College of Engineering Education

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Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO
College of Engineering Education
Computer Engineering Program

Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged

Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for

Self-Directed Learning (SDL)

Course/Subject: CEE 102/L: PHYSICS 1 FOR ENGINEERS

Name of Teacher: Engr. MARIANNE G. WATA

Co-Authors: Engr. MA. ANGELA I. ESTELLA

Engr. CRIJAMAICA L. OCEÑA
Engr. ALFONSE IRENEO T. ESTIBAL
Engr. JAMES MARK P. GALLAWAN
Engr. JAY CARLO S. AGUILAR
Engr. JAMES MARK GALLAWAN
Engr. RONNEL ESPARAGOZA
Engr. DANIELYN PLAZOS
Engr. NORRODIN MELOG

THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY; NOT FOR REPRODUCTION AND
DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE OF ITS INTENDED USE. THIS IS INTENDED ONLY FOR THE USE OF
THE STUDENTS WHO ARE OFFICIALLY ENROLLED IN THE COURSE/SUBJECT.EXPECT
REVISIONS OF THE MANUAL.
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Telefax: (082) 296-1084
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Table of Contents

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1b ............................................................................................................ 3

Metalanguage ......................................................................................................................................... 3
Essential Knowledge ............................................................................................................................... 3
Keywords ................................................................................................................................................ 3
Position, Distance, and Displacement ................................................................................................ 3
Speed and Velocity ............................................................................................................................. 5
Acceleration ........................................................................................................................................ 7
Free Falling Objects........................................................................................................................... 13
Projectile Motion .............................................................................................................................. 18
Self-Help................................................................................................................................................ 21
Let’s Check ............................................................................................................................................ 22
Let’s Analyze ......................................................................................................................................... 26
In a Nutshell .......................................................................................................................................... 28
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Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1b. Recall and apply the principles of motion and
kinematics

Metalanguage
This section focuses on motion in one and two dimensions without considering
external influences that may cause or affect the motion. Demonstrating ULOb means
understanding motion including the concepts of displacement, velocity, and acceleration.
You will go through the following formulas as the fundamentals of rectilinear motion and
kinematics:

Displacement: ∆𝒙 = 𝒙𝒇 − 𝒙𝒊
Average velocity: ∆𝒙 𝒙𝒇 − 𝒙𝒊
̅𝒂𝒗𝒆 =
𝒗 =
∆𝒕 𝒕𝒇 − 𝒕𝒊
Particle at constant velocity: 𝒙𝒇 = 𝒙𝒊 + 𝒗 ∆𝒕
Average acceleration:
∆𝒗 𝒗𝒇 − 𝒗𝒊
𝒂𝒂𝒗𝒆 = =
∆𝒕 𝒕𝒇 − 𝒕𝒊
Particle at constant 𝒗𝒇 = 𝒗𝒊 + 𝒂 𝒕
acceleration: 𝟏
𝒙𝒇 = 𝒙𝒊 + (𝒗𝒊 + 𝒗𝒇 )(𝒕)
𝟐
𝟏
𝒙𝒇 = 𝒙𝒊 + (𝒗𝒊 )(𝒕) + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝒗𝒇 = 𝒗𝒊 + 𝟐𝒂(𝒙𝒇 − 𝒙𝒊 )

Essential Knowledge
. The motion of an object represents a continuous change in an object’s position.
Kinematics describes motion without regard to its causes. Motion involves the change in
position from one place in space and time to another and can be either scalar or vector. The
object’s position, distance, and speed are scalar quantities, while displacement, velocity, and
acceleration are vectors. These terms and concepts are the key principles in the analysis of
motion.

Keywords
Distance Speed acceleration trajectory
Displacement Velocity Free-fall Component vectors

Position, Distance, and Displacement

Describing motion requires a coordinate system and a specified origin. The position is the
location of the particle from a chosen reference point that we can consider to be the origin
of a coordinate system.
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Consider the movement of a car shown in Fig. 4. The reference point is x=0 and the car’s
initial position is at 30 m to the right of the origin. Let us define to the right of the origin as
the positive distance and negative distance to the left. For every ten seconds, the car moves
from one point to another. The car moves back and forth along a straight line from point A
to F.

Fig. 4

Table 1.5. Position of the car at time t

Position t (s) x (m)
A 0 30
B 10 52
C 20 38
D 30 0
E 40 -37
F 50 -53

Table 1.5 shows a tabular representation of the recorded data of the car’s change of position
with respect to time. Distance is the length of a path followed by a particle. It is the total
amount of space that the particle covered during its motion. The data suggest that the car
has a total travel distance of 127 m. Since we only have the idea of the magnitude of motion
but not its direction, then distance is scalar and is always represented as a positive number.

Displacement ∆𝑥 of a particle is defined as its change in position in some time interval. As

the particle moves from an initial position 𝑥𝑖 to a final position 𝑥𝑓 , its displacement is given
by
∆𝒙 = 𝒙𝒇 − 𝒙𝒊
Displacement is a vector quantity and can be either positive or negative. It is a quantity that
describes how far out of place the particle is. In our example, the initial position is at 30 m
and the final position is at -53 m, if we solve for the displacement
∆𝑥 = (−53) − (30) = −𝟖𝟑 𝒎
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Meaning, the car is displaced to 83 m from its initial position and the negative sign indicates
that the final position is to the left of the initial position. This is a clear example of a vector
quantity that has both the magnitude and direction of motion. If the object’s initial and final
position is the same, then it is not displaced at all (∆𝑥 = 0).

Speed and Velocity

We hear the terms speed and velocity often interchangeable. However, in physics, the two
are defined distinctly.

The average speed denoted as 𝑣, of an object over a given time interval is the length of the
path it travels divided by the total elapsed time:
𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒉 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝒗𝒂𝒗𝒆 = =
𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒑𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
By dimension analysis, distance is in meters and time in seconds, thus giving the SI standard
unit for speed as meters per second (m/s). Average speed is a scalar quantity that describes
how fast is the motion regardless of any variation in speed over the given time interval.

On the other hand, the average velocity denoted as 𝑣̅ , during a time interval ∆𝑡 is the
displacement ∆𝑥 divided by ∆𝑡:
∆𝒙 𝒙𝒇 − 𝒙𝒊
̅𝒂𝒗𝒆 =
𝒗 =
∆𝒕 𝒕𝒇 − 𝒕𝒊
The SI standard unity for velocity is also meters per second (m/s). Average velocity is a
vector quantity having both the magnitude and a direction, which can also be a positive or
negative value.

From the same example of Fig. 4, we compare the average speed and average velocity:
𝑑 127 𝑚 𝒎
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = = 𝟐. 𝟓
𝑡 50 𝑠 𝒔
∆𝑥 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 −53𝑚 − 30𝑚 𝒎
𝑣̅𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = = = −𝟏. 𝟕
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 50𝑠 − 0𝑠 𝒔
See the difference between speed and velocity?
To further illustrate the difference between speed and velocity. A man walks from point P
to Q, given two scenarios of the same starting position and final position over the same time
interval. First, he walks directly straight down the path. Second, he walks following the
curved path. The first and second walks have the same average velocity since 𝑥𝑓 , 𝑥𝑖 , and
time intervals are the same for both scenarios. However, the average speed of scenario 2 is
greater than in scenario 1 because the length of the path traveled by the curved route is
larger than the straightforward route.

Fig. 5
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Instantaneous Velocity

Consider the car in Fig. 4, the data in Table 1.5 shows the car’s position at a given time,
however, it doesn’t take into account the details of what happens during an interval of time.
The car may speed up or slow down between any given points along the path, the data
doesn’t show that.

Instantaneous velocity describes the speed and direction of a particle in motion at an instant
of time. It is the actual velocity at specific instants of time. Mathematically, instantaneous
velocity 𝑣 is the limit of the average velocity as the time interval ∆𝑡 becomes infinitesimally
small:

∆𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒗 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕 𝒅𝒕
The SI standard unit for instantaneous velocity is meters per second (m/s). Graphically, the
instantaneous velocity is the slope of the tangent line to the position 𝑥 at a given time. Notice
that the definition is the same as the derivative of a function, and therefore, the
instantaneous velocity is the first derivative of the displacement with respect to time. The
magnitude of the instantaneous velocity is called instantaneous speed.

Example 1:

A particle moves along the x-axis. Its position varies with time according to the expression
𝑥(𝑡) = −4𝑡 + 2𝑡 2 , where x is in meters, and t is in seconds.

a. Determine the displacement of the particle in the time intervals 𝑡 = 0 to 𝑡 = 1𝑠, and 𝑡 =
1 to 𝑡 = 3𝑠.

Since the given position is a function in terms of time, you need to substitute the given
time to the function to get its position at the said time.
𝑥(𝑡) = −4𝑡 + 2𝑡 2
For t = 0 to t = 1s: For t = 1 to t = 3s:
𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥(0) = 0 𝑚 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥(1) = −2 𝑚
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥(1) = −2 𝑚 𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥(3) = 6 𝑚
The displacement is,
∆𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 = (−2) − 0 = −𝟐 𝒎 ∆𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 = (6) − (−2) = +𝟖 𝒎

b. Calculate the average velocity during these two time intervals.

For t = 0 to t = 1s: For t = 1 to t = 3s:
∆𝑥 = −2𝑚 ∆𝑥 = +8 𝑚
∆𝑥 −2𝑚 𝒎 ∆𝑥 8𝑚 𝒎
𝑣̅𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = = −𝟐 𝑣̅𝑎𝑣𝑒 = ∆𝑡 = 3−1 𝑠 = +𝟒 𝒔
∆𝑡 1−0 𝑠 𝒔

c. Find the instantaneous velocity at t = 2.5s.

𝑥(𝑡) = −4𝑡 + 2𝑡 2
𝑑𝑥
= −4 + 4𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝒎
at t = 2.5s 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡 = −4 + 4(2.5) = +𝟔 𝒔
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Particle Under Constant Velocity

If the velocity of a particle is constant, its instantaneous velocity at any instant during a time
interval is the same as the average velocity over the interval. That is,
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒
∆𝑥
𝑣=
∆𝑡
𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖
𝑣=
∆𝑡
Therefore, 𝒙𝒇 = 𝒙𝒊 + 𝒗 ∆𝒕 (for constant velocity)
This equation is the position as a function of time for the particle under a constant velocity
model.
Example 2:
Ana determines the velocity of an experimental subject while he runs along a straight line
at a constant rate. She starts the stopwatch at the moment the runner passes a given point
and stops it after the runner has passed another point 20 m away. The time interval
indicated on the stopwatch is 4.0 s.
a. What is the runner’s velocity?
The runner starts from rest, hence, 𝑡𝑖 = 0 𝑠 and 𝑥𝑖 = 0 𝑚. So that the velocity is,
∆𝑥 20 − 0 𝑚 𝒎
𝑣= = = +𝟓. 𝟎
∆𝑡 4−0𝑠 𝒔
b. If the runner continues his motion after the stopwatch is stopped, what is his position
after 10 s have passed?
Note the key phrase of the problem which is ‘runs along at a constant rate’, meaning,
the particle is moving at a constant velocity. Therefore, using the velocity obtained in (a)
the final position is

𝑚
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣 ∆𝑡 = (0 𝑚) + (5 ) (10 − 0 𝑠) = 𝟓𝟎 𝒎
𝑠
Acceleration

Acceleration is defined as the change in velocity over a given time. That happens when you
step harder on the gas pedal or slow down as you turn to another direction or step on the
brakes to slow down.

The average acceleration 𝑎 during the time interval ∆𝑡 is the change in velocity ∆𝑣 divided
by ∆𝑡.

∆𝒗 𝒗𝒇 − 𝒗𝒊
𝒂𝒂𝒗𝒆 = =
∆𝒕 𝒕𝒇 − 𝒕𝒊
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If an object is moving at a constant velocity (𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 ), then the acceleration is zero. By

dimension analysis to obtain the SI standard unit for acceleration, we have
𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝒎
𝑎= = 𝟐
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝒔
Acceleration is a vector quantity, however, negative acceleration doesn’t necessarily mean
an object is slowing down. For the case of motion in a straight line, the direction of the
velocity of an object and the direction of its acceleration are related as follows: When the
object’s velocity and acceleration are in the same direction, the speed of the object increases
with time. When the object’s velocity and acceleration are in opposite directions, the speed
of the object decreases with time. Positive and negative accelerations specify directions
relative to chosen axes, not “speeding up” or “slowing down.” The terms speeding up or
slowing down refer to an increase and a decrease in speed, respectively.

Instantaneous Acceleration

Like the instantaneous velocity, instantaneous acceleration is defined at a certain instant of

time. The instantaneous acceleration 𝑎 is the limit of the average acceleration as the time
interval ∆𝑡 approaches to zero:

∆𝒗
𝒂 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕

𝑚
The standard SI unit for instantaneous acceleration is also 𝑠2 . Since instantaneous
acceleration is the change in velocity over a given time, we can say that

𝒅𝒗 𝒅𝟐 𝒙
𝒂= =
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕𝟐
That is, in one-dimensional motion, the acceleration equals the second derivative of x with
respect to time.

Example 3

The velocity of a particle moving along the x-axis varies according to the expression 𝑣 =
40 − 5𝑡 2 m/s.
a. Find the average acceleration in the time interval t = 0 to t = 2.0 s.

Since the given velocity is a function in terms of time, you need to substitute the given
time to the function to get its velocity at the said time.
𝑣(𝑡) = 40 − 5𝑡 2
For t = 0 to t = 2 s: 𝑚 𝑚
𝑣 − 𝑣 20 𝑠 − 40 𝑠
𝑚 𝑎=
𝑓 𝑖
= = −𝟏𝟎 𝒎/𝒔𝟐
𝑣𝑖 = 𝑣(0) = 40 𝑡 − 𝑡 2 𝑠 − 0 𝑠
𝑠 𝑓 𝑖
𝑚
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣(2) = 20
𝑠
The average acceleration is,
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b. Determine the acceleration at t = 2.0s.

𝑑𝑣 𝑑
𝑎= = (40 − 5𝑡 2 ) = −10𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝒎
at t = 2.0s 𝑎 = −(2.0)2 = −𝟐𝟎 𝒔

Because the velocity of the particle is positive and the acceleration is negative at this
instant, the particle is slowing down.

Particle Under Constant Acceleration

When the acceleration is constant, the average acceleration is over any time interval is
numerically equal to the instantaneous acceleration at any instant within the interval.

𝑎 = 𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑒

∆𝑣
𝑎=
∆𝑡
𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖
𝑎=
𝑡
Therefore, 𝒗𝒇 = 𝒗𝒊 + 𝒂 𝒕 (for constant acceleration)

This equation enables us to determine an object’s velocity at any time t if we know the
object’s initial velocity and its (constant) acceleration. Also, the average velocity at
constant acceleration can be described as
𝒗𝒊 +𝒗𝒇
𝒗𝒂𝒗𝒆 = (for constant acceleration)
𝟐

Now we can derive an equation that describes the position as a function of velocity and
time for the particle under constant acceleration model by equating the two average
velocity formulas. This formula helps solve the object’s position without knowing the
magnitude of its acceleration. (As long as acceleration is constant!)
∆𝑥 𝑣𝑖 +𝑣𝑓
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 = and 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
∆𝑡 2

∆𝑥 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓
=
∆𝑡 2
𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 1
= (𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓 )
𝑡−0 2
𝟏
𝒙𝒇 = 𝒙𝒊 + 𝟐 (𝒗𝒊 + 𝒗𝒇 )(𝒕) (for constant acceleration)
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Another formula can be also derived to obtain an equation that describes the position as
a function of time for the particle under constant acceleration model. This equation
provides the final position of the particle at time t in terms of the initial position, the initial
velocity, and the constant acceleration.

1
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + (𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓 )(𝑡)
2
Since 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎 𝑡

1
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + [𝑣𝑖 + (𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎 𝑡)](𝑡)
2
𝟏
𝒙𝒇 = 𝒙𝒊 + (𝒗𝒊 )(𝒕) + 𝟐 𝒂𝒕𝟐 (for constant acceleration)

Finally, we can obtain an expression for the final velocity that does not contain time as a
variable. This equation provides the final velocity in terms of the initial velocity, the
constant acceleration, and the position of the particle.

We get an equation of 𝑡 from 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎 𝑡

𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖
𝑡=
𝑎
1
And substitute this equation 𝑡 to 𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + (𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓 )(𝑡)
2

1 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + (𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓 )( )
2 𝑎
𝑣𝑓2 − 𝑣𝑖2
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 +
2𝑎

𝒗𝟐𝒇 = 𝒗𝟐𝒊 + 𝟐𝒂(𝒙𝒇 − 𝒙𝒊 ) (for constant acceleration)

Remember that these equations of kinematics cannot be used in a situation in which the
acceleration varies with time. They can be used only when the acceleration is constant.
The equations may be used to solve any constant acceleration problem but the choice of
which equation you use in a given situation depends on what you know beforehand. One
formula is better or easier than the other depending on the given.

If you notice, these three rectilinear equations are the key to the other formulas. (Tip:
Understand the derivation of the formulas so you don’t need to memorize them all.)

𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎 𝑡

𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
2
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𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
𝑡
Example 1

A jet lands on an aircraft carrier at a speed of 140 mi/h (≈ 63 m/s).

a. What is its acceleration (assumed constant) if it stops in 2.0 s due to an arresting cable
that snags the jet and brings it to a stop?

First, examine the given. You are given the jet’s initial speed that is 63 m/s,
constant acceleration, time of 2.0 s, and final speed that is 0 m/s (because it
stopped). Out of the given, your goal is to solve the magnitude of its acceleration.
Therefore, you use the formula that has speed, acceleration, and time:
𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖
𝑎=
𝑡
𝑚 𝑚
0 𝑠 − 63 𝑠 𝒎
𝑎= = −𝟑𝟐 𝟐
2.0 𝑠 𝒔
b. If the jet touches down at position 𝑥𝑖 = 0, what is its final position?

Now you are given an initial position of 0 m and asked to solve its final position.
Using the same parameters as (a), you’re going to use a formula that describes the
jet’s position in terms of speed and time.

1
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + (𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓 )(𝑡)
2
1 𝑚 𝑚
𝑥𝑓 = 0 𝑚 + (63 + 0 ) (2.0) = 𝟔𝟑 𝒎
2 𝑠 𝑠
1
Another formula can be used is 𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + (𝑣𝑖 )(𝑡) + 2 𝑎𝑡 2 if you are sure of the
acceleration obtained in (a), this will give you the same answer of 63 m. Again, you
can use any of the formulas above as long as the particle is moving at constant
acceleration. The choice depends on the parameters given.

Example 2

A car traveling at a constant speed of 45.0 m/s passes a trooper on a motorcycle hidden
behind a billboard. One second after the speeding car passes the billboard, the trooper
sets out from the billboard to catch the car, accelerating at a constant rate of 3.00 m/s2.
How long does it take the trooper to overtake the car?

A pictorial representation is shown in Fig. 6 to better understand the problem,

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Fig. 6

First, examine the given.

Car: Trooper:
𝑚
𝑣 = 45.0 𝑠 𝑥𝑖 = 0 𝑚
𝑚
𝑣𝑖 45.0
𝑚 constant acceleration, 𝑎 = 3.00 𝑠2
𝑠
𝑥𝑖 = = = 45.0 𝑚
𝑡 1.00 𝑠
𝑚
constant speed, 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑣𝑓 , 𝑎 = 0 𝑠2

If you notice trooper’s initial position is set as the reference point and since the car
started ahead of 1 s, the initial position for the car is 45.0 𝑚. You are then asked to
solve the final time at which the trooper overtakes the car. That is the time when
𝑥𝑓(𝑐𝑎𝑟) = 𝑥𝑓(𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟) . With all the given values, identify the suited formula to use.
𝑥𝑓(𝑐𝑎𝑟) = 𝑥𝑓(𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟)
1 1
𝑥𝑖 + (𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓 )(𝑡) = 𝑥𝑖 + (𝑣𝑖 )(𝑡) + 𝑎𝑡 2
2 2
1 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 1 𝑚
45.0 𝑚 + (45.0 + 45.0 ) (𝑡) = 0 𝑚 + (0 ) (1 𝑠) + (3.00 2 )(𝑡)2
2 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 2 𝑠
𝑚 𝑚
45.0 𝑚 + (45.0 ) 𝑡 = (1.50 2 ) 𝑡 2
𝑠 𝑠
𝑚 𝑚
(1.50 2 ) 𝑡 2 − (45.0 ) 𝑡 − 45.0𝑚 = 0
𝑠 𝑠
Solving the quadratic equation would give you,
𝒕 = 𝟑𝟎. 𝟗 𝒔 and 𝑡 = −0.96 𝑠 (𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑑)

Example 3

A typical jetliner lands at a speed of 1.60 x102 mi/h and decelerates at the rate of
𝑚𝑖/ℎ𝑟
10.0 𝑠 . If the plane travels at a constant speed of 1.60 x102 mi/h for 1.00 s after landing
before applying the brakes, what is the total displacement of the aircraft between
touchdown on the runway and coming to rest?
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Notice the inconsistencies of the units, thus the need for unit conversion.
𝑚𝑖 1609 𝑚 1 ℎ𝑟 𝑚
𝑣𝑖 = (1.60 𝑥102 ) ( )( ) = 71.5
ℎ𝑟 1 𝑚𝑖 3600 𝑠 𝑠
𝑚𝑖
1609 𝑚 1 ℎ𝑟 𝑚
𝑎 = (−10.0 ℎ𝑟 ) ( )( ) = −4.46 2
𝑠 1 𝑚𝑖 3600 𝑠 𝑠

A picture representation is shown in Fig. 7, to better understand the problem. You

are asked to solve for the final displacement of the jet as it comes to rest. Meaning,
𝑚
𝑥𝑓 at 𝑣𝑓 = 0 𝑠 .

`
Fig. 7
During coating, the jet is at constant velocity thus acceleration is zero for 1 s. At
braking distance, the jet decelerates to stop thus a negative acceleration and zero
final velocity. You have to realize that the final position at coasting is the initial
position at braking.
𝑥𝑓(𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔) = 𝑥𝑖(𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔)
1
𝑥𝑓(𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔) = 𝑥𝑖 + (𝑣𝑖 )(𝑡) + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
𝑚 1 𝑚
𝑥𝑖(𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔) = 𝑥𝑓(𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔) = 0 𝑚 + (71.5 ) (1.00 𝑠) + (0 2 ) (1.00 𝑠) = 𝟕𝟏. 𝟓 𝒎
𝑠 2 𝑠
Use the obtained value to solve the final position as it brakes to stop.

𝑣𝑓2 = 𝑣𝑥2 + 2𝑎(𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 )

𝑚 2 𝑚 2 𝑚
(0 ) = (71.5 ) + 2(−4.47 2 )(𝑥𝑓 − 71.5 𝑚)
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
Solving for the final position we get, 𝒙𝒇 = 𝟔𝟒𝟑 𝒎

Free Falling Objects

You might already hear about an experiment of simultaneously dropping a coin and a
feather from the same height. Neglecting the effects of air resistance, both will hit the
floor at the same time. In the idealized case, in which air resistance is absent, such motion
is referred to as free-fall motion. This behavior of free-falling objects was introduced by
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Galileo Galilei. A freely falling object is any object moving freely under the influence of
gravity alone, regardless of its initial motion.

Free-falling objects experience acceleration due to gravity. Earth’s gravity denoted as 𝑔

is approximately 9.80 m/s2 and which will be used throughout this module. Freely falling
objects moving vertically is equivalent to the motion of a particle under constant
acceleration in one dimension. Therefore, the formulas introduced before for particle
under constant acceleration can also be used in free-fall analysis. The only difference is
that, since free-falling objects fall under constant acceleration due to gravity, we then use
𝑎 = 𝑔 = −9.80 𝑚/𝑠 2 . The negative sign indicates the direction of fall which is
downwards. (Also, we’re going to use variable 𝑦 for the position to indicate vertical
distance.)

Example 1
A ball is thrown from the top of a building with an initial velocity of 20.0 m/s straight
upward, at an initial height of 50.0 m above the ground. The ball just misses the edge of
the roof on its way down, as shown in Fig. 8 and determine the following:
a. the time needed for the ball to reach its maximum height.
b. the maximum height.
c. the time needed for the ball to return to the height from which it was thrown and the
velocity of the ball at that instant,
d. the time needed for the ball to reach the ground
e. the velocity and position of the ball at t = 5.00 s.
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a. At maximum height, the velocity is always zero.

Examine between points A and B,
𝑣𝐵 = 𝑣𝐴 + 𝑔 𝑡
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
0 = 20.0 + (−9.80 2 )(𝑡)
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝒕 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟒 𝒔

b. Using the time obtained in (a),

1
𝑦𝐵 = 𝑦𝐴 + 𝑣𝐴 𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 2
2
𝑚
𝑦𝐵 = 0 𝑚 + (20.0 )(2.04 𝑠)
𝑠
1 𝑚
+ (−9.80 )(2.04 𝑠)2
2 𝑠
𝒚𝑩 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟒 𝒎

c. Examine between points A to C,

1
𝑦𝐶 = 𝑦𝐴 + 𝑣𝐴 𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 2
2
𝑚 1 𝑚
0 𝑚 = 0 𝑚 + (20.0 ) (𝑡) + (−9.80 2 )(𝑡)2
𝑠 2 𝑠
𝒕 = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟖 𝒔

𝑣𝐶 = 𝑣𝐴 + 𝑔 𝑡
𝑚 𝑚
𝑣𝐶 = 20.0 𝑠 + (−9.80 𝑠2 ) (4.08 𝑠)
𝒎
𝒗𝒄 = −𝟏𝟗. 𝟗𝟖
𝒔

d. Examine between points A to E,

1
𝑦𝐸 = 𝑦𝐴 + 𝑣𝐴 𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 2
2
𝑚 1 𝑚
−50.0 𝑚 = 0 𝑚 + (20.0 ) (𝑡) + (−9.80 2 ) (𝑡 2 )
𝑠 2 𝑠
𝒕 = 𝟓. 𝟖𝟑 𝒔
e. at t = 5.00 s
𝑚 𝑚 𝒎
+ (−9.80 2 ) (5.00𝑠) = −𝟐𝟗. 𝟎
𝑣 = 𝑣𝐴 + 𝑔𝑡 = 20.0
𝑠 𝑠 𝒔
1 2 𝑚 1 𝑚
𝑥 = 𝑥𝐴 + 𝑣𝐴 𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 = 0 𝑚 + (20.0 ) (5.00 𝑠) + (−9.80 2 ) (5.00 𝑠)2 = −𝟐𝟐. 𝟓 𝒎
2 𝑠 2 𝑠
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Example 2
A rocket moves straight upward, starting from rest with an acceleration of +29.4 m/s2. It
runs out of fuel at the end of 4.00 s and continues to coast upward, reaching a maximum
height before falling back to Earth.
a. Find the rocket’s velocity and position at the end of 4.00 s.
The rocket starts with an acceleration of +29.4 m/s2 then the fuel runs out at
t=4.00s.
𝑚 𝑚 𝒎
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑔𝑡 = 0 + (29.4 2 ) (4.00𝑠) = 𝟏𝟏𝟖
𝑠 𝑠 𝒔
1 𝑚 1 𝑚
𝑦𝑓 = 𝑦𝑖 + 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 2 = 0𝑚 + (0 ) (4.00 𝑠) + (29.4 2 ) (4.00𝑠)2 = 𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝒎
2 𝑠 2 𝑠
b. Find the maximum height the rocket reaches.

At maximum height 𝑣𝑓 = 0.

𝑣𝑓2 = 𝑣12 + 2𝑔(𝑦𝑓 − 𝑦𝑖 )

𝑚 2 𝑚
0 = (118 ) + 2(−9.80 2 )(𝑦𝑓 − 235 𝑚)
𝑠 𝑠
𝒚𝒇 = 𝟗𝟒𝟓 𝒎

c. Find the velocity the instant before the rocket crashes on the ground.

𝑣𝑓2 = 𝑣12 + 2𝑔(𝑦𝑓 − 𝑦𝑖 )

𝑚
𝑣𝑓2 = 0 𝑚 + 2(−9.80 )(0 − 945 𝑚)
𝑠2
𝒎
𝒗𝒇 = ±𝟏𝟑𝟔
𝒔
Taking the negative sign to indicate the direction of going down.

Motion in Two-Dimensions

This section includes the study of particles moving in both the x- and y- direction
simultaneously under constant acceleration. Generally, motion in two dimensions can be
modeled as two independent motions in each of the two perpendicular directions
associated with the x and y axes. That is, any influence in the y-direction does not affect
the motion in the x-direction and vice versa. The component vectors learned from ULOa
is now applied.

The position vector for a particle moving in the xy plane can be written as
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𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝒊 + 𝑦𝒋

If the position vector is known, the velocity of the particle can be written as

𝑑𝑟⃗ 𝑑𝑥⃗ 𝑑𝑦⃗

𝑣⃗ = = 𝒊+ 𝒋 = 𝒗𝒙 𝒊 + 𝒗𝒚 𝒋
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Example 1

A particle moves in the XY plane, starting from the origin at t = 0s with an initial velocity
having an x component of 20 m/s and a y component of –15 m/s. The particle experiences
an acceleration in the x-direction, given by 𝑎𝑥 = 4.0 𝑚/𝑠 2 .
a. Determine the total velocity vector at any time.
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
To begin with, let us identify the given. 𝑣𝑥𝑖 = 20 𝑠 , 𝑣𝑦𝑖 = −15 𝑠 , 𝑎𝑥 = 4.0 𝑠2 ,
𝑚
𝑎𝑦 = 0 𝑠 2 And substitute the given to the vector components,
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎⃗𝑡 = (𝑣𝑥𝑖 + 𝑎𝑥𝑖 𝑡)𝒊 + (𝑣𝑦𝑖 + 𝑎𝑦𝑖 𝑡)𝒋 = (20
𝑣𝑓 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 4.0 2 𝑡) 𝒊 + (−15 + 0 2 ) 𝒋
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝒗𝒇 = [(𝟐𝟎 + 𝟒. 𝟎𝒕)𝒊 + (−𝟏𝟓)𝒋]
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
b. Calculate the velocity and speed of the particle at t = 5.0 s and the angle the velocity
vector makes with the x-axis.
Substitute the given time to the velocity vector obtained in (a),
𝒎
𝑣𝑓 = [(20 + 4.0𝑡)𝒊 + (−15)𝒋] = [(20 + (4.0)(5.0))𝒊 + (−15)𝒋] = [𝟒𝟎𝒊 − 𝟏𝟓 𝒋]
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒔
Remember that the speed is the magnitude of the velocity,
2 2
𝒎
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑓 = |𝑣 𝑓 = √40 + (−15) = 𝟒𝟑
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
𝒔
𝑚
𝑣𝑓𝑦 −15 𝑠
tan 𝜃 = = 𝑚
𝒗𝒇𝒙 40 𝑠

𝟏𝟓
𝜽 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 (− ) = −𝟐𝟏°
𝟒𝟎
c. Determine the x and y coordinates of the particle at any time t and its position vector
at this time.
1 2 𝑚 1 𝑚
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 = 0 𝑚 + 20 𝑡 + (4.0 2 ) (𝑡 2 ) = 20𝑡 + 2.0𝑡 2
2 𝑠 2 𝑠
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1 2 𝑚 1 𝑚
𝑦𝑓 = 𝑦𝑖 + 𝑣𝑦𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 = 0 𝑚 + (−15 ) 𝑡 + (0 2 ) (𝑡 2 ) = −15𝑡
2 𝑠 2 𝑠

Thus, 𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑓 = 𝑥𝑓 𝒊 + 𝑦𝑓 𝒋 = (𝟐𝟎𝒕 + 𝟐. 𝟎𝒕𝟐 )𝒊 + (−𝟏𝟓𝒕)𝒋

Projectile Motion

Analysis in projectile motion requires the following assumptions:

1. the free-fall acceleration is constant over the range of motion and is directed
downward
2. the effect of air resistance is negligible
Fig. 9 shows the trajectory and the component vectors of projectile motion. The curved
path of the motion is called the trajectory. The most important experimental fact about
projectile motion in two dimensions is that the horizontal and vertical motions are
completely independent of each other. In general, the equations of constant acceleration
developed earlier follow separately for both the x-direction and the y-direction. Also, the
y-component of velocity is zero at the highest point of the trajectory and notice how the
x-component of velocity remains constant. (In this context, 𝑣0 is the same as 𝑣𝑖 .)

Fig. 9
If the velocity vector makes an angle 𝜃 with the horizontal, where 𝜃 is called the
projection angle, then from the definitions of the cosine and sine functions and Fig. 9, we
have,
𝒗𝒙𝒊 = 𝒗𝒊 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 and 𝒗𝒚𝒊 = 𝒗𝒊 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
The same is true for the equations we had earlier about particle under constant velocity
and acceleration, that we obtain the following for a two-dimensional case:
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In the x-direction: In the y-direction:

𝒗𝒙 = 𝒗𝒙𝒊 + 𝒂𝒙 𝒕 𝒗𝒚 = 𝒗𝒚𝒊 + 𝒈𝒕
𝟏 𝟏
𝒙𝒇 = 𝒙𝒊 + 𝒗𝒙𝒊 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒙 𝒕𝟐 𝒚𝒇 = 𝒚𝒊 + 𝒗𝒚𝒊 𝒕 + 𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝒗𝟐𝒙 = 𝒗𝟐𝒙𝒊 + 𝟐𝒂𝒙 (𝒙𝒇 − 𝒙𝒊 ) 𝒗𝟐𝒚 = 𝒗𝟐𝒚𝒊 + 𝟐𝒈(𝒚𝒇 − 𝒚𝒊 )

The object’s velocity vector is written as 𝒗

⃗⃗ = 𝒗𝒙 𝒊 + 𝒗𝒚 𝒋. The speed is the magnitude of the
vector and is solved using the Pythagorean theorem:

|𝒗| = √𝒗𝟐𝒙 + 𝒗𝟐𝒚

And the projection angle is the included angle of the component vectors:
𝒗𝒚
𝜽 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 ( )
𝒗𝒙
An important fact in projectile motion is that the acceleration of the x-component of the
motion is always zero (𝑎𝑥 = 0 𝑚/𝑠 2 ) to which if substituted to the above formulas for the
x-direction, would give you 𝒗𝒙 = 𝒗𝒙𝒊 . That is why the x-component velocity remains
constant.
Example 1
An Alaskan rescue plane drops a package of emergency rations to stranded hikers. The
plane is traveling horizontally at 40.0 m/s at a height of 100. m above the ground.
a. Where does the package strike the ground relative to the point at which it was released?
𝑚
First, identify that we have 𝑣𝑥 = 40.0 and 𝑦𝑖 = 100. 𝑚
𝑠
1
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2
2
𝑚
Since 𝑎𝑥 = 0 𝑠2 always and we don’t have time 𝑡, we solve time 𝑡 from:
1
𝑦𝑓 = 𝑦𝑖 + 𝑣𝑦𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 2
2
𝑚 1 𝑚
−100 𝑚 = 0 𝑚 + (0 ) 𝑡 + (−9.80 2 ) 𝑡 2
𝑠 2 𝑠
𝑡 = 4.52 𝑠
Substituting the time to solve 𝑥𝑓 we have,
1
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2
2
𝑚 1 𝑚
𝑥𝑓 = 0 𝑚 + (40.0 )(4.52𝑠) + (0 2 ) (4.52 𝑠)2
𝑠 2 𝑠
𝒙𝒇 = 𝟏𝟖𝟏 𝒎
b. What are the horizontal and vertical components of the velocity of the package just
before it hits the ground?
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𝒎
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥𝑖 = 𝟒𝟎. 𝟎
𝒔
𝑚 𝒎
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦𝑖 + 𝑔𝑡 = 𝑣𝑖 sin 𝜃 + 𝑔𝑡 = 0 + (−9.80 ) (4.52 𝑠) = −𝟒𝟒. 𝟑
𝑠 𝒔
c. Find the angle of the impact
𝑚
𝑣𝑦 −44.3 𝑠
−1 −1
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) = tan ( 𝑚 ) = −𝟒𝟖. 𝟎°
𝑣𝑥 40.0 𝑠

Example 2
A long jumper leaves the ground at an angle of 20.0° to the horizontal and at a speed of
11.0 m/s.
a. How long does it take for him to reach maximum height?
Note that at maximum height, the y-component of the velocity is zero.
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦𝑖 + 𝑔𝑡 = 𝑣𝑖 sin 𝜃 + 𝑔𝑡
𝑚 𝑚
0 = (11.0 𝑠 ) sin 20° + (−9.80 𝑠2 )(𝑡)
𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟒 𝒔
b. Find the maximum height it reaches.
1 2 𝑚 1 𝑚
𝑦𝑓 = 𝑦𝑖 + 𝑣𝑦𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 = 0 𝑚 + (11.0 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛20° + (−9.80 2 ) (0.384 𝑠)2 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟐𝟐𝒎
2 𝑠 2 𝑠

Horizontal Range and Maximum Height

Two points along the trajectory are of sometimes special interest, those are the horizontal
range 𝑅 and the maximum height ℎ. By doing appropriate derivations from the rectilinear
formulas discussed, we obtain the following equations for range and maximum height
respectively:

𝒗𝟐𝒊 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜽
𝑹=
𝒈
𝒗𝟐𝒊 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝜽
𝒉=
𝟐𝒈
where 𝑔 = +9.80 𝑚/𝑠 2 . Remember that these formulas are only applicable to projectile
motions of which the initial and final position has the same horizontal level. Fig. 10
illustrates various trajectories for a projectile having a given initial speed but launched
at different angles. As you can see, the range is a maximum at 𝜃 = 45°.
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Fig. 10

Example 1
A long jumper leaves the ground at an angle of 20.0° above the horizontal and at a speed
of 11.0 m/s.
a. How far does he jump in the horizontal direction?
𝑚 2
𝑣𝑖2 sin 2𝜃 (11.0 𝑠 ) sin(2)(20 °)
𝑅= = 𝑚 = 𝟕. 𝟗𝟒 𝒎
𝑔 2(9.80 2 )
𝑠
b. What is the maximum height reached?
𝑚 2 2
𝑣𝑖2 sin2 𝜃 (11.0 𝑠 ) (sin 20.0°)
ℎ= = 𝑚 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟐𝟐 𝒎
2𝑔 2 (9.80 𝑠 )

It is important to make sure that the particle returns to the same horizontal level
to use the formulas.

Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand the
lesson:

*Serway, R. (2014). Physics for Scientist and Engineers with Modern Physics (9th ed)
Australia: Cengage Learning..
*Katz, D. (2017). Physics for Scientist and Engineers: Foundations and Connections.
Australia: Cengage Learning.
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Let’s Check

Activity 1. Practice Problems

Problem 1. Speed and Velocity

The speed of a nerve impulse in the human body is about 100 m/s. If you accidentally
stub your toe in the dark, estimate the time it takes the nerve impulse to travel to your
brain.

Problem 2: Speed and Velocity

A motorist drives north for 35.0 minutes at 85.0 km/h and then stops for 15.0 minutes.
He then continues north, traveling 130 km in 2.00 h.

a. What is his total displacement?

b. What is his average velocity?

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Problem 3: Acceleration

A certain car is capable of accelerating at a rate of 0.60 m/s2. How long does it take for
this car to go from a speed of 55 mi/h to a speed of 60 mi/h?

Problem 4: Particle Under Constant Acceleration

A space capsule was fired from a 220-m-long cannon with final speed of 10.97 km/s. What
would have been the unrealistically large acceleration experienced by the space travelers
during their launch?

Problem 5: Free-falling Objects

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A ball is thrown vertically upward with a speed of 25.0 m/s.

a. How high does it rise?

b. How long does it take to reach its highest point?

c. How long does the ball take to hit the ground after it reaches its highest point?

d. What is its velocity when it returns to the level from which it started?

Problem 6: Components of a Vector

A person walks 25.0° north of east for 3.10 km. How far due north and how far due east
would she have to walk to arrive at the same location?
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Problem 7: Projectile Motion

A brick is thrown upward from the top of a building at an angle of 25° to the horizontal
and with an initial speed of 15 m/s. If the brick is in flight for 3.0 s, how tall is the building?
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Let’s Analyze

Problem 1. Speed and Velocity

To qualify for the finals in a racing event, a race car must achieve an average speed of 250
km/h on a track with a total length of 1 600 m. If a particular car covers the first half of
the track at an average speed of 230 km/h, what minimum average speed must it have in
the second half of the event to qualify

Problem 2: Particle Under Constant Acceleration

An object moves with a constant acceleration of 4.00 m/s2 and over a time interval
reaches a final velocity of 12.0 m/s.

a. If its original velocity is 6.00 m/s, what is its displacement during the time interval?

b. What is the distance it travels during this interval?

c. If its original velocity is 26.00 m/s, what is its displacement during this interval?

d. What is the total distance it travels during the interval in part (c)?
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Problem 3: Free-falling Objects

A baseball is hit so that it travels straight upward after being struck by the bat. A fan
observes that it takes 3.00 s for the ball to reach its maximum height. Find the ball’s initial
velocity and the height it reaches.

Problem 4: Projectile Motion

A fireman d = 50.0 m away from a burning building directs a stream of water from a
ground-level fire hose at an angle of 𝜃 = 30.0° above the horizontal. If the speed of the
stream as it leaves the hose is 𝑣 𝑖 = 40.0 m/s, at what height will the stream of water strike
the building?

Problem 5: Projectile Motion

A projectile is launched with an initial speed of 60.0 m/s at an angle of 30.0° above the
horizontal. The projectile lands on a hillside 4.00 s later. Neglect air friction.

a. What is the projectile’s velocity at the highest point of its trajectory?

b. What is the straight-line distance from where the projectile was launched to where it
hits its target?
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In a Nutshell

Activity 1.

Under what circumstances would a vector have components that are equal in magnitude?

Activity 2.

Can the instantaneous velocity of an object at an instant of time ever be greater in

magnitude than the average velocity over a time interval containing that instant? Can it
ever be less?
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