1.1.

Problem 1
What is the value of gc and what are its units in a system in which the second,
the foot, and the pound mass are defined as in Sec. 1.2, and the unit of force is
the poundal, defined as the force required to give l(lb m) an acceleration of l(ft)
(s)-2?
Ans.
Newton’s second law expresses force as the product of mass and acceleration.
However, a dimensional constant is required to adjust the unit of force, so
Newton’s law is written as:

1
F= ma
gc

Replace the given values of force, acceleration and mass in the equation.

1 ft
1 ( poundal )= (1 Lbm )(1 2 )
gc s

Lbm ∙ ft
gc =1
s2 ∙ poundal

This system of units is the English-system equivalent to the SI system.

1.5. Problem 5
Pressures up to 3000 bar are measured with a dead-weight gauge. The piston
diameter is 4 mm. What is the approximate mass in kg of the weights required?

Ans.

The pressure in a dead weight gauge is given by the formula:

F
P=
A
In an ideal dead-weight gauge, the force (F) is exerted only by the weights (the
product of mass and the local gravity) and A is the transversal area, replacing
both F and A in the last equation gives.

mg
P=
π d2
4

π d2
P =mg
4
π d2
P =m ( Eq .1 )
4g

Beforehand, a conversion of units is necessary

8 8 N
1 ¯¿ =3 x 10 Pa=3 x 10 ( 2
)
m
105 Pa
3000 ¯¿ ¿
1 x 10−3 m
4 mm= =4 x10−3 m
1 mm

Replacing the given values in Eq. 1

−3 2
8 π (4 x 10 )
3 x 10 ∙ =384.41 Kg
4 ∙ 9.807

1.6. Problem 6
Pressures up to 3000 atm are measured with a dead-weight gauge. The piston
diameter is 0.17 (in). What is the approximate mass in (lb m) of the weights
required?

Ans.

This problem is similar to exercise 1.6; the same equation can be applied.
 π d2
P =m
4g

Beforehand, a conversion of units is necessary

101325 Pa
3000 atm= =303975000 Pa
1 atm
1m
1∈¿ x =0.004318 m
100 cm
2.54 cm
0.17∈¿
¿
Replacing the given values
2
π (0.004318)
303975000∙ =453.89 Kg
4 ∙ 9.807
In Lbm

1 Lbm
453.89 Kg∙ =1000,6757 Lbm
0,45359 Kg

1.7. Problem 7
The reading on a mercury manometer at 298.15 K (25°C) (open to the
atmosphere at one end) is 56.38 cm. The local acceleration of gravity is 9.832
m/s2. Atmospheric pressure is 101.78 kPa. What is the absolute pressure in kPa
being measured? The density of mercury at 298.15 K (25°C) is 13.534 g / cm 3
Ans.

The gauge pressure measured by the mercury manometer is given by the

equation:

3 3

(
Pg =ρg h= 13.534
g 1 Kg 100 cm
3
∙ ∙
cm 1000 g 1 m 3
m
∙ 9.832 2 ∙56.38 cm ∙
s
1m
)
100 cm
=75022,77 Pa
The absolute pressure being measured is the addition of gauge and
atmospheric pressure

|¿|=P
g +Patm=75,02 Kpa+101,78 Kpa=176,8 Kpa
P¿
 1.10.Problem 10
An instrument to measure the acceleration of gravity on Mars is constructed of
a spring from which is suspended a mass of 0.40 kg. At a place on earth where
the local acceleration of gravity is 9.81 m/s 2, the spring extends 1.08 cm. When
the instrument package is landed on Mars, it radios the information that the
spring is extended 0.40 cm. What is the Martian acceleration of gravity?

Ans.

According to Hooke’s law: F=kx , where K is the spring constant. First

calculate the spring constant based on the earth measurements.

m N
On earth: mg=kx → 0.4 kg ∙ 9.81 2 =k ∙ 0.0108 m→ k =363.3 3́
s m

The spring constant remains the same regardless of the planet; calculate Mars
gravity with the spring measurements.

N m
On mars: mg=kx→ 0.4 kg∙ g=363.33 ∙ 0.004 m→ g=3,63 2
m s
1.11.Problem 11
The variation of fluid pressure with height is described by the differential
equation:

dP
=−ρg
dz

Here, p is specific density and g is the local acceleration of gravity. For an ideal
gas, p = MP/RT, where M is molar mass and R is the universal gas constant.
Modeling the atmosphere as an isothermal column of ideal gas at 283.15 K
(10°C), estimate the ambient pressure in Denver, where z = l (mi1e) relative to
sea level. For air, take M = 29 g/mol; values of R are given in App. A.

Solution

Replace the ideal gas equation into the given differential equation.
 dP −MP
= g
dz RT

Now, solve the differential equation (remember that temperature and molar
mass are also constant)

dP −Mg
∫P= RT
∫ dz

−Mg
ln |P|= z+C
RT

At sea level (z = 0 miles) the pressure is 1 atm = 101325 Pa, so

ln|101325|=C

At 1 mile above sea level, the pressure is

−Mg
ln P= z +ln101325
RT

P −Mg
ln = z
101325 RT

(−Mg
RT )
z
P=101325 ∙ e

g 1 kg m
29 ∙ ∙ 9.8 2
Mg mol 1000 gr s
z= 3
∙ 1600 m=0.193
RT m Pa
8.314 ∙283.15 K
mol K

−0.193
P=101325 Pa∙e =83527.26 Pa=0.8243 atm
 1.12.Problem 12
A 70 W outdoor security light burns, on average, 10 hours a day. A new bulb
costs $5.00, and the lifetime is about 1000 hours. If electricity costs $0.10 per
kWh, what is the yearly price of "security," per light?

Solution

Assuming there are 365 days per year and that the security light will work
every day, the total working hours are 3650. The yearly cost per light is the
sum of the cost of consumed electricity (variable) and the cost of buying new
bulbs as necessary (fixed).

The fixed cost is:

3650
≅ 4 new bulbs → 4 ∙ $ 5.00=$20.00
1000
*The number of total bulbs must be rounded up as you can’t buy a fraction of a bulb.

The variable cost is:

$
0.1 ∙3650 h ∙ 0.07 kW =$ 25,55
kW ∙ h
The total cost is:

$ 45.55
CTotal =$ 20.00+$ 25.55=
year
1.13.Problem 13
A gas is confined in a 0.47-m-diameter cylinder by a piston, on which rests a
weight. The mass of the piston and weight together is 150 kg. The local
acceleration of gravity is 9.813 m/s2, and atmospheric pressure is 101.57 kPa.
(a) What is the force in newtons exerted on the gas by the atmosphere, the
piston, and the weight, assuming no friction between the piston and
cylinder?
(b) What is the pressure of the gas in kPa?
(c) If the gas in the cylinder is heated, it expands, pushing the piston and
weight upward.
If the piston and weight are raised 0.83 m, what is the work done by the
gas in kJ? What is the change in potential energy of the piston and
weight?
Solution

Figure 1. Basic piston

A. The total force exerted on the gas is the sum of the atmospheric
pressure and the weight of the piston and mass together. The exerted
force by the atmosphere is:

π 1000 Pa π
Fatm =P ∙ A=P ∙ ∙ d 2=101.57 kpa ∙ ∙ ∙(0,47 m)2=17621.83 N
4 1 kPa 4
The force done by the piston and mass together is:

m
F weigh t=M ∙ g=150 Kg∙ 9.813 2 =1471,95 N
s
The total force exerted on the gas is:

FTotal =F atm+F weig ht =19093.78 N

B. The pressure is the total force divided the effective area (transversal).

F F 19093.78 N
P= = = =110054.13 Pa=1,086 atm
A π 2 π 2
∙d ∙(0,47 m)
4 4
C. The work done by the gas is the change of volume of the gas at
constant pressure.
 W=−∫ P dV

In a cylinder, the following formula applies. V = A trans ∙ Z →dV = Atrans dZ

0.83

W=− ∫ P Atrans dZ
0

π 2
W=−P A trans ( 0,83−0 )=110054.13 Pa∙ ∙(0,47 m) ∙ 0,83m=−15847,84 J=−15,848 kJ
4

The change on potential energy is:

m
∆ E p =mg ∆ l=150 Kg∗9,813 2 ∗0,83 m=1221,72 J
s

1.14.Problem 14
Verify that the SI unit of kinetic and potential energy is the joule.

Solution

Joule is work done when a force of 1 newton acts through a distance of 1 meter.
1 J = 1Nm

The fundamental units of the kinetic energy are:

2
1 m m2
Ek = m(kg) u
2 s ( ( )) =kg ∙ 2 =N ∙ m=J
s

The fundamental units of the potential energy are:

m m
Ek =m(kg)∙ g
()
s
2
∙l(m)=kg ∙ 2 ∙ m=N ∙ m=J
s
 1.15.Problem 15
An automobile having a mass of 1250 kg is traveling at 40 m/s. What is its
kinetic energy in kJ? How much work must be done to bring it to a stop?

Solution
2
1 2 1( m
Ek = mu = 1250 kg ) (40 ) =1000000 J =1000 kJ
2 2 s

The necessary work to stop the car has to be equal or greater than its kinetic
energy.

1.16.Problem 16
The turbines in a hydroelectric plant are fed by water falling from a 50-m
height. Assuming 91% efficiency for conversion of potential to electrical
energy, and 8% loss of the resulting power in transmission, what is the mass
flowrate of water required to power a 200 W light bulb?

Solution

First calculate the electric power produced by the turbines.

200 W
Pele = =217,39W
0,92

Then, calculate the total potential energy

217,39W
E P= =238,89W
0,91

Finally, calculate the total mass flowrate.

kg m Ep
E p ( W )= ḿ ( )( )
s
g 2 h ( m ) , solving for ḿ→ ḿ=
s gh
 238.89(W ) kg
ḿ= =0,4875
m s
()
9.8 2 ∙50(m)
s

1.17.Problem 17
Below is a list of approximate conversion factors, useful for "back-of-the-
envelope" estimates. None of them is exact, but most are accurate to within
about ∓10%. Use Table A. 1 (App. A) to establish the exact conversions.

1atm≈1 ¯¿
1Btu≈1kj
1hp≈ 0.75kW
1inch ≈2.5cm
1lb m ≈ 0,5kg
1mile≈1.6km
1quart ≈ 1liter
1 yard ≈1m

Add your own items to the list. The idea is to keep the conversion factors
simple and easy to remember.

Solution

The exact conversions are

1atm=1.01325 ¯¿
1Btu≈1,05504kj
1hp≈ 0.745701kW
1inch ≈2.54cm
1lb m ≈ 0,4535kg
1mile≈1.60934 km
1quart ≈ 0,94635 liter
 1 yard ≈ 0,9144m
1.18.Problem 18
Consider the following proposal for a decimal calendar. The fundamental unit is
the decimal year (Yr), equal to the number of conventional (SI) seconds
required for the earth to complete a circuit of the sun. Other units are defined
in the table below. Develop, where possible, factors for converting decimal
calendar units to conventional calendar units. Discuss pros and cons of the
proposal.

Decimal Calendar Unit Symbol Definition

Second Sc −6
10 Yr
Minute Mn −5
10 Yr
Hour Hr −4
10 Yr
Day Dy −3
10 Yr
Week Wk −2
10 Yr
Month Mo −1
10 Yr
Year Yr

Solution

The year may not be the best fundamental unit as the number of days may
change according to a specific year. However, a reasonable and
approximate assumption is that

1 year=364 days

364 Days 24 hours 60 Minutes 60 seconds

Yr=1 year= ∙ ∙ ∙ =31449600
1 year Days 1 hour 1 Minutes
 This assumption makes a year exactly to 52/7 days weeks and therefore, a

month would have

364 1 and a week would have
=30 Days
12 3
30.3 3́ 1 .
=4 Days
7 3
Decimal Calendar Unit Conversion factor
Sc −6
10 Yr=31.449600 Seconds
Mn −5
10 Yr=314.49600 Seconds
Hr −4
10 Yr=3144.9600 Seconds
Dy −3 Seconds
10 Yr=31449.600
Wk −2
10 Yr=314496.00 Seconds
Mo −1
10 Yr=3144960.0 Seconds

Decimal Convention
Calendar al
Conversion factor
Unit Calendar
Unit

Sc
1 Sc Second
31.449600 Second
1 Mn 60 Seconds
Mn ∙ Minute
314.496 1 Minute
1 Hr 3600 Seconds
Hr ∙ Hour
3144.9600 Seconds 1 Hour
1 Dy 3600 Seconds 24 Hours
Dy ∙ ∙ Day
31449.600 Seconds 1 Hour 1 Day
1
Wk
4 Days Week
1 Wk 86400 Seconds 3
∙ ∙
314496.00 Seconds 1 Day 1 Week
 1
Mo
30 Days Month
1 Mo 86400 Seconds 3
∙ ∙
3144960.0 Seconds 1 Day 1 Month

Chapter 2

2.1. Problem 1
A nonconducting container filled with 25 kg of water at 293.15 K (20°C) is
fitted with a stirrer, which is made to turn by gravity acting on a weight of mass
35 kg. The weight falls slowly through a distance of 5 m in driving the stirrer.
Assuming that all work done on the weight is transferred to the water and that
the local acceleration of gravity is 9.8 m/s 2, determine:
(a) The amount of work done on the water.
(b) The internal-energy change of the water.
(c) The final temperature of the water, for which Cp = 4.18 kJ/ kg-C.
(d) The amount of heat that must be removed from the water to return it to its
initial temperature.
(e) The total energy change of the universe because of: (1) the process of
lowering the weight,
(f) The process of cooling the water back to its initial temperature, and (3) both
processes together.

Solution

The system is defined as the water contained in the container.

(a) The work done on the system is the work done by the stirrer on the
water. Assuming there are no dissipative forces, the work done will be
equal to the change of potential energy of the weight.

m
( )
W sti rrer =mg ∆ z=( 35 kg ) 9.8
s
2
( 5 m )=1715 J

(b) Considering the container is nonconducting, the heat losses are

negligible; the first law of thermodynamics applied to the closed system
gives:

∆ U =W +Q(Q=0)
 ∆ U =W →∆U =1715J
(c) The volume of water does not change significantly during the process,
therefore is reasonable to assume a constant volume process and the
following definition of heat capacity can be applied.
dU
C v =n
dT

T2 U2

n∫ C v dT =∫ dU
T1 U1

nC v ( T 2−T 1) =∆ U

∆U 1.715 kJ
T2= +T → T 2 = + 20° C → 20,016° C
nC v 1 kJ
25 kg ∙ 4,18
kg C °
(d) Because the system returns to its initial state, the change of internal
energy is 0; the first law neglecting the change of potential and kinetic
energy reduces to:

∆ U =Q+W →∆U =0
0+W =0→Q=−W =−1715 J
(e) The energy of the universe remains unchanged regardless of the process
on the system. For all three cases, the change of internal energy is 0.

2.2. Problem 2
Rework Prob. 2.1 for an insulated container that changes in temperature along
with the water
and has a heat capacity equivalent to 5 kg of water. Work the problem with:
(a) The water and container as the system; (b) The water alone as the
system.

Solution
(a) The work done on both systems remains the same: W = 1715J,
(b) If the water and container is taken as the system, then
∆ U =W →∆U =1715J
However if only the water is taken as the system, then there will be lost
heat due to the temperature change of the container, ∆ U Water =W−Q
 It is reasonable to assume that the volume of the container will not
change significantly and the heat can be modeled as:

T2

Q=∆U Container=n∫ C v dT =n C v
Container
( T 2−T 1 )
T1

The first law of thermodynamics becomes:

Container
∆ U water=W −nC v ( T 2−T 1 )
(c) Water + container:

T2 T2

∆ U total =∆ U container +∆ U water =ncontainer ∫ C dT +nWater∫ C Water

Container
v v dT
T1 T1

Container
∆ U Total =ncontainer C v ( T 2−T 1 ) +nWater CWater
v ( T 2−T 1)
Solving for T2

∆U Total + ( ncontainer C Container

v +nWater C Water
v )∙ T 1
T2=
ncontainer C Container
v +n Water C Water
v

kJ kJ
T2=
(
1.715 kJ + 5 kg ∙ 4.18
kg ∙ ° C
+ 25 kg ∙ 4.18
kg ∙° C
∙ 20 °C )
=20,0136° C
kJ kJ
5 kg ∙ 4.18 +25 kg ∙ 4.18
kg ∙° C kg ∙° C

Water:

Container
∆ U Water =W−Q → ∆ U Water =W−n container Cv ( T 2−T 1 )
Assuming the volume of water remains constant

T2

∆ U Water =n∫ CWater

v dT =n water CWater
v (T 2−T 1)
T1

Replacing on the first law

 Water
nwater C v ( T 2−T 1 )=W −n container CContainer
v ( T 2−T 1 )
Solving for T2 :

W + ( ncontainer C Container
v +n Water C Water
v ) ∙T 1
T2=
n container C Container
v +n Water C Water
v

kJ kJ
T2=
(
1.715 kJ + 5 kg ∙ 4.18
kg ∙ ° C
+ 25 kg ∙ 4.18
kg ∙° C )
∙ 20 °C
=20,0136° C
kJ kJ
5 kg ∙ 4.18 +25 kg ∙ 4.18
kg ∙° C kg ∙° C

The same final temperature is obtained regardless of what is taken as

the system. With the final temperature, the change of internal energy of
water may be calculated.

∆ U Water =W−ncontainer CContainer

v ( T 2−T 1 )
kJ
∆ U Water =1.715 kJ −5 kg ∙ 4,18 ( 20,0136 °C−20 ° C )
kg °C
∆ U Water =1,429 kJ
(d) For both systems, the same amount of heat must be removed to
reach its initial temperature.

∆ U =Q+W →∆U =0
0+W =0→Q=−W =−1715 J
(e) The same as problem 2.1, the total internal energy change of the
universe is zero for all the processes.

2.3. Problem 3
An egg, initially at rest, is dropped onto a concrete surface and breaks. With
the egg treated as the system,
(a) What is the sign of W?
(b) What is the sign of ΔEp?
(c) What is ΔEk?
(d) What is ΔU'?
(e) What is the sign of Q?
In modeling this process, assume the passage of sufficient time for the broken
egg to return to its initial temperature. What is the origin of the heat transfer of
part (e)?

Solution

The first law of thermodynamics may be written as:

∆ U +∆ E p +∆ E k =W +Q

(a) There is no work done on the system, neither the system does work to
its surroundings, therefore W=0.
(b) The egg falls down from a higher surface, the elevation decreases and
the sign of potential energy is negative (-)
(c) Since the egg is at rest in both its initial and final state, ∆ E k =0
(d) Assuming the egg does not get scrambled, the internal energy does not
change, ΔU = 0
(e) ∆ U +∆ E p +∆ E k =W +Q
∆ E p =Q

Since the change of potential energy is negative, the heat must also be
negative. A closer look to the process indicates that the potential energy turns
into kinetic while the egg is falling, then just before it strikes the concrete the
kinetic energy appears instantly as internal energy, thus raising its
temperature. Heat transfer to the surroundings lowers the temperature until
the egg reaches its initial state.

2.4. Problem 4
An electric motor under steady load draws 9.7 amperes at 110 volts, delivering
0.93 kW of mechanical energy. What is the rate of heat transfer from the motor,
in kW?

Solution

The total electric power supplied by the motor is calculated as:

Pmotor =i∙ E=9,7 A ∙110V =1067W

Assuming no dissipative forces from friction or other sources, the power
delivered by the motor must be equal to the work done by the motor and the
heat released by the motor.

Pmotor =W motor +Qmotor

Solving for Q

Qmotor =Pmotor −W motor

Qmotor =1067 W−930W
Qmotor =137 W

2.5. Problem 5
One mole of gas in a closed system undergoes a four-step thermodynamic
cycle. Use the data given in the following table to determine numerical values
for the missing quantities, i.e., "fill in the blanks."

Step ΔU/J Q/J W/J

12 -200 ? -6000
23 ? -3800 ?
34 ? -800 300
41 4700 ? ?
12341 ? ? -1400

Solution
Equation 2.3 may be applied assuming there are no significant changes on the
kinetic and potential energy.

∆ U =Q+W

In the step 1-2, heat can be calculated directly.

∆ U 12=Q12 +W 12
 Q12=−200−(−6000)→Q12=5800 J

In step 3-4, internal energy can be calculated directly.

∆ U 34 =Q34+W 34
∆ U 34 =−800+300→∆ U 34 =−500 J

As in a thermodynamic cycle, the system returns to its initial state, the total
change of internal energy is zero and the total heat can be calculated.

Q12341=∆U 12341−W 12341

Q12341=0−(−1400)→Q12341=1400 J

Likewise, the sum of internal energy of all the steps in the process must also be
zero.

∆ U 12341 =∆ U 12 +∆ U 23 +∆ U 34 +∆ U 41
∆ U 23=−( ∆ U 12+∆ U 34+∆ U 41 ) +∆U 12341

∆ U 23=−(−200±500+4700 ) +0→ ∆ U 23=−4000 J

Now, work done on step 2-3 can be calculated

∆ U 23=Q23 +W 23
W 23=−4000−(−3800 ) → W 23=−200 J

The total work done is equal to the work done on each step

W 12341=W 12+W 23+W 34+W 41

 W 41=−( W 12+W 23 +W 34 ) +W 12341

W 41=−(−6000±200+300 )+−1400 →W 41=4500 J

Finally, calculate the heat on step 4-1

∆ U 41=Q 41+W 41
Q41=4700−(4500)→Q41=200 J

Step ΔU/J Q/J W/J

12 -200 5800 -6000
23 -4000 -3800 -200
34 -500 -800 300
41 4700 200 4500
12341 0 1400 -1400

2.6. Problem 6
Comment on the feasibility of cooling your kitchen in the summer by opening
the door to the electrically powered refrigerator.

Consider that the cooling process of a refrigerator is not a ideal process, not all
the electrical energy entering the refrigerator can be turn into work done by
the motor. Some heat must be released, this happens on the motor and the
condenser of the refrigerator. The amount of heat released must be greater the
absorbed heat (see Chapter 6), thus the temperature will rise instead of fall.
Additionally, the refrigerator will burn out within days.

2.7. Problem 7
A renowned laboratory reports quadruple-point coordinates of 10.2 Mbar and
297.25 K (24.1°C) for four-phase equilibrium of allotropic solid forms of the
exotic chemical
Β-miasmone. Evaluate the claim.

Solution
The phase rule states that F=2−π+n , according to the laboratory report a

complex yet pure substance (N=1) is in a four-phase equilibrium ( π=4¿ . If

this is true, then the degrees of freedom will be F=2−4+1=−1 . This result is
impossible; the claim is invalid.

2.8. Problem 8
A closed, nonreactive system contains species 1 and 2 in vapor/liquid
equilibrium. Species 2 is a very light gas, essentially insoluble in the liquid
phase. The vapor phase contains both species 1 and 2. Some additional moles
of species 2 are added to the system, which is then restored to its initial T and
P. As a result of the process, does the total number of moles of liquid increase,
decrease, or remain unchanged?

Solution

The phase rule states F=2−π+N=2−2+2=2 . Specification of T and P fixes

the intensive state of the system, so the phase compositions are also fixed.
Since the liquid phase is pure species 1, an addition of species 2 must increase
its amount on the vapor phase. However, as phase compositions remain fixed
some liquid moles evaporate to restore the initial vapor phase compositions,
thus decreasing the total number of moles of liquid.

2.9. Problem 9
A system comprised of chloroform, 1,4-dioxane, and ethanol exists as a two-
phase vapor/liquid system at 323.15 K (50°C) and 55 kPa. It is found, after the
addition of some pure ethanol, that the system can be returned to two-phase
equilibrium at the initial T and P. In what respect has the system changed, and
in what respect has it not changed?

Solution

The phase rule states F=2−π+N=2−2+3=3 . Specification of T and P leaves

one degree of freedom, thus the phase compositions may be changed for a
given T and P. With the addition of pure ethanol, the intensive state of the
system changes completely as the phase composition and molar amount of the
phases are affected. Only T and P remain the same within the system.

2.10. Problem 10
For the system described in Pb. 2.9:
(a) How many phase-rule variables in addition to T and P must be chosen so as
to fix the compositions of both phases?
(b) If the temperature and pressure are to remain the same, can the overall
composition of the system be changed (by adding or removing material)
without affecting the compositions of the liquid and vapor phases?

Solution

(a) F=3, with fixed T and P, one extra intensive variable must be specified to
fix the intensive state of the system.
(b) If vapor with the same vapor phase composition enters or leaves the
system, the two phase compositions remain unaffected. Likewise if a
liquid with the same liquid phase composition. However, the overall
composition will be affected at all cases as it depends on the relative
amount of each phase. Only if an azeotropic composition is achieved,
when the two phase composition are the same, is possible to add or
remove material without altering the overall composition of the system.

2.11. Problem 11
A tank containing 20 kg of water at 293.15 K (20°C) is fitted with a stirrer that
delivers work to the water at the rate of 0.25 kW. How long does it take for the
temperature of the water to rise to 303.15 K (30°C) if no heat is lost from the
water? For water, Cp = 4.18 kJ/ kg-°C.

Solution

∆U ∆U
=Ẃ → ∆ t=
∆t Ẃ

∆ U =m∙C p ∙∆ T ← AssumingCp constant

kJ
∆ U =20 kg ∙ 4.18 ∙ ( 30 °C−20° C ) → 836 kJ
kg∙° C
836 kJ
∆ t= =3345 s → 55,7 min →0,92 8́ hr
kJ
0,25
s
2.12. Problem 12
Heat in the amount of 7.5 kJ is added to a closed system while its internal
energy decreases by 12 kJ. How much energy is transferred as work? For a
process causing the same change of state but for which the work is zero, how
much heat is transferred?

Solution
For a closed system with negligible kinetic and potential energy changes, the
equation 2.3. becomes valid.

∆ U =Q+W
(a)

−12kJ=7.5kJ +W
W=−19.5kJ

(b) ∆ U =Q→Q=−12kJ

2.13. Problem 13
A steel casting weighing 2 kg has an initial temperature of 773.15 K (500°C);
40 kg of water initially at 298.15 K (25°C) is contained in a perfectly insulated
steel tank weighing 5 kg. The casting is immersed in the water and the system
is allowed to come to equilibrium. What is its final temperature? Ignore any
effect of expansion or contraction, and assume constant specific heats of 4.18
kJ/kg-K for water and 0.50 kJ/kg-K for steel.

Solution
No heat and no work enters nor leaves the system thus, there is no change of
internal energy

∆ U total =0
The total change of internal energy is the sum of all internal energy changes
within the system. C = casting, T = steel tank, W = water.

steel water steel

mt ∙C p ∙∆T t +mw ∙C p ∙∆ T w +mc ∙C p ∙∆ T c =0

mt ∙C steel
Tank water Water
p ∙ ( T 2−T 1 ) +mw ∙C p ∙ ( T 2−T 1 )+mc ∙C steel Casting
p ∙ ( T 2−T 1 )=0
Solving for T2
 steel Tank water Water steel Casting
mt ∙ C p ∙ T 1 +mw ∙C p ∙T 1 +mc ∙ C p ∙ T 1
T2= steel water steel
mt ∙C p +mw ∙C p +mc ∙C p

kJ kJ kJ
5 kg ∙ 0.50 ∙298.15 K + 40 kg ∙ 4.18 ∙ 298.15 K +2 kg ∙ 0,50 ∙ 773.15 K
kg ∙ K kg ∙ K kg ∙ K
T2=
kJ kJ kJ
5 kg ∙ 0.50 +40 kg ∙ 4.18 +2 kg ∙ 0,50
kg ∙ K kg ∙ K kg ∙ K

T 2 =300,93 K →27.78° C
2.14. Problem 14
An incompressible fluid (ρ = constant) is contained in an insulated cylinder
fitted with a frictionless piston. Can energy as work be transferred to the fluid?
What is the change in internal energy of the fluid when the pressure is
increased from P1 to P2?

Solution

If the fluid density remains constant through the compression process, then the
process is considered a V-constant process, for which the work is zero.
Furthermore if the cylinder is perfectly insulated, no heat is transferred and ΔU
= 0.

2.15. Problem 15
One kg of liquid water at 298.15 K (25°C):
(a) Experiences a temperature increase of 1 K. What is ΔUt, in kJ?
(b) Experiences a change in elevation Δz. The change in potential energy ΔEp is
the
same as ΔU' for part (a). What is Δz, in meters?
(c) Is accelerated from rest to final velocity u. The change in kinetic energy ΔEk
is the
same as ΔUt for part (a). What is u in m/s?

Compare and discuss the results of the three preceding parts.

Solution

(a) Water at 25°C has a heat capacity of 4.18

kJ ; an increase of 1 K
kg ∙K
does not change its heat capacity significantly, thus the internal energy
can be calculated as:
 T2
kJ
T1
(
∆ U =m∫ C v dT =mC v ∆ T =( 1 kg ) ∙ 4.18
kg ∙ K )
∙ ( 1 K )=4.18 kJ

(b)
∆ Ep 4180 J
∆ E p =mg ∆ z → ∆ z= = =426.53 m
mg m
( )
( 1 kg ) ∙ 9.8 2
s
(c)

1
∆ E k = mu2 →u=
2 √ √
2 ∆ E k 2 ∙ 4180 J
m
=
1 kg
=91.43
m
s
2.16. Problem 16
An electric motor runs "hot” under load, owing to internal irreversibilities. It has
been suggested that the associated energy loss be minimized by thermally
insulating the motor casing. Comment critically on this suggestion.

Solution
The “hotness” of an electric motor is due to mechanical and electrical
irreversibilities that increase its internal energy, which elevates the
temperature of the motor. The temperature continues to rise until the system
reaches a thermal equilibrium with the surroundings. Insulating the motor will
not decrease its internal irreversibilities and merely causes an increase of the
motor temperature, which may cause internal damage.

2.17. Problem 17
A hydroturbine operates with a head of 50 m of water. Inlet and outlet conduits
are 2 m in diameter. Estimate the mechanical power developed by the turbine
for an outlet velocity of 5 m/s.

Solution

The general mass balance is:

d mcv
+∆(m)fs=0
dt
Assuming a steady state, the mass balance reduces to:

∆(m)fs =0
Since the turbine has only one input and one output stream:
 ∆(m)fs =0→m2−m1=0→m1 =m2 (Constant mass flowrate)

kg
Calculate the mass flowrate (assume a water density of 1000 )
m3
π D2
ḿ2=uAρ→ A=
4
2 2 2
ḿ2=uρ
πD
4
m
( )( kg π ∙2 m
= 5 ∙ 1000 3 ∙
s m 4 )(
=15708
kg
s )
The general heat balance for an open system (such as a hydroturbine) is:

d (mU )cv 1 2
dt (
+∆ H + u +gz ḿ=Q́+ Ẃ
2 )
Consider the following reasonable assumptions of the process

 No significant increase in temperature (∆ H ≅0)

 No significant increase in velocity (∆ u≅0)
 Negligible heat loss to the surroundings. (Q́ ≅0)
 Steady state
d mcv 0∧d mU cv
( = =0)
dt dt

The heat balance simplifies to:

Ẃ= ḿ g∆ z

kg m
Ẃ=15708 ∙ 9.8 2 ∙ 50 m=7696 kW
s s

2.18. Problem 18
Liquid water at 453.15 K (180°C) and 1002.7 kPa has an internal energy (on an
arbitrary scale) of 762.0 kJ/kg and a specific volume of 1.128 cm 3/g.
(a) What is its enthalpy?
(b) The water is brought to the vapor state at 573.15 K (300°C) and 1500 kPa,
where its internal energy is 2784.4 kJ/kg and its specific volume is 169.7 cm3
g-'. Calculate ΔU and ΔH for the process.

Solution
(a)

m3
kJ
(
H 1=U 1 +P1 V 1 →762 + ( 1002.7 kPa ) ∙ 0.001128
kg kg )
=763.13
kJ
kg
(b)

kJ
∆ U =2784.4−762=2022.4
kg
3
kJ
(
H 2=U 2 +P2 V 2 → 2784.4 + ( 1500 kPa ) ∙ 0.1697
kg
m
kg )
=3038.95
kJ
kg
kJ
∆ H=3038.95−763.13=2275.82
kg

2.19. Problem 19
A solid body at initial temperature T0 is immersed in a bath of water at initial
temperature Tw0. Heat is transferred from the solid to the water at a rate Q = K
(Tw - T), where K is a constant and Tw and T are instantaneous values of the
temperatures of the water and solid. Develop an expression for T as a function
of time t. Check your result for the limiting cases, t = 0 and t = ∞. Ignore
effects of expansion or contraction, and assume constant specific heats for
both water and solid.

Solution

Write the general energy balance for the solid immersed in the water bath.

d (mU )solid
dt [ 1 2
]
+ ∆(H + u +gz) ḿ =Q́+ Ẃ
2 fs

Assume the following

 The process occurs within a closed system.
 Negligible potential and kinetic energy.
 No work transferred into the system.
 Symbols with subscripts s refer to the solid as well as symbols with
subscripts w refer to the water bath.
The general energy balance reduces to:

d (mU )s
=Q́
dt
Since the mass of the solid remains constant

dU s dU s
ms =Q́ → Q́=k ( T w−T s ) → ms =k ( T w−T s )
dt dt
Applying the chain rule

dU s d T s d Us dTs
ms ∙ =k ( T w −T s ) →C s = →ms C s ∙ =k ( T w −T s )
d T s dt dTs dt

Now an expression of Tw as a function of Ts is required. To obtain this

expression consider that the decrease of internal energy within the solid equals
the increase of internal energy in the water. Mathematically, it is expressed as

∆ U s=−∆ U w

Assuming constant specific heats for both water and solid

ms Cs (T s −T s0)=−mw C w (T w −T w 0 )
Solving for Tw

ms C s
T w =T w0 − (T −T )
mw C w s s 0
Replace this expression into the reduced energy balance

d Ts dT mC
m s Cs ∙ =k ( T w −T s ) →m s C s ∙ s =k (T w 0− s s ( T s−T s 0 ) −T s)
dt dt mw C w
d Ts ms C s
m s Cs ∙ =k (T w 0−T s − ( T −T ) )
dt mw C w s s 0
dTs T w 0−T s T s−T s 0 dTs T w0 Ts Ts T s0
=k ( − )→ =k ( − − + )
dt msCs mw C w dt ms C s ms C s m w C w mw Cw

dTs T s0 T w0
dt
=−k T s
1
(+
1
ms C s mw C w
+k
) (
+
mw C w ms C s )
 T s0 Tw 0
Define: β=k
( 1
+
1
) (
m s C s m w Cw
, α=k +
mw C w ms C s ) , where both α and β are

constants.

dTs
=α−β T s
dt
Integration from 0 to t and from Ts0 to Ts yields

Ts t
dT s
∫ α−β T =∫ dt
Ts0
s 0

Ts
−1
β | t
ln ⁡( α−β T s ) =t|0
T s0

α−β T s α−β T s
−1
β
ln (
α−β T s 0
=t → )
α−β T s 0
=exp ⁡(−βt)

Solving for Ts

T
α α
(¿ ¿ s 0− )exp (−βt ) +
β β
T s=¿
For t = 0

T
T
α α
(¿ ¿ s 0− )+ → T s=T s 0
β β
α α
(¿ ¿ s 0− )exp ( 0 ) + → T s=¿
β β
T s=¿
For t = ∞
 T
T
α
(¿ ¿ s 0− )
β α
+
exp ⁡( βt ) β
α α
(¿ ¿ s 0− ) exp (−βt ) + → T s=lim ¿
β β t →∞
T s=lim ¿
t→∞

α α
T s=0+ → T s =
β β
Another way to find the result at t = ∞ is to think that when enough time
passes, a thermal equilibrium is achieved and the temperature of the solid
equals the temperature of the water bath.

ms C s ms C s
T w =T w0 − ( T s−T s 0 ) →T s=T w 0− (T −T )
mw C w mw Cw s s 0
Solving for Ts

T w 0 mw C w +T s 0 ms C s
T s=
mw C w +ms C s
However

T s0 T w0 T s 0 ms C s +T w 0 mw C w
α
=
k
( +
m w Cw m s C s ) α
→ =
( m s C s mw C w ) α T m C +T m C
→ = s0 s s w0 w w
β 1 1 β m w C w +m s C s β mw Cw +ms C s
k
( +
ms C s mw C w ) ( m s C s mw C w )
Therefore,

α
T s=
β
2.20. Problem 20!!!
A list of common unit operations follows:
(a) Single-pipe heat exchanger; (b) Double-pipe heat exchanger; (c) Pump;
(d) Gas compressor: (e) Gas turbine; (f) Throttle valve: (g) Nozzle.
Develop a simplified form of the general steady-state energy balance
appropriate for each operation. State carefully, and justify, any assumptions
you make.
 2.21. Problem 21
The Reynolds number Re is a dimensionless group which characterizes the
intensity of a flow. For large Re, a flow is turbulent; for small Re, it is laminar.

For pipe flow, uρD , where D is pipe diameter and μ is dynamic viscosity.
¿
μ

(a) If D and ρ are fixed, what is the effect of increasing mass flowrate ḿ on
Re?
(b) If m and ρ are fixed, what is the effect of increasing D on Re?

Solution

For a cylindrical pipe, the cross-sectional area is π D2

A=
4
π D2 u π D2 ρ
ḿ=uAρ→ A= → ḿ=
4 4
Solving for u

4 ḿ
u=
π D2 ρ

Replace u in the definition of Reynolds number.

uρD 4 ḿ ρD 4 ḿ
ℜ= → ℜ= 2 → ℜ=
μ πD ρ μ πDμ
(a) Clearly, an increase of mass flowrate results in an increase of Re.
(b) Clearly, an increase of the pipe diameter results in a decrease of Re

2.22. Problem 22
An incompressible (ρ = constant) liquid flows steadily through a conduit of
circular cross-section and increasing diameter. At location 1, the diameter is 2.5
cm and the velocity is 2 m/s ; at location 2, the diameter is 5 cm.
(a) What is the velocity at location 2?
(b) What is the kinetic-energy change (J/kg) of the fluid between locations 1
and 2?
Solution

(a) A circular cross-section area is calculated as: π D2

A=
4
The mass balance of the incompressible flow gives:

∆ ḿ=0→ ḿ1=ḿ2 →u1 A 1 ρ=u2 A 2 ρ → ρ=ct →u1 A 1=u2 A2

π D12 2.5 2 2
A1 4 D1
2
m ( )100
m
m
u2=u1 →u 2=u1
A2 π D2 2
→u2 =u1 2 →u2 = 2
D2 s ( ) 5 2
=0.5
s
4 ( )100
m2

(b)

∆ Ek 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 m
2
J
= u2 − u1 → ∆ E k = ( u2 −u 1 ) → ∆ E k = ((0.5) −2 ) ¿ 2 →−1.875
m 2 2 2 2 s kg

2.23. Problem 23
A stream of warm water is produced in a steady-flow mixing process by
combining 1.0 kg/s of cool water at 298.15 K (25°C) with 0.8 kg/s of hot water
at 348.15 K (75°C). During mixing, heat is lost to the surroundings at the rate
of 30 kW. What is the temperature of the warm-water stream? Assume the
specific heat of water constant at 4.18 kJ/ kg-K.

Solution

Write the general energy balance and mass balance for the system

d (mU )cv
Energy balance:
dt [ 1 2
]
+ ∆(H + u +gz )ḿ = Q́+ Ẃ
2 fs

m
´¿
∆¿
¿
¿
d (m)cv
Mass balance: +¿
dt
Assume the following
 The process is at steady state
 Negligible potential and kinetic energy.
  No work transferred into the system.
 Constant heat capacity for both streams
The energy balance and mass balance reduces to

Reduced energy balance: [ ∆(H )ḿ ]fs=Q́ → ḿ3 H 3−(ḿ2 H 2 + ḿ1 H 1 )=Q́
m
¿´
∆¿
¿
¿
Reduced mass balance :¿
Combine the energy and mass balances

ḿ
¿
¿
¿
ḿ2 ( H 3 −H 2 )+ ḿ1 ( H 3−H 1 ) =Q́→ ∆ H =C p ∆ T → ḿ2 C p ( T 3−T 2 ) +ḿ1 C p ( T 3 −T 1 ) =Q́
Solve for T3

Q́+ ḿ2 C p T 2 + ḿ1 C p T 1

T3=
ḿ2 C p + ḿ1 C p
kg kJ kg kJ
−30 kW + 0.8 ∙ 4.18 ∙348.15+1 ∙ 4.18 ∙ 298.15 K
s kg ∙ K s kg ∙ K
T3= =316,38 K
kg kJ kg kJ
0.8 ∙ 4.18 +1 ∙ 4.18
s kg ∙ K s kg ∙ K
2.24. Problem 24
Gas is bled from a tank. Neglecting heat transfer between the gas and the
tank, show that mass and energy balances produce the differential equation:

dU dm
=
H −U m
´

Here, U and m refer to the gas remaining in the tank; H' is the specific enthalpy
of the gas leaving the tank. Under what conditions can one assume H' = H?

Solution

Write the general energy balance and mass balance for the system (the tank)
 d (mU )cv
Energy balance:
dt [ 1 2
]
+ ∆(H + u +gz )ḿ = Q́+ Ẃ
2 fs

m
´¿
∆¿
¿
¿
d (m)cv
Mass balance: +¿
dt

Assume/consider the following

 Negligible potential and kinetic energy.
 No work transferred into the system.
 No heat transferred into the system.
 Only one stream leaving the tank

The reduced energy and mass balances are

d (mU ) '
Reduced energy balance: +H ḿ1 =0
dt
dm
Reduced Mass balance: + ḿ1 =0
dt
Eliminate ḿ1 from the energy balance by the mass balance

d (mU ) dm dU dm dm dU dm
−H ' =0 → m +U −H ' =0 →m + ( U −H ' ) =0
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt

dU ´ dm 1 dU 1 dm dU dm
m =( H −U ) → ´ = → multiply by dt → ' =
dt dt ( H −U ) dt m dt H −U m

Presumption of H’ = H is only valid assuming uniform conditions throughout the

tank. This requires the absence of any gradients in the gas in the tank.

2.25. Problem 25
Water at 301.15 K (28°C) flows in a straight horizontal pipe in which there is no
exchange of either heat or work with the surroundings. Its velocity is 14 m/s in
a pipe with an internal diameter of 2.5 cm until it flows into a section where the
pipe diameter abruptly increases. What is the temperature change of the water
if the downstream diameter is 3.8 cm? If it is 7.5 cm]? What is the maximum
temperature change for an enlargement in the pipe?

Solution

Assume a steady-state system

The material balance for a horizontal pipe is straightforward

ḿ1=ḿ2 → ρ1 u 1 A1= ρ1 u2 A 2

Assume an incompressible fluid (ρ = constant) and calculate the final velocity:

2 2
A1 πD D1
ρ u1 A1 =ρu 2 A2 →u 2=u1 → A= →u 2=u1 2
A2 4 D2

The reduced energy balance with negligible work, heat and potential energy is

1
( )
∆ H + u 2 ḿ=0
2
As mass flowrate is constant and can’t be zero, the equation reduces to

1
(
∆ H + u 2 =0
2 )
2 2 2
1 D
D2
1 D
(
H 2−H 1 + ( u22−u 12 ) =0 →u 2=u1 12 → H 2−H 1+ ( u1 12 ) −u12 =0
2 2 D2 )
2 2 4 4

H 2−H 1=
−1
2 (
D
D2 )
−1 D 1
( ) D
(u1 12 ) −u12 → ∆ H= u12 14 −1 → ∆ H= u12 1− 14
2 D2 2 D2 ( )
Assume a constant heat capacity for the water (C p = 4.18 kJ/kg-K)
4 4
1 D
D2 ( ) 1 D
∆ H=C p ∆ T ↔ ∆ H= u12 1− 14 → C p ∆T = u12 1− 14
2 2 D2 ( )
 2 4
1u D
∆ T = 1 1− 1
2 Cp D2 ( ( ))
Case D2 = 3.8cm

s
14 m/¿
¿
2
¿
¿
¿
2 4

∆T=
1 u1
2 Cp
1−
( ( ))
D1
D2
1
→ ¿
2
Case D2 = 7.5cm

s
14 m/¿
¿
2
¿
¿
¿
2 4

∆T=
u
1 1
2 Cp
1−
( ( ))
D1
D2
1
→ ¿
2
Case D2 = ∞

s
14 m/¿
¿
2
¿
¿
¿
2 4 2

∆ T = lim
1 u1
D →∞ 2 C p
2
( ( ))
1−
D1
D2
→
1 u1 1
→ ¿
2 Cp 2
The temperature change is negligible, thus the assumptions of constant density
and constant heat capacity are completely reasonable.

2.26. Problem 26
Fifty (50) kmol per hour of air is compressed from P1 = 1.2 bar to P2 = 6.0 bar in
a steady-flow compressor. Delivered mechanical power is 98.8 kW.
Temperatures and velocities are:
 T 1 =300 K T 2=520 K
u1=10m/su 2=3.5 m/s
Estimate the rate of heat transfer from the compressor. Assume for air that Cp

=
7 R and that enthalpy is independent of pressure.
2

Solution

The material (molar) balance for the compressor is

∆ ń=0↔ń1=ń2 ↔ρ1 u1 A 1=ρ1 u2 A 2 constant

kmol mol g
Additional information→ ń=50 =13. 8́ /molecular weight=29
hr s mol
The energy balance with negligible potential energy

1 2
( )
∆ H + u ń= Q́+ Ẃ
2
Solving for Q

1 2 1 2
( ) (
Q́=ń ∆ H + ∆ u −Ẃ → ∆ H=C p ∆ T → Q́=ń C p ∆ T + ∆ u −Ẃ
2 2 )
1
(
Q́=ń C p ∆ T + ∆ u2 −Ẃ
2 )

(
❑
Q́=13.8
mol 7
∙ ∙8.314
s 2
J
mol ∙ K
1 2 2 m
∙ ( 520−300 )+ ( 3.5 −10 ) 2 ∙
2
29 kg
s 1000 mol
−98800
J
s )
Q́=−9904.06 J/ s=−9.9kW

2.27. Problem 27
Nitrogen flows at steady state through a horizontal, insulated pipe with inside
diameter of 38.1 mm. A pressure drop results from flow through a partially
opened valve. Just upstream from the valve the pressure is 690kPa, the
temperature is 322.15 K (49"C), and the average velocity is 6.09 m/s. If the
pressure just downstream from the valve is 138 kPa, what is the temperature?
Assume for nitrogen that PV/ T is constant, Cv = (5/2) R, and Cp = (7/2) R.

Solution

The mass balance is straightforward

u 1 A 1 u2 A 2 u1 u 2
ḿ1=ḿ2 → = →the initial∧final areas are the same → =
V1 V2 V1 V2
V2
u2 = u
V1 1
The following equations comes as a consequence of the assumption of a
constant PV/T.

P1 V 1 P 2 V 2 T2 P1
= → solving for V 2 → V 2=V 1 ∙ ∙
T1 T2 T1 P2
Replacing this expression on the later equation

V2 T 2 P1 T 2 P1
u2 = u1 →V 2=V 1 ∙ ∙ →u 2=u1
V1 T 1 P2 T 1 P2

The energy balance for the horizontal insulated pipe is:

1 1
( ) (
∆ H + u 2 ḿ=0 → as ḿ cannot be zero → ∆ H + u 2 =0
2 2 )
u2
¿
¿
u1
¿
¿
1 2
( ) −1
∆ H + u =0 ↔ ∆ H = ¿
2 2
Assuming that enthalpy’s dependency of pressure is negligible and constant
heat capacity

dH=C p dT →∆ H=C p ∆ T
Replacing this expression on the energy balance.
 u2
¿
¿
u1
¿
¿
−1
Cp ∆ T = ¿
2
Replacing the final velocity expression on the energy balance

T 2 P1
u1
T 1 P2
¿
¿
u1
¿
¿
T 2 P1 −1
u2=u1 →C p ∆ T = ¿
T 1 P2 2
2
T 2 P1
1 2
C p (T 2−T 1)= u1 (1−
2 ( )
T 1 P2
)

Use Newton’s method to find T2

2
Objective function: 1 2
( ( ))
C p ( T 2−T 1) − u1 1−
2
T 2 P1
T 1 P2
=0

Initial value: T 2 =T 1=322.15

Iterative solution: T 2 =¿ 321.72 K

2.28. Problem 28
Water flows through a horizontal coil heated from the outside by high-
temperature flue gases. As it passes through the coil the water changes state
from liquid at 200 kPa and 353.15 K (80°C) to vapor at 100 kPa and 398.15 K (125°C). Its
entering velocity is 3 m/s and its exit velocity is 200 m/s. Determine the heat transferred through the
coil per unit mass of water. Enthalpies of the inlet and outlet streams are: Inlet: 334.9 kJ/kg; Outlet:
2726.5 kJ/kg.

Solution
The intensive energy balance for the coil is:

1
(
∆ H + u 2 =Q́
2 )
The heat can be calculated directly
2 2
1 2 (u 2 −u1 )
( )
Q́=∆ H + u → Q́=H 2−H 1 +
2 2

(u22−u12) 2 2
kJ ( 200 −3 ) 1 kJ kJ
Q́=H 2−H 1 + =( 2726.5−334.9 ) + ∙ =2411,6
2 kg 2 1000 kg kg

2.29. Problem 29
Steam flows at steady state through a converging, insulated nozzle, 25 cm long
and with an inlet diameter of 5 cm. At the nozzle entrance (state I), the
temperature and pressure are 598.15 K (325°C) and 700 kPa, and the velocity
is 30 m/s. At the nozzle exit (state 2), the steam temperature and pressure are
513.15 K (240°C) and 350 kPa. Property values are:

H 1=3112.5kJ /kgV 1 =388,61kJ /kg

H 2=2945.7 kJ /kgV 2=667,75 kJ/kg
What is the velocity of the steam at the nozzle exit, and what is the exit
diameter?

Solution
The material balance for the nozzle is:

∆ ḿ=0→ ḿ1=ḿ2 → ḿ=constant

The energy balance for the insulated nozzle gives:
2 2
1 1 −u −u
( ) ( )
∆ H + u 2 ḿ=0 → constant ḿ→ ∆ H+ u 2 =0→ ∆ H = 2 1
2 2 2
Solving for u2
 √
2 2
m m m
u2= √−2 ∆ H +u1 →u2 = −2 ∙ ( 2945.7−3112,5 ) ∙ 1000 2 +302 2 →578,36
2

s s s
Considering that the mass flowrate is constant, the final diameter can be
calculated

u 1 A 1 u2 A 2 u1 V 2
ḿ1=ḿ2 → = → solving for A 2 → A 2= A1 ∙ ∙
V1 V2 u2 V 1
For a cylindrical nozzle, the cross-section area is: 2
A=π D /4.

√ √
2 2
π D 2 π D 1 u1 V 2 u V u V u V
= ∙ ∙ → D22=D 12 ∙ 1 ∙ 2 → D 2= D12 ∙ 1 ∙ 2 → D2=D1 1 ∙ 2
4 4 u2 V 1 u2 V 1 u2 V 1 u2 V 1

D2=D1
√ u1 V 2
∙ → D2=5 cm
u2 V 1 √
30 667,75
∙
578,36 388,61
→ D 2=1,493 cm

2.30. Problem 30
In the following take Cv = 20.8 and Cp = 29.1 J/mol-C° for nitrogen gas:
(a) Three moles of nitrogen at 303.15 K (30°C), contained in a rigid vessel, is
heated to 523.15 K (250°C). How much heat is required if the vessel has a
negligible heat capacity? If the vessel weighs 100 kg and has a heat capacity of
0.5 kJ/kg-C°, how much heat is required?
(b) Four moles of nitrogen at 473.15 K (200°C) is contained in a piston/cylinder
arrangement.
How much heat must be extracted from this system, which is kept at constant
pressure, to cool it to 313.15 K (40°C) if the heat capacity of the piston and
cylinder is neglected?

Solution
(a) A rigid vessel resembles a closed container with constant volume,
therefore the following equation may be applied.

n(∆ U)=Q
A) Neglecting the heat capacity of the vessel

n ( ∆ U ) =Q→ n∆ U =nCV ∆T →Q=nCV ∆ T

J
Q=3 mol ∙ 20.8 ∙ ( 250−30 )=13728 J=13,73 kJ
mol ∙C °
 B) Considering the heat capacity of the vessel ( ve – Vessel, N – Nitrogen)

n ( ∆ U ) =Q→ n∆ U =nve CV ve ∆ T +n N C VN ∆ T →Q=nve CV ve ∆ T +n N C VN ∆ T

J kJ
Q=3 mol ∙ 20.8 ∙ ( 250−30 ) +100 kg ∙ 0.5 ∙ ( 250−30 )=11013,7 kJ
mol ∙C ° kg ∙ C °
(b) For a closed system at a constant pressure, the following equation
applies

n(∆ H)=Q
If the heat capacity of the piston and cylinder is neglected

n ( ∆ H )=Q → n∆ H=nC P ∆ T → Q=nC P ∆T

J
Q=4 mol ∙ 29.1 ∙ ( 40−200 )=−18624 J=18,62 kJ
mol ∙ C °

2.31. Problem 31
In the following take Cv = 21 and Cp = 29.3 kJ/kmol-K for nitrogen gas:
(a) 1.5 kmol of nitrogen at 294.15 K (21°C) contained in a rigid vessel, is
heated to 450.15 K (177"C). How much heat is required if the vessel has a
negligible heat capacity? If it weighs 90.7 kg and has a heat capacity of 0.5
kJ/kg-K, how much heat is required?
(b) 2 kmol of nitrogen at 447.15 K (174"C) is contained in a pistol/cylinder
arrangement.
How much heat must be extracted from this system, which is kept at constant
pressure, to cool it to 338.15 K (65"C) if the heat capacity of the piston and
cylinder is neglected?

Solution
This problem is very similar to problem 2.30 so the same equations may be
used.
(a) Constant volume
A) Neglecting the heat capacity of the vessel

n ( ∆ U ) =Q→ n∆ U =nCV ∆T →Q=nCV ∆ T

kJ
Q=1.5 kmol ∙ 21 ∙ ( 450.15−294.15 ) K=4914 J=4,91 kJ
kmol ∙ K
B) Considering the heat capacity of the vessel ( ve – Vessel, N – Nitrogen)

n ( ∆ U ) =Q→ n∆ U =nve CV ve ∆ T +n N C VN ∆ T →Q=nve CV ve ∆ T +n N C VN ∆ T

 kJ kJ
Q=1.5 kmol ∙ 21 ∙ ( 450.15−294.15 ) +90.7 kg ∙0.5 ∙ ( 450.15−294.15 )
kmol ∙K kg ∙ C °
Q=11988,6 J=11,98kJ
(b) Constant pressure
A) Neglecting the heat capacity of the vessel

n ( ∆ H )=Q → n∆ H=nC P ∆ T → Q=nC P ∆T

kJ
Q=2 kmol ∙ 29.3 ∙ ( 338.15−447.15 ) K=−6387,4 J =6,38 kJ
kmol ∙C °

2.32. Problem 32
Find the equation for the work of a reversible, isothermal compression of 1 mol
of gas in a piston/cylinder assembly if the molar volume of the gas is given by:

RT
V= +b
P
Where b and R are positive constants.

Solution
For a mechanical reversible process, the work is defined as:
V2

W=−∫ P dV
V1

To integrate this equation, first solve for P on the molar volume expression

RT RT
V= +b → P=
P V −b
Then replace this on the work equation.
V2 V2 V
RT 1
2
|V 2−b|
W=−∫ P dV →W =−∫ dV → W =−RT ∫ dV →W =RT ln
V 1 V
V −b 1 V
V −b 1
|V 1−b|

2.33. Problem 33
Steam at 14 bar and 588.15 K (315°C) (state 1) enters a turbine through a 75
mm-diameter pipe with a velocity of 3 m/s . The exhaust from the turbine is
carried through a 250mm diameter pipe and is at 0.35 bar and 366.15 K (93"C)
[state 21. What is the power output of the turbine?
 3
H 1=3074,5 kJ /kgV 1=0,1909 m /kg
3
H 2=2871,6 kJ /kgV 2=4,878 m /kg

Solution
Assume the following
 Steady-state.
 Negligible change of potential energy.
 No heat transfer.

The mass balance of the turbine gives

s
3 m/¿
¿
2
π ( 0,075 m)
( )
4
¿
u1 A 1
∆ ḿ=0→ ḿ1=ḿ2 → ḿ constant → ḿ 1= → ḿ1=¿
V1

kg
ḿ1=0,0694
s
As a consequence of a constant mass flowrate, the final velocity can be
calculated directly.

kg u2 A 2 ḿ2 A 2
ḿ2=ḿ1=0,0694 → ḿ2= → solving for u2 → u2=
s V2 V2

kg
u2 =
( 0,0694
s )
∙ 4,878 m 3 /kg
=6,899
m
2 s
( π ( 0,25 m )
4 )
The energy balance of the process is

1´
∆ ( H+ u 2) ḿ=W s
2
 u
¿
(¿ 2 ¿ ¿ 2−u12 )
¿
1
∆H+ ¿
2
W s=ḿ ¿
2 2
kg ( kJ 6,89 −3 1 kJ
W s =0,0694 ∙( 2871,6−3074,5 ) + ∙ )
s kg 2 1000 kg
W s =−12,74 kW

2.34. Problem 34
Carbon dioxide gas enters a water-cooled compressor at the initial conditions P 1
= 1.04bar and T1 = 284.15 K (10°C) and is discharged at the final conditions P 2
= 35.8 bar and T2 = 366.15 K (93'C). The entering CO 2 flows through a 100
mm-diameter pipe with a velocity of 6 m/s, and is discharged through a 25
mm-diameter pipe. The shaft work supplied to the compressor is 12 500
kJ/kmol. What is the heat-transfer rate from the compressor in kW?

3
H 1=714 kJ /kg V 1 =0,5774 m /kg
3
H 2=768 kJ /kg V 2=0,0175 m /kg

Solution
Assume the following
 Steady-state.
 Negligible change of potential energy.

The mass balance of the compressor gives

s
6 m/¿
¿
2
π ( 0,1 m)
( )
4
¿
u1 A 1
∆ ḿ=0→ ḿ1=ḿ2 → ḿ constant → ḿ 1= → ḿ1=¿
V1
 kg
ḿ1=0,0816
s
As a consequence of a constant mass flowrate, the final velocity can be
calculated directly.

kg u2 A 2 ḿ2 A 2
ḿ2=ḿ1=0,0694 → ḿ2= → solving for u2 → u2=
s V2 V2

kg
u=
( 0,0816 ) ∙0,0175 m /kg
s
=2,909
m
3

2 2 s
( π ( 0,025 m )
4 )
The intensive energy balance of the process is

1 2
∆( H+ u )=Ẃ s + Q́
2
Solving for Q́
u
¿
(¿ 2 ¿ ¿ 2−u12 )
¿
1
∆ H + ¿−W s
2
Q́=¿

kJ 2,9092−62 1 kJ kJ 1 kmol
Q́=(768−714) + ∙ ¿−12500 ∙
kg 2 1000 kg kmol 44 kg
kJ
Q́=−230,07
kg

2.35. Problem 35
Show that W and Q for an arbitrary mechanically reversible non-flow process
are given by:

W=∫ V dP−∆ ( PV ) Q=∆ H −∫ V dP

Solution

For one hand, in a mechanically reversible process, work is defined as:

 dW =−PdV
For the other hand, recall that

d ( PV ) =PdV +VdP →−PdV =VdP−d(PV )

Whence,

dW =VdP−d ( PV ) → integrating→W =∫ VdP−∆ (PV )

The first law of thermodynamics for a closed system is:

dU =dQ+dW (Eq .2.4)

dU =dQ+dW →dU =dQ+VdP−d(PV )

The enthalpy is defined as:

H=U +PV ( Eq .2.11 )

Differentiating

dH=dU +d ( PV ) → solving for dU →dU=dH−d(PV )

Combining the two expressions for internal energy

dU =dH−d ( PV ) ↔dU =dQ+VdP−d(PV )

dH−d ( PV )=dQ+VdP−d ( PV ) → solving for dQ →dQ=dH −VdP→ Q=∆ H −∫ VdP

2.36. Problem 36
One kilogram of air is heated reversibly at constant pressure from an initial
state of 300 K and 1 bar until its volume triples. Calculate W, Q, ΔU, and ΔH for
the process. Assume for air that PV/T = 83.14 bar-cm3/mol-K and Cp = 29
J/mol-K.

Solution

The initial molar volume is

 3
cm
1 ¯¿ =24942
mol
¯ 300 K ∙83.14
cm 3 ∙ ¿ →V 1=
mol ∙ K ¿
P1V 1
=83.14 ¿
T1

Average molecular weight of air: 28∙0.79+32∙0.21=28,84 gr/mol

Total moles of air: 1000 gr 1mol

1 kg ∙ ∙ =34,67 mol
1 kg 28,84 gr
Calculate final temperature

P1 V 1 P2 V 2 P2 V 2 V2
= → solving for T 2 →T 2=T 1 → constant P →T 2=T 1 →V 2=3 V 1
T1 T2 P1 V 1 V1

3V1
T 2 =T 1 → T 2=3T 1 → 900 K
V1
Recall that for a constant pressure process, equation 2.22 can be applied

T2
J J
∆ H=∫ C p dT → ∆ H=C p ∆ T → ∆ H=29 ∙ ( 900 K −300 K )=17400
T1
mol ∙ K mol
Heat for a constant pressure process is expressed as:

Q=n ∆ H →Q=34,67 mol∙17400J /mol→Q=603328,71J

Work for a constant pressure process is expressed as:

W=−nP ∆V → W=−nP ( 3V 1−V 1 ) →W =−n2P V 1

3 3
cm 1m
W=−34,67 mol ∙ 2 ∙100000 Pa∙ 24924 ∙ =−172843,27 J
mol 1003 cm 3

By eq. 2.3.
J
n ∆ U =Q+W →n ∆U =603328,71−172843,27 → ∆ U=12415,2
mol
 2.37. Problem 37
The conditions of a gas change in a steady-flow process from 293.15 K (20°C)
and 1000 kPa to 333.15 K (60°C) and 100 kPa. Devise a reversible non-flow
process (any number of steps) for accomplishing this change of state, and
calculate ΔU and ΔH for the process on the basis of 1 mol of gas. Assume for
the gas that PV/T is constant, Cv = (5/2)R, and Cp = (7/2)R.

Solution

This problem can be solved in different ways, the choice of steps is totally
arbitrary. However the final change of internal energy and enthalpy must be
the same. The chosen steps are:
(a) Heat at constant pressure – V2
(b) Cool at constant volume – P2

Recall

PV m3 ∙ Pa
=R → 8,314
T mol ∙ K
Calculate initial volume

Pi V i R ∙T i 8,314 ∙ 293.15 K
=R →V f = →V f = →V f =0,00243 m3 /mol
Ti Pi 1000000 Pa
Calculate final volume

Pf V f R ∙ Tf 8,314 ∙ 333.15 K 3
=R → V f = →V f = →V f =0,02769 m /mol
Tf Pf 100000 Pa

(a) Step 1-2 / constant pressure

Known data
P1=1000 kPa P2=1000 kPa
T 1 =293.15 K
3 3
V 1=0,00243 m /mol V 2=0,02769 m /mol

Calculate T2
P2 V 2 P2V 2 3
1000000 Pa∙ 0,02769 m /mol
=R →T 2= → T 2= 3
→ T 2=3331,5 K
T2 R 8,314 m ∙ Pa/mol ∙ K
Calculate ΔH
 7
7
J
(
(¿¿ 2) 8,314
mol ∙ K )
∙ ( 3331.5−293,15 )

(¿¿ 2)R ∆T → ∆ H =¿
∆ H=C p ∆ T → ∆ H=¿

∆ H=88412,94 J /mol
Calculate ΔU
3
J m
∆ U =∆ H−P ∆ V → ∆ U=88412,94 −1000000 Pa ∙ ( 0,02769−0,00243 )
mol mol
∆ U =63152,10J /mol
(a) Step 2-3 / constant volume
Known data
P2=1000 kPa P3=100 kPa
T 2 =3331.5 K T 3=333.15 K
3 3
V 2=0,02769 m /mol V 3=0,02769 m /mol

Calculate ΔU

5 J J
∆ U =C v ∆ T → ∆ U = ∙ 8,314 ∙ ( 333.15−3331.5 ) K → ∆ U=−62355
2 mol ∙ K mol
Calculate ΔH

J m3
∆ H=∆ U +V ∆ P → ∆ H =−62355 +0,02769 ∙(100000 Pa−1000000 Pa)
mol mol
∆ H=−87283,28 J/mol

Calculate total ΔU and ΔH

∆ H=∆ H 12+∆ H 23=88412,94−87283,28=1129,66 J /mol

∆ U =∆ U 12 +∆ U 23=63152,1−62355=797,10 J/mol