CHAPTER 1

ABSTRACT
My mini project of pressure vessel is focused on storing an air. The pressure vessel contains high
pressurized fluid so that the selection of material and the design of the pressure vessel are most important.
The pressure vessel contains high internal pressure. It must passes the sequence of hydrostatic test this
test gives the capability of the construction to survive internal pressure. A pressure vessel is a closed
container designed to hold gases or liquids at a pressure and temperature substantially different
from ambient pressure and temperature. The cross-section of the pressure vessel may be circular
or square with flat end covers, reinforced by a gate mechanism on both sides. In the present
study the vessel has been optimized for shape for both circular and square sections by
considering stress level on the shell areas and comparative heat losses for cylindrical and square
cross sectional pressure vessel has also been presented.

Pressure vessels are one of the most important equipments in the refining of the crude oil. For this reason,
these equipments must be resisting against the loads resulting from the earthquake. Pressure vessels are
found in different units of refineries and in different vertical and horizontal shapes. According to the
qualitative studying, mechanical specifications such as dimensions, temperature, weight, and the
dimensions of the foundation will be determined.

Key Word: Pressure vessel

 1.1 INTRODUCTION
The pressure vessels (i.e. cylinder or tanks) are used to store fluids under pressure.
The term pressure vessel referred to those reservoirs or containers, which are subjected to
internal or external pressure. The pressure vessels are used to store fluids under pressure. The
fluid being stored may undergo a change of state inside vessels as in case of steam boilers or it
may combine with other reagents as in chemical plants. High pressure is developed in pressure
vessel so pressure vessel has to withstand several forces developed due to internal pressure, so
selection of pressure vessel is most critical.

When pressure of operating fluid increases, increase in thickness of vessel. This increase in
thickness beyond a certain value possesses fabrication difficulties and stronger material for
vessel construction. The material of pressure vessel may be brittle such as cast iron or ductile
such as mild steel. Failure in Pressure vessel occurs due to improper selection of material,
defects in material, incorrect design data, design method, shop testing, improper or insufficient
fabrication process including welding. To obtain safety of pressure vessel and to design Pressure
vessel the selection of code is important. Corrosion allowance is the main consideration in vessel
design. Corrosion occurring over the life of the vessel.

Pressure vessel is reservoirs which have high pressurized fluid inside it. The pressure is
variance between inside and outside of the container. The inside pressure is normally greater
than the outside pressure .The fluid inside the vessel may undergoes change in state as in case of
steam boiler ,or may combine with other substances as in the reservoir. The size and geometry
from of pressure vessel are differs as per application. The large cylinder-shaped vessel used for
high pressure gas loading to the minor size used as hydraulic components for air craft With
increasing demands from industrial processes for higher operating pressures and higher
temperature, new machineries have been industrialized to grip the present day specialized
necessities. Multilayer Pressure Vessels have extended the art of pressure vessel structure and
presented the process designer with a dependable portion of equipment useful in a wide range of
operating circumstances for the problems generated by the storage of hydrogen and
hydrogenation processes the term pressure vessel signified to those reservoirs or containers,
which are subjected to internal or external pressures. The pressure vessels are used to store fluids
under pressure.

1.2 Background of the project

DSI
 Global leader in manufacturing telemetry transmitter products for physiologic monitoring in
animals
 Customers: research organizations, pharmaceutical manufacturers, academic research institutions
Pressure vessel
 Tool offered to customers that allows calibration of dsi telemetry transmitter products provides a
temperature and pressure controlled environment
 Verify data outputs and ensure products are calibrated before implanting for next
experiment
 1.3 Statement of the problem

There are many reasons behind failure of pressure vessels. But the most prominent cause of failure are
improper selection of materials of shells & door systems, inadequate thickness of shell & door
mechanism, wrong estimation of pressure level & temperature range for safe working & ultimately
incomplete conclusions about the stresses generate at different locations of vessel, faulty design of shape
of vessel, welding problems, unsafe modifications or alteration.

The pressure differential in pressure vessel is dangerous and many fatal accidents have occurred in the
history of pressure vessel development and operation. So we have to design the shell wall thick enough &
check the stress level on shell wall so as to avoid failure of pressure vessel. Also we should keep in mind
that due to heat transfer, there will be condensation of steam inside vessel, which we have to avoid by
placing suitable insulation layer around the vessel exterior walls. The main causes of failure of a pressure
vessel are as follows:

 Stress
 Faulty Design
 Operator error or poor maintenance
 Operation above max allowable working pressures
 Change of service condition
 Over temperature
 Safety valve
 Improper installation
 Corrosion
 Cracking
  Welding problems
 Erosion
 Fatigue
 Improper selection of materials or defects
 Low –water condition
 Improper repair of leakage
 Burner failure
 Improper installation Fabrication error
 Over pressurization
 Failure to inspect frequently enough
 Erosion
 Creep
 Embrittlement
 Unsafe modifications or alteration
 Unknown or under investigation

Vessel failures can be grouped into four major categories, which describe why a vessel failure
occurs. Failures can also be grouped into types of failures, which describe how the failure occurs.
Each failure has a why and how to its history. It may have failed through corrosion fatigue
because the wrong material was selected! The designer must be as familiar with categories and
types of failure as with categories and types of stress and loadings. Ultimately they are all
related. [1]

● Material- Improper selection of material; defects in material.

● Design- Incorrect design data; inaccurate or incorrect de-sign methods; inadequate shop
testing.
● Fabrication- Poor quality control; improper or insufficient fabrication procedures including
welding.
 1.4 OBJECTIVE

1.4.1 General objective

 To design Horizontal pressure vessels to store air.

1.4.2 Specific objective

 To determine the thickness of shell required for prescribed pressure and
temperature.
 Redesign the current pressure vessel
 Provide a first-run concept, not a finished product
 Address several key design issues:
 Eliminate the leaks through the door and pass through.
 Find new material that is less brittle and easier to machine
 Design a door that functions reliably & is safe
 Decrease overall cost of the device ($1800+)
 Decrease the number of components
 1.5 Scope

To store air

1.6 Significance

The main benefit occur from this project work is that we can observe the behavior of vessel
under pressure & temperature constraint for different thicknesses of vessel material, vessel
shape. We can also identify the prominent failure areas of vessel & determine the condition of
welds around joints. Thus we can easily conclude the design defects. To avoid these defects we
can make suitable modifications on vessel & thus optimize the design data.

1.7 Future study

1. Further FEA can be done to verify the above design procedure.
2. Analysis on different layer materials to reduce cost of production.
3. Optimization of shell thickness for the given conditions.
4. Testing using HYDROSTATIC method.

CHAPTER 2

2.1 Review of literature

The earliest documented design of pressure vessels is described in the book Codex Madrid I, by
Leonardo da Vinci, in 1495, where containers of pressurized air were theorized to lift
heavyweights underwater, however vessels resembling what are used today did not come about
until the 1800s where steam was generated in boilers helping to spur the industrial revolution.
However, with poor material quality and manufacturing techniques along with improper
knowledge of design, operation and maintenance there was a large number of damaging and
often fatal explosions associated with these boilers and pressure vessels, with a death occurring
on a nearly daily basis in the United States. Local providences and states in the US began
enacting rules for constructing these vessels after some particularly devastating vessel failures
occurred killing dozens of people at a time, which made it difficult for manufacturers to keep up
with the varied rules from one location to another and the first pressure vessel code was
developed starting in 1911 and released in 1914, starting the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code (BPVC).[1] In an early effort to design a tank capable of withstanding pressures up to
10,000 psi (69 MPa), a 6-inch (150 mm) diameter tank was developed in 1919 that was spirally
wound with two layers of high tensile strength steel wire to prevent sidewall rupture, and the end
caps longitudinally reinforced with lengthwise high-tensile rods. The need for high pressure and
temperature vessels for petroleum refineries and chemical plants gave rise to vessels joined with
welding instead of rivets (which were unsuitable for the pressures and temperatures required)
and in 1920s and 1930s the BPVC included welding as an acceptable means of construction, and
welding is the main means of joining metal vessels today.

C. K. Ramesh[1] in his paper made an elastic analysis involving partial differential equation of cylindrical
pressure vessel with different heads such as ellipsoidal, torispherical and hemispherical head for the
classic theory of thin shells of revolution. He attempted a step-by-step numerical integration procedure
following Goldberg’s earlier works involving segmentation technique. Numerical results are obtained
from the general computer program FORTRAN for number of cases and for given values of poisons ratio,
elastic moduli, and thickness to diameter ratio. The results obtained are then compared to the values from
literatures and also with the stress predicted by ASME code.
Dražan Kozak [2] presented a numerical analysis of cylindrical pressure vessel with different heads such
as pressure vessel with hemispherical head and pressure vessel with semi-elliptical head. For a given
material property and dimension, both pressure vessels are analyzed using finite element method and von
Mises stresses are determined. Based on the analytical solutions for membrane stress state of pressure
vessel, numerical analysis of the pressure vessels with different head is also performed. The result
obtained for hemispherical head is compared with that of the result obtained from finite element analysis.
After the analysis, it was concluding that the equivalent stresses in hemispherical head are lesser than that
in the semi-elliptical head. Nevertheless, in exploitation, there is much more pressure vessels with semi-
elliptical heads, because manufacturing of hemispherical heads is much more complicated and expensive.
Apsara C. Gedam[3] analysed a thin cylindrical pressure vessel with different heads such as
hemispherical, flat circular, standard ellipsoidal and dished end using finite element analysis. Three cases
were considered in the analysis. In first case, axisymmetric models of pressure vessel with different heads
were analyzed. In second case, finite element analysis of horizontal pressure vessel with saddle supports
were conducted and in third case, finite element analysis of vertical pressure vessel with straight leg
support were conducted. Longitudinal and circumferential stresses in all the three cases were plotted and
the comparison of stresses was made for different heads of pressure vessel. Effect of supports on pressure
vessel was also studied by the authors.
Shildip D. Urade [4] made a stress analysis of multilayer pressure vessel which is made of homogeneous
and isotropic material and subjected to internal loading. The stress analysis of the model was carried out
in finite element tool, ANSYS. The number of layers are varied for calculating the hoop stress for finite
element and theoretical analysis. In multilayer pressure vessel, the layers are brought in contact by
applying shrink fit between the layers of the pressure vessel. The analytical estimation of hoop stresses in

CHAPTER 3

3.1 Methodology

3.1.1 Parts of pressure vessel

 1. Heads: - All pressure vessel shells must be closed at the ends by heads (or another shell
section). Heads are typically curved rather than flat. Curved configurations are stronger
and allow the heads to be thinner, lighter, and less expensive than flat heads. Heads can
also be used inside a vessel. These “intermediate heads” separate sections of the pressure
vessel to permit different design conditions in each section.
Heads are usually can be categorized by their shapes. The art or component used to
close both ends the shell .heads are typically Ellipsoidal, Tori spherical, hemispherical,
conical and Tori conical .shown below:

2. Nozzles: - A narrow or tempering part at the end of the tube or pipe, used to direct or control
the flow of the liquid or gas. It is necessary component of pressure vessel for the process
industries. Nozzles are used for the following applications:
  Attach piping for flow into or out of the vessel.
 Attach instrument connections, (e.g., level gauges, thermo wells, or pressure gauges).
 Provide access to the vessel interior at many ways.
 Provide for direct attachment of other equipment items, (e.g., a heat exchanger or mixer)
3. Flange: - It is one of attachment and accessories essential for the vessel. Used for coupling the
pipe which the fluid enter or live the pipe to pressure vessel. it is also used on the shell of a vessel
to permit disassembly and removal , for cleaning internal parts.

4. Vessel shell: - is the primary component that contains the pressure. Pressure vessel shells are
welded together to form a structure that has a common rotational axis. Most pressure vessel
shells are cylindrical, spherical and conical in shape.
5. Bolt and nut: - A bolt and nut in combination is a fastening device used to hold two parts
together. The body of the bolt, called shank is cylindrical in form, the head; square or hexagonal
in shape, is formed by forging. Screw threads are cut on the other end of the shank. Nuts in
general are square or hexagonal in shape. The nuts with internal threads engage with the
corresponding size of the external threads of the bolt.
6. Lateral leg support: Small vertical drums are normally supported by legs that are welded to
the bottom of the pressure shell. The maximum ratio of support provides for leg length to drum
diameter is typically 2:1. The number of legs is designed depends on the drum size and the loads
to be carried. Support legs are also usually designed for spherical pressure vessels. The support
legs for small vertical vessels and spherical storage vessels normally made from high carbon
material such as structural steel columns or pipe sections, which provides a more efficient and
perfect design.
7. Support: The type of support that is used depends primarily on the size and orientation of the
pressure vessel. In all cases, the pressure vessel support must be adequate for the applied weight,
wind, and earthquake loads. Generally it is component which is used to support the pressure
vessel

3.1.2 Material selection

 The selection of materials for a machine part or structure member is one of the most
important decisions that the designer has to make.
 Methods for estimating stresses and deflection of machine member are based on the
properties of the materials from which members will made.
 We do select materials not only for stress and deflection design but also for filling gaps,
space, or for as the tics qualities to resist corrosion.
  For the selection of materials the physical, mechanical, chemical, and their manufacturing
process are the most important decision the designer has to make.

Mechanical properties
 Strength stiffness
 Fatigue hardness
 Elasticity
 Plasticity
 Ductility
 Brittleness
 Machine ability
 Toughen

Chemical properties
 Oxidation stability
 Corrosion resistance
 Degradation
 Toxicity
 Flammability

Physical properties
 Density
 Specific heat
 Thermal expansion
 Conductivity
 Melting point
 Electric properties
 Magnetic properties

Material Types
 Ductile
  Brittle
 Plastics
 Composites
 Ferrous
 Non-ferrous
 Alloys

Manufacturing process
 Cast sanding
 Shell molding
 Hot working
 Cold working
 Machining
 Joining
 Powder metal gory
 Heat treatment
 Annealing
 Tempering
 Quenching

In order to select appropriate material for the intended design the mechanical and physical
properties are very important. For the selection of the martial by using different kind standard
such as ASMS.
a) Strength
b) Corrosion resistance
c) Resistance to hydraulic attack
d) Fracture toughness
e) Fabric ability
f) Fatigue resistance
g) Creep resistance
h) The effect of high and low temperatures on the mechanical properties.
i) Any special properties required; such as, thermal conductivity, electrical resistance, magnetic
properties
j) Ease of fabrication forming, welding, and casting
k) Availability in standard sizes plates, sections, tubes
l) Cost reduction

I have selected stainless steel for vessel shell and the parts (because, is an important material
used for storage of corrosive liquids. Although the material cost is significantly more than that of
steel, it has the same ease of availability as carbon steel) in spite of all problems related to recent
inspection programs for metallic pressure containment vessels and tanks which have revealed
cracking and damage in a considerable number of the vessels inspected.

3.2 Design

3.2.1 SPECIFICATION
Medium - Air

Inner service Pressure - 0.6 Mpa

Nominal Volume - 2.3 m3
Service temperature - 350 ͦ C
Position - Horizontal
Supporting element - Lateral leg
2 Longitudinal and 1 lateral pipes diameter - 40mm
Bottom discharge nominal diameter - 25mm

Type of pressure vessel - Cylindrical

Type of head - Hemispherical
 3.2.2 Determining the diameter and length of pressure vessel

For the above specification will design air pressure vessel.

Pressure table used to find the ratio of D/L

l Psi Mpa
d
3 0-250 0.000-1.724
4 250-500 1.724-3.448
5 >500 >3.448

We know that the volume of a pressure vessel is 2.3m 3 and the volume is equal to the
sum of the volume of the head/bottom (hemispherical) and the volume vessel shell (which is in
cylindrical in shape). According to process equipment design, brown ell and young suggest that
the ratio of L/D can be determined by according to their pressure value. But mostly it is
recommended to take L/D ratio 2:1. The pressure that was given for my operating pressure is)
0.6Mpa.

Operating pressure is a pressure which required for the process, served by the vessel.

Design pressure is the pressure used in the design of a vessel. It recommended designing a
vessel and its parts for higher pressure than the operating pressure.

Design pressure=operating pressure+ 5 to 10 percent operating pressure.

I select 10 percent for more safety purpose.

Design pressure =0.6MPa + 0.1*0.6MPa=0.66Mpa

Therefore

l
3, l =3d
d
 π
Volume of cylinder = 4 *d2*Ɩ --------------------- (*)

π
Volume of sphere = 6 *d3-------------------------- (**)

From the above equation (*) and (**)

Volume of air bottle = volume of (sphere +cylinder)

π π
2.5 m3 = 6 *d3 + 4 *d2*Ɩ

π π
2.5 = 6 d3+ ( 4 d2*3d)

π 3π
2.5 = 6 d3+ ( 4 d3) multiply both side by 12.

30 = 9πd3 +2πd3

30 = 11πd3

d= 0.95 m

And also we know l = 3d

L = 3d = 3* 0.95 = 2.8 m
 L = 2.8 m

Inner diameter = 0.95 m = 950mm and length = 2.8m = 2800mm

Note: inner diameter of sphere and cylinder are same

Internal volumes:

π 2 π
Volume of cylinder = *d *Ɩ = *(0.95)2*2.8= 1.9 m3
4 4

π 3 π
Volume of sphere = *d = *(0.95)3 = 0.4 m3
6 6

Design of shell

The shell is the primary component that contains the pressure, that has common rotational
contains the pressure that common rotational axis.

The selected material is stainless steel which has 103 allowable stresses depending up on its
temperature.

Allowable stress in Mpa for temperatures

Steel 150 ᵒC 260 ᵒC 370 ᵒC 480 ᵒC 595 ᵒC 705 ᵒC 815 ᵒC

grade
304 103 86 74 65 52 17 5

304L 90 67 58 65 52 17 5

Table: Analysis of allowable stress

 To find the thickness of the pressure vessel which subjected to internal design pressure
of 0.66 Mpa there are different equations and its corrosion allowance for stainless steel
18Cr/8Ni is (2mm) from the table. There will be a minimum wall thickness required to ensure
that any vessel is sufficiently rigid to withstand its own weight, and any incidental loads.

Where t = min. required thickness of shell, mm

P = internal design pressure, Pa

R = inside radius of shell, mm

S = max. Allowable stress, Pa

E = joint efficiency (min)

C.A=corrosion allowance, mm

a) CIRCUMFERNTIAL STRESS (LONGITUDINAL JOINTS)

It means that the governing stress will be the circumferential stress (hoop stress) in the
long seam. For this it has to satisfy that P does not exceed 0.385SE .In which case we shall
use the following formulae for thickness of shell

t = PR/ (SE -0.6P) + C.A

b) LONGITUDINAL STRESS (CIRUMFERENTIAL JOINTS)

It means that the governing stress will be the longitudinal stress in the
circumferential joint. For this it has to satisfy that P does not exceed 1.25SE. OR if the
circumferential joint efficiency is less than than ½ the longitudinal joint efficiency. In which case
we use the formula for thickness is
t = PR/ (2SE +0.4P) + C.A

let’s use these two equation to fined the thickness of the pressure vessel and select the
smallest value of them because safety purposes. The weight of the pressure vessel can affect
the support leg.

(a) By circumferential stress joint we have the formula;

I select 10 percent for more safety purpose.

P = 0.6 Mpa + 0.1*0.6Mpa = 0.66 Mpa

950 mm
R= = 775 mm = 0.475 m
2

Yield stress (σy) for 304 stainless steel is 276 Mpa.

Factor of safety = 2

276 Mpa
σall = = 138 Mpa
2

Corrosion allowance (C.A) = 2 mm = 0.002 mm

Joint efficiency (E) = 1

P ≤0.385 σall∗E

P ≤0.385∗138 Mpa∗1

0.66 Mpa ≤ 53.13 Mpa It is satisfied

Therefore

PR
t= +C . A
σall∗E−0.6 P

0.66 mpa∗0.475 m
t= +0.002 m
( 138 Mpa∗1 ) −(0.6∗0.66 Mpa)

0.3135
t= m+0.002 m
137.604
 t=0 .002278 m+ 0.002m

t=0.004278 m=4.278 mm

For standard value take

t=5 mm

(b) By using longitudinal stress join we have the formula:

P ≤1.25 σall∗E

P ≤1.25∗138 Mpa∗1

0.66 Mpa ≤ 172.5 Mpa Hence it is satisfied

PR
t= +C . A
2 σall∗E+ 0.4 P

0.66 Mpa∗0.475 m
t= + 0.002m
( 2∗138 Mpa ) +(0.4∗0.66 Mpa)

0.3135
t= m+0.002 m
276.264

t=0.00114 m+ 0.002m

t=0.00314 m=3.14 mm

For standard value

t=4 mm

Then the circumferential stress is the great stress joint.