforced ballast cushion will help these loads to evenly distribute over this cushion,

which has a higher bearing capacity than the natural soil around it (Felicia Niculescu,

2013). Hejazi et al. (2012) Found that strength and stiffness of the composite soil is

improved by fiber reinforcement.

According to Liu Jiesheng and Zhang Juan (2014), the addition of fibers in the

soil as a reinforcing material affects the soil behavior. The improved soil fiber mix

enhances the function of the soil by decreasing its crack potential formation. The

improvement of the strength in the soil has been noticed, the optimum fiber content was

approximately found at 0.6% of the dry unit weight of the soil sample and the sisal fibers

makes the cementation link of the soil and fiber makes the stress distribution evenly

which makes the soil difficult to deform and the deformation resistance of the soil was

greatly improved.

The general advantages of short fiber composite soils are its availability,

economical benefits, easy to work and fast performance, and feasibility of using in all

weather conditions. The technical benefits of using fibers in soil reinforcement includes:

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helps in preventing the formation of the tensile cracks, increasing the hydraulic

conductivity and liquefaction strength, reducing the thermal conductivity and weight of

building materials, restraining the swelling tendency of expansive soils; and decreasing

the soil brittleness. Over all, the advantage of soil reinforcement is to maintain the

strength isotropy which resists shear band formation, improves the piping resistance of

soil, strength, stiffness, ductility and toughness of the soil, reduces the compressibility of

the soil, increases resistance against liquefaction under dynamic load conditions, and

reduces the desiccation cracking and increases tensile strength of clays (M.S. Nataraj et

al. 2010).

2.5 REINFORCED VS. UNREINFORCED SOIL

It was found out in the study of LI and Zornberg (2010) that the effective shear

strength of the fiber reinforced soil specimens, illustrated with the approximate failure

envelopes, was higher than of the unreinforced soil specimens. This increase in strength

happens due to the combination of an increase in the peak principal stress difference

(higher peak q values), as well as in the decrease of effective stress (higher pore

pressures) which is caused by the fibers, thus, resulting in a higher shift in p’ values.

This result also shows as evidence that as the effect of the fibers on the soil strength

increases the effective confining pressure also increases (B.J Freilich et al. 2010). The

geofiber reinforced soil exhibits significantly improved performance properties

(Michalowiski and Zhao 1996). Stress-strain curves from triaxial tests indicate that the

addition of geofibers increases the strain energy, peak compressive strength, and shear

strength when compared to non-reinforced soil (Ding, 2003).

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Nataraj and McManis acquired results indicated that the addition of fibers to the

clay increased the peak shear strength, peak friction angle, cohesion, and compressive

strength. The study also showed that reinforced soil was able to hold together for more

deformation and therefore higher stress at rupture than of the unreinforced soil.

Mahmood R. Abdi concluded that there is a maximum fiber content and length

that can be used as reinforcement because of the workability problems of making

uniform mixing of fibers with soil is very difficult. In this investigation the maximum

fiber content and length determined were 8% and 15mm respectively.

The addition of randomly distributed polypropylene fibers resulted in substantially

reducing the consolidation settlement of the clay soil. Length of fibers had an

insignificant effect on this soil characteristic, whereas fiber contents proved more

influential and effective than unreinforced (Ajinkya Mane, 2010). Also, Gopal Ranjan et

al. (1997) concluded that fiber inclusion in soil causes an increase in peak shear strength

and reduces the loss of post-peak stress. Thus, the residual strength of fiber-reinforced

soil is comparatively higher than of the unreinforced soil.

Inclusion of polypropylene fibers to the clay soil resulted in reducing the amount

of swelling after unloading. The effect was proportional to the fiber content. But at

constant fiber contents, the amount of swelling was not significantly affected by

increasing fiber length.

Hydraulic conductivity of the clay soil due to Hydraulic conductivity of the clay

soil due to random inclusion of fibers was slightly increased as function of both fiber

content and length. However, the overall increase was not so significant to render the soil

unsuitable for use as liner or cover in landfills (M. R. Abdi, et al. 2008).

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Hoare found both increases and decreases in strength for specimens compacted

with the same energy using two different types of reinforcement. An extensive field

study of the performance of fiber reinforced roadway soils by Hoover et al. produced

inconsistent results. McGown et al. and Gray and Al-Rafeai found that their reinforced

soil was stiffer at all deformations than the un-reinforced soil. So, the primary purpose of

reinforcing soil mass is to improve its stability, to increase its bearing capacity, and to

reduce settlements and lateral deformation.

2.6 RANDOMLY DISTRIBUTED FIBER REINFORCEMENT

Randomly distributed fiber reinforced soils have recently attracted increasing

attention in geotechnical engineering. This method of reinforcement involves randomly

mixing of fibers into the soil (Gaw and Zamora, 2010). The fiber increases the shear

strength of the soil and the cohesion between the soil particles. Most of the research

carried out so far has mainly concentrated on fiber reinforcement of the sandy soils.

Waldron, et al., Santoni, et al. and Michalowski, et al. (2003) indicated that addition of a

small amount of fiber into the sand can increase the failure stress. Giving us the idea that

even small amount of fiber will affect its soil parameters and strength. It has been

confirmed that the addition of fibers significantly increases the liquefaction strength of

sand (Ghiassian H et al. 2009). This means that fiber inclusions increase the number of

cycles required to cause liquefaction during undrained loading. While S.M. Marandi et

al. (2008) conducted a research about randomly distributed palm fibers reinforced silty-

sand soils and concluded that in reinforced soils, the soil grains are being replaced by

fibers. Thus, it is the fibers itself that control the behavior of the specimen. Furthermore;

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the results indicates that at a constant fiber length, with increase in fiber inclusion in soil,

the material strength increases and has a direct relationship with the existence of the

fibers in soil mixture. Also, it can be observed that, at a constant fiber inclusion, an

increase in the fiber length results in a higher composite strength. It appears that the fiber

length is more effective in strength increase in comparison with fiber inclusion. In other

words, the fiber sliding strength in comparison with their failure strengths controls the

increase of the strength and bearing capacity of the specimens. In all experimental tests it

was observed that the behavior of elements at failure surface was sliding type and no

rupture was observed. Increase in the fiber inclusion rate resulted in the soil being more

soft and elastic (ductile). This behavior motivated the soil specimens to fail at higher

axial strains. While Sharan (2011) stated that randomly oriented discrete inclusions

incorporated into soil improve its load – deformation behavior by interacting with the

soil particles mechanically through surface friction and also by interlocking. The

function of the bond or interlock is transfer the stress from the soil to the discrete

inclusions by mobilizing the tensile strength of discrete inclusion. Thus, fiber-

reinforcement works as frictional and tension resistance elements.

Sharan (2011) listed the Factors affecting the strength characteristics of

engineering properties of Randomly Distributed Fiber in Soil (RDFS). The factors on

which the strength characteristics and other engineering properties of RFDS depend:

(i) Type of soil it includes soil gradation expressed in terms of mean grain size
(D50) and uniformity coefficient (Cu).

(ii) Type of Fibre: Monofilament or fibrillated

(iii) Denier of Fibre: It is the weight (in gm) of 9000 m long fibre.

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(iv) Fibre length

(v) Aspect ratio: It is defined as the ratio of the length of fibre to its diameter

(vi) Fibre soil surface friction.

Maher and Gray conducted an investigation into the use of randomly distributed

glass, reed and palmyra fibers for reinforcing sand. Results showed that increasing fiber

aspect ratio (length/diameter) increases fiber contribution to shear strength whereas

increasing soil had the opposite effect. Their study also showed that using low modulus

fibers such as rubber contributed very little to increased strength despite its superior pull-

out resistance (Ibrahim Al-Azzo et al. 2007).

One of the earliest workers on fiber reinforced soil studied the stress deformation

response of dry sand reinforced with geotextile fabric layers as opposed to randomly

distributed synthetic and natural fibers. They found out that the increase in triaxial

strength with fiber content varied linearly up to a fiber content of 2% by weight, and

thereafter approached an asymptotic upper limit. Swamy Setty et al. studied the bearing

capacity of circular footing constructed on fiber reinforced lateritic soil. The results

showed that the inclusion of 2% synthetic fiber to the soil would increase the bearing

capacity by 38% (Ibrahim Al-Azzo et al. 2007).

The standard fiber-reinforced soil is defined as a soil mass that contains randomly

distributed, discrete element fibers that provide an improvement in the mechanical

behavior of the soil composite (Li, 2005). Heimdahl and Drescher, (1999) reported that

the orientation of reinforcement in a particular direction might result in anisotropy of the

soil mass that could result in a decrease of directional strength. On the contrary the

primary advantages of randomly distributed fibers are the absence of potential planes of

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weakness that can develop parallel to oriented reinforcement (Maher and Gray).

Michalowski and Cermak stated that contribution of fibers to strength of fiber-reinforced

soils was very much dependent on the distribution and orientation of fibers in the soil.

One of the advantages of randomly distributed fiber reinforcement is that the various

materials can be added to reinforce the soil, equipment required is minimal, the fibers

may be locally available and environmentally friendly, and the method can be executed

into different type of soils. Mainly, the use of random discrete flexible fibers comes like

the behavior of plant roots and contributes to the stability of soil mass by adding strength

to the near-surface soils in which the effective stress is low (S.M. Hejazi et al. 2012).

In addition to the said works, Sharan (2011) also investigated the advantages of using

randomly distributed fiber reinforced soil and the following advantages have been

developed:

-Increased shear strength with maintenance of strength isotropy.

-Beneficial for all type of soils (i.e. sand, silt and clay).

-Reduce post peak strength loss.

-Increased ductility.

-Increased seismic performance.

-No catastrophic failure.

-Great potential to use natural or waste material such as coir fibers, shredded tire

and recycled waste plastic strips and fibers.

-Provide erosion control and facilitate vegetation development.

-Reduce shrinkage and swell pressure of expansion soil.

-No appreciable change in permeability.

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-Fiber-reinforcement has been reported to be helpful in eliminating the shallow

failure on the slope face and thus reducing the cost of maintenance.

Direct shear tests, unconfined compression tests and conventional triaxial

compression tests have demonstrated that shear strength is increased and post-peak

strength loss is reduced when discrete fibers are mixed with the soil. In other words,

discrete randomly distributed fiber inclusions significantly helps in increasing the peak

shear strength, reducing the post-peak strength loss, increasing the axial strain to failure,

and, in some cases, changing the stress–strain behavior from strain softening to strain

hardening. Fiber inclusions also impede the compaction process, causing a reduction in

the maximum dry density of reinforced specimens with increasing fiber content. The

strength losses associated with in-service saturation are significantly reduced with fiber

reinforcement.

2.7 SAMPLE PREPARATION

Based on historical laboratory and theoretical investigations, relative density and

its resultant void ratio is one of the effective factors on soil mechanical behavior and

shear strength. It is clear that; in practical scale, the soil properties depend on the

formation of the soil layers and are related to the laboratory sampling. The major area of

concern of the study is the tangling of fibers, which often makes it very difficult to

obtain a homogenous mixture. According to Segetin M. (2007), if adequate mixing

techniques cannot be developed, large scale production of fiber-reinforced soil mixtures

will not be feasible. But some information is provided by Allen that folding fibers

through a soil matrix is the most effective method of mixing. This can be done with the

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use of a front-end loader, bobcat or similar device with a bucket attachment and this can

be done manually with physical effort (S.M. Hejazi et al. 2012).

Mainly, there are two methods which can be taken when investigating the mixing

of fiber with a soil composite. Fibers can either be mixed through the soil matrix material

manually or a mechanical means of mixing can be used. The mechanical procedure can

be divided into three categories including cultivator mixing, concrete mixer and tumble

mixer (Segetin M et al. 2007).

Local aggregation (clumping) and folding of fibers (balling) are two problems

concerned with fiber–soil composites. In this way, fiber lengths beyond 2-in. (51 mm)

were not found to significantly improve soil properties and proved more difficult to work

with in both laboratory and field experiments (Newman K, et al.). As well as, a

successful tumble mixing technique has been identified which is able to improve soil

composite uniformity and the ease of manufacture (Jayaraman K, et al., 2007).

Many Researchers studies the use of randomly distributed fibers into the soil

with different aspect ratios, defined as the ratio of the length of fibre to its diameter, and

it is stated in the work of Maher and Gray, (1990) and Al-Rafeai, (2007), that they found

out that the strength of reinforced sand increases with increase in aspect ratio, fiber

content, and soil fiber surface friction. From that it is clear that the aspect ratio of soil

with fiber greatly affects the strength of the soil while Miller and Rifai reported that

increasing fiber content will lead to an increase of shrinkage crack reduction and

hydraulic conductivity of compacted clay soil.

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2.8 EFFECTIVE SHEAR STRENGTH OF FIBER-REINFORCED CLAYS

Li and Zornberg (2010) stated that in general, the addition of fibers will increase

the shearing strength of the fiber soil mixture. While Sivakumar Babu and Vasudevan

(2008) investigated the strength and stiffness response of coir fiber-reinforced tropical

silty soil of intermediate plasticity, and the reported results is that the deviator stress at

failure increases with fiber content and occurs at about 10–18% of strain. The optimum

fiber content corresponding to maximum improvement in strength is found to be 2.0-

2.5% and maximum improvement is obtained with 15 mm long fibers (Shivanand Mali

et al. 2014). In addition, the work of H. P. Singh (2013) shows the significant increase in

shear strength parameters of the soil due to the random distribution inclusion of Jute

fiber that improves the load carrying capacity of soil. Similar trend of results was

observed by Sivakumar Babu and Vasudevan (2008), Singh et al. (2011) same with the

natural and geosynthetic fiber reinforced soil and fly ash. The increase in stiffness

modulus and shear strength parameters of soil due to inclusion of Jute fiber is due to the

fact that randomly oriented discrete inclusions incorporated into soil mass improves its

load deformation behavior by interacting with the soil particles mechanically through

surface friction and also by interlocking. A report is available stating that randomly

distributed geofibers (0.25% and 0.50% with aspect ratios of 15, 30 and 45) are useful in

restraining the swelling tendency of expansive soils (S.M. Hejazi et al. 2012) (M. R.

Abdi, et al. 2008).

Fiber-reinforcements work in the same general sense as planar reinforcements, in

that a polymer material is placed within a soil matrix and distributes stresses from

potential failure planes into the surrounding soil mass by way of interface friction along

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the polymer-soil interface. Unlike planar reinforcements, which are only placed in one

dimension within the soil mass, fibers are randomly distributed within the soil mass and

therefore are usually considered to have an isotropic effect on the soil behavior (Li

2005).

Maher and Ho reported results for randomly mixed fibers with kaolinite clay

tested using unconfined compression. The results provided evidence that fibers increased

the compressive strength of the soil, as well as the ductility (the amount of deformation

before failure) and toughness (the energy required to deform the specimen, equal to the

area under the stress-strain curve) of the soil.

Al Wahab and El–Kedrah tested an inorganic silty clay of medium plasticity (PI

= 26) under similar testing conditions to Maher and Ho. The results provided further

evidence of an increase in the strength of the clay mixed to fiber content as small as

0.2%. Puppala and Musenda (2000) conducted unconfined compressive tests using

Irving (PI = 55) and San Antonio (PI = 46) clays. The results indicated increased

strength and ductility of the soil with increasing fiber content. The effect of fiber length

was also evaluated and it was found that as the length of the fibers was increased from 1

inch to 2 inches, the strength and axial strain at failure also increased. All results indicate

an improved performance of the fiber-soil mixture, but only for short term conditions.

This higher pore pressure generation is related to the effect of fibers on the soil specimen

deformation. Li (2005) attributed this increase in pore pressure on the fibers distributing

stresses within the soil mass, and therefore increasing the contractive deformations

within the fiber-soil mixture (more soil undergoing shear and therefore more soil mass

contracting). This also provides evidence that the deformation characteristics of a soil

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might affect the behavior of the soil and its soil properties (B.J Freilich et al. 2010,

Ajinkya Mane, 2010)

Shivanand Mali and Baleshwar Singh (2014) stated that the shear strength of

polypropylene fiber-reinforced soil increases when fibers up to .4% were added, beyond

that it decreases. For fiber length of 20mm (l/d = 100) the increase is maximum, when

compared with the unreinforced soil. With the increase in the fiber content the cohesion

value of the soil also increases. And on the other hand the friction angle either increases

or does not have a significant change with the fiber content (Carlos Rivera-Gómez et al.

2014). Gopal Ranjan et al. concluded that the shear strength of short randomly

distributed fiber-reinforced soil is a function of the fiber weight fraction, aspect ratio,

and surface friction, soil characteristics like angle of friction and its density and

confining stress (Gopal Ranjan et al. 1997).

Ranjan et al. derived an expression for the shear strength of fiber reinforced soil

using a regression analysis of test results from a series of triaxial compression tests.

Fiber content, fiber aspect ratio, fiber–soil interface friction; and shear strength of

unreinforced soil were identified as the main variables influencing the shear strength.

The defect of Ranjan’s model is that it does not reflect the mechanisms of fiber-

reinforcement and relies heavily on a simple set of experimental results (S.M. Hejazi et

al. 2012).

The variation of failure strain value was directly proportional to its fiber content.

Therefore the strain corresponding to its peak strength increased with the increase of

fiber content. This means that the soil-fiber mixture became more ductile. Also, the

increase of peak strength and failure strain of reinforced clay can refer to the increase of

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cohesion and friction angle values due to the inclusion of fiber (Siham Ibrahim Al-Azzor

et al. 2007).

2.9 ADHESION OF FIBER AND SOIL

According to Ghavami K. et al. (2000), Mainly, the adhesion at the fiber–matrix

interface has been found to be governed by the following three factors: (a) the shear

resistance of the soil due to the surface form and roughness of the fiber; (b) the

compressive friction forces on the surface of the fiber due to shrinkage of the soil; and

(c) the cohesive properties of the soil. Further, each of these three factors is affected by

dimensional changes of the natural fiber which can occur due to changes in moisture and

temperature (S.M.Hejazi et al. 2012, Chunling Li et al. 2012). Such changes in fiber

dimension can occur during the curing stage of the soil–fiber composite material and this

then determines a possible mechanism resulting in a poor interfacial bond. During the

mixing and drying stages of production, the hydrophilic nature of the natural fibers can

lead it to absorb water and effectively push out on the soil matrix. Then near the end of

the curing (drying) period, the fiber loses the water that has absorbed, causing it to shrink

back. Because the matrix is now set, a void is formed around the periphery of the fiber

and a weakened interfacial bond can result (Ghavami K. et al. 2000, Segetin M. et al.

2007, and Medjo R et al. 1994).

Therefore, in looking for an additive to improve the bonding characteristics of

fiber soil composites, it is required that the treatment reduces the transfer of water

between the matrix and the fiber. Possible additives identified from the literature include

water resistant coatings such as asphalt emulsion, rosin–alcohol mixture, paints,

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bituminous materials (Carlos Rivera-Gómez et al. 2014), a water soluble acrylic, a

polystyrene coating and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). While S.M. Marandi et

al. (2008) used an effective water repellent treatment such as bituminous materials to

improve the adhesion between the fibers and soil on their work on using palm fiber as

reinforcing material.

M. R. Abdi, et al. (2008) and Jian Li et al. (2014), study the use of wall panels

consisting of soil, 2.5% cement and polystyrene coated wheat straw, reported fiber bond

strength of 1.3 MPa. With the same material but using bitumen and acrylic coatings, they

also achieved bond strengths of 0.1–0.12 and 0.08–0.125 MPa, respectively. In this study

untreated fibers gave bond strengths in the range of 0.07–0.08 MPa.

2.10 APPLICATIONS OF FIBER REINFORCED SOIL

A comprehensive literature review shows that using natural and/or synthetic

fibers in geotechnical engineering is feasible in six fields including pavement layers

(road construction), retaining walls, and railway embankments, protection of slopes,

earthquake and soil-foundation engineering. A brief discussion about some cases is

presented in the following:

*Pavement layers

In 1991, the US ARMY Corps of Engineers demonstrated the improved

performance of untreated and chemically stabilized soil layers by using Geofibers soil

reinforcement in pavement engineering. According to the study of Ling I. et al. (2003),

the 30 cm fiber-reinforced silty sand section provided a 33% increase in the number of

traffic passes versus the similar un-reinforced section.

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Grogan and Johnson, (2010), showed that the inclusion of Geofiber allowed up to

90% more traffic passes until failure in the clay, 60% passes until failure in the modified

sand, and some enhanced traffic performance was reported for the silty sand.

It is necessary to mention that PP Geofibers can be mixed with sub grade soils.

Their inclusion raises the maximum density about 5% and reduces the optimum moisture

content of the compacted soil mixture about 5% as well.

Finally, the most important findings of some research works are that the use of

synthetic and/or natural fibers in road construction can significantly increase pavement

resistance to rutting, as compared to the resistance of non-stabilized pavement over a

weak sub grade (Chauhan S, Mittal et al. 2008).

*Retaining walls and railway embankments

Park and Tan showed that use of PP fibers of 60 mm reinforced silty-sand-soil-

wall increases the stability of the wall and decreases the earth pressures and

displacements of the wall. They also reported that this effect is more significant when

short fiber soil is used in combination with geogrid. Some researchers found that using

Geofibers with the combination of geogrids can lead to the economical construction of

high vertical walls for railway embankments in low-lying built-up areas (Parka T, et al.

2005).

*Protection of slopes and foundation engineering

Mainly, soils mixed with randomly distributed fibers can be used as patches in

the localized repair of failed slopes as it can accommodate the irregular shape of failed

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slopes. In the reinforcement of soil veneer such as landfill covers, fiber reinforcement

eliminates the need of anchorage that exists with planar reinforcement (Sein Y, et al.

2009), as well reduces the erosion gullies. The mixture of sand and fiber can be sprayed

onto a problematic slope like concrete, creating a free-draining gravity retention

structure. For instance, a nominal rate of 20 m/s is recommended for glass fibers

(Zornberg G, et al. 2010).

Fiber reinforcement has also been used in combination with planar geosynthetics

for reinforced slopes or walls. By increasing the shear strength of the backfill materials,

fiber reinforcement reduces the required amount of planar reinforcement and may

eliminate the need for secondary reinforcement. Fiber reinforcement has been reported to

be helpful in eliminating the shallow failure on the slope face and reducing the cost of

maintenance.

Another concept of using fibers in civil engineering is the construction of

foundations in soils with poor bearing capacities, where the costs of a deep foundation

solution can be incompatible with the overall costs for low-budget building projects. In

these cases, alternatives for the improvement of local soil through the addition of

cementitious agents or through the inclusion of oriented or randomly distributed discrete

elements such as fibers might be used (Sein Y et al. 2009).

*Earthquake engineering

The toughness and ductility of the fiber-reinforced soils are beneficial for anti-

earthquake geo-structures. According to Makiuchi and Minegishi (2001), in Japan there

are two types of earth-reinforcement techniques using synthetic fibers. In the first

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technique, continuous filament yarns are employed for non-cohesive granular soils. For

instance, TEXSOL product belongs to this group developed firstly in France. In this

type, the filaments are mixed with fine sand at the specified moisture content by jet-

mixing equipment and the fiber–sand mixture is built up in the field. The successful field

applications of the TEXSOL method have been described by Leflaive. The second earth-

reinforcement technique is that of using short length staple fibers introduced by Japanese

Research Institute of Public Works in 1997 (Medjo et al. Kaniraj R, et al.).

The foregoing literatures and studies have given the researchers a clearer

understanding on the proposed study especially on the variables involved. Relevant

research studies such as Maheshwari et al. in the Performance of Fiber Reinforced

Clayey Soil, and the Sayyed Mahdi Hejazi et al. in a Simple Review of Soil

Reinforcement by using Natural and Synthetic fibers and Rabindra Kumar Kar et al. in

the Strength Characteristics of Randomly Distributed Fiber - Reinforced Soil gave the

researchers the needed resolve and confidence that they are pursuing the right direction.

Several findings of these studies were confirmed in this research work as could be seen

in the succeeding chapters.

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