PHASE DIAGRAM

(Part – 1/3)
Prepared by
VISHAL MEHTA

Reference : Material Science and Engineering,

An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr
 CONTENTS
Basic Concept Binary Phase Diagram

Solubility Limit Unary vs Binary Phase Diagram

Phase Isomorphous

Microstructure Binary Isomorphous System

Free Energy Interpretation of Phase Diagram

Equilibrium Lever Rule

Phase Equilibrium Mass Fraction & Volume Fraction

Non-equilibrium or Metastable State Equilibrium Cooling

Phase Diagram Non-equilibrium Cooling

Unary Phase Diagram Mechanical Properties of Isomorphous Alloys

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 2
 BASIC CONCEPT
Following are the few terms which are used in discussion
of phase diagram.
• Component : components are pure metals and/or
compounds of which an alloy is composed. For example,
in a copper–zinc brass, the components are Cu and Zn
• System : system has two meanings.
• First, “system” may refer to a specific body of material
under consideration (e.g., a ladle of molten steel).
• Second, it may relate to the series of possible alloys
consisting of the same components, but without regard
to alloy composition (e.g., the iron–carbon system).
Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 3
 Continue…
BASIC CONCEPT
• Solute : The substance which is dissolved is called
a solute.
• Solvent : The substance in which the solute is dissolved
is called a solvent.
• Solution : A solution is a homogenous mixture of two or
more substances.
• Water-sugar syrup is solution in which sugar is solute
and water is solvent
• This example will be taken many times in this topic of
phase diagram to discuss various terms & concept.

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 4
 SOLUBILITY LIMIT
• For many alloy systems and at some specific
temperature, there is a maximum concentration of
solute atoms that may dissolve in the solvent to
form a solid solution; this is called a solubility
limit.
• The addition of solute in excess of this solubility
limit results in the formation of another solid
solution or compound that has a distinctly different
composition.

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 5
 Continue…
SOLUBILITY LIMIT
• For example, consider the sugar–water system. Initially, as sugar
is added to water, a sugar–water solution or syrup forms.
• As more sugar is introduced, the solution becomes more
concentrated, until the solubility limit is reached, or the solution
becomes saturated with sugar.
• At this time the solution is not capable of dissolving any more
sugar, and further additions simply settle to the bottom of the
container.
• Thus, the system now consists of two separate substances: a
sugar–water syrup liquid solution and solid crystals of
undissolved sugar.
Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 6
 Continue…
SOLUBILITY LIMIT
• The solubility
limit of sugar in
water depends on
the temperature of
the water
• Figure indicates
that solubility is
the solubility limit
increases slightly
with rising
temperature.

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 7
 PHASE
• A phase may be defined as a homogeneous portion of a system
that has uniform physical and chemical characteristics.
• Every pure material is considered to be a phase; so also is
every solid, liquid, and gaseous solution.
• For example, the sugar–water syrup solution is one phase, and
solid sugar is another. Each has different physical properties
(one is a liquid, the other is a solid); furthermore, each is
different chemically (i.e., has a different chemical composition);
one is virtually pure sugar, the other is a solution

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 8
 Continue…
PHASE
• A phase may be defined as a homogeneous portion of a system
that has uniform physical and chemical characteristics.
• Every pure material is considered to be a phase; so also is
every solid, liquid, and gaseous solution.
• For example, the sugar–water syrup solution is one phase, and
solid sugar is another. Each has different physical properties
(one is a liquid, the other is a solid); furthermore, each is
different chemically (i.e., has a different chemical composition);
one is virtually pure sugar, the other is a solution

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 9
 Continue…
PHASE
• Sometimes, a single-phase system is termed
“homogeneous.” Systems composed of two or more
phases are termed “mixtures” or “heterogeneous
systems.”
• Most metallic alloys and, for that matter, ceramic,
polymeric, and composite systems are heterogeneous.
• Ordinarily, the phases interact in such a way that the
property combination of the multiphase system is
different from, and more attractive than, either of the
individual phases.
Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 10
 MICROSTRUCTURE
•Many times, the physical
properties and, in particular, the
mechanical behavior of a material
depend on the microstructure.
•Microstructure is subject to direct
microscopic observation, using
optical or electron microscopes
Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 11
 FREE ENERGY

•Free energy is a function of the

internal energy of a system, and also
the randomness or disorder of the
atoms or molecules (or entropy).
•In simple terms, it is energy available
to do work
Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 12
 EQUILIBRIUM
• A system is at equilibrium if its free energy is at a
minimum under some specified combination of
temperature, pressure, and composition.
• In a macroscopic sense, this means that the
characteristics of the system do not change with time
but persist indefinitely; that is, the system is stable.
•A change in temperature, pressure, and/or
composition for a system in equilibrium will result in
an increase in the free energy and in a possible
spontaneous change to another state whereby the free
energy is lowered.
Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 13
 PHASE EQUILIBRIUM
• Phase equilibrium is reflected by a constancy with time in the
phase characteristics of a system.
• Sugar–syrup example illustrates the principle of phase
equilibrium using a liquid–solid system.
• Suppose that a sugar–water syrup is contained in a closed
vessel and the solution is in contact with solid sugar at 20˚C .
• If the system is at equilibrium, the composition of the syrup is
65 wt% sugar & 35 wt% water, and the amounts and
compositions of the syrup and solid sugar will remain constant
with time.

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 14
 NONEQUILIBRIUM OR METASTABLE STATE
• In some of the cases, especially in solid systems, a state of
equilibrium is never completely achieved because the rate of
approach to equilibrium is extremely slow; such a system is
said to be in a nonequilibrium or metastable state.
• A metastable state or microstructure may persist
indefinitely, experiencing only extremely slight and almost
imperceptible changes as time progresses.
• Often, metastable structures are of more practical
significance than equilibrium ones. For example, some steel
and aluminum alloys rely for their strength on the
development of metastable microstructures during carefully
designed heat treatments.
Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 15
 PHASE DIAGRAMS
• Much of the information about the control of the
phase structure of a particular system is
conveniently and concisely displayed in what is
called a phase diagram, also often termed an
equilibrium diagram.
• There are three externally controllable parameters
that will affect phase structure—viz. temperature,
pressure, and composition—and phase diagrams
are constructed when various combinations of these
parameters are plotted against one another.
Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 16
ONE-COMPONENT (OR UNARY) PHASE DIAGRAMS
• One-component system is the simplest and easiest
type of phase diagram to understand, in which
composition is held constant (i.e., the phase
diagram is for a pure substance); this means that
pressure and temperature are the variables.
• This one-component phase diagram (or unary phase
diagram) [sometimes also called a pressure–
temperature (or P–T) diagram] is represented as a two-
dimensional plot of pressure (ordinate, or vertical
axis) versus temperature (abscissa, or horizontal
axis). Most often, the pressure axis is scaled
logarithmically.
Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 17
ONE-COMPONENT (OR UNARY) PHASE DIAGRAMS

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 18
ONE-COMPONENT (OR UNARY) PHASE DIAGRAMS

oa, ob & oc are

Phase boundaries

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 19
ONE-COMPONENT (OR UNARY) PHASE DIAGRAMS

Solid-Liquid equilibrium/coexist

Liquid-Vapor equilibrium/coexist

Solid-Vapor equilibrium/coexist

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 20
ONE-COMPONENT (OR UNARY) PHASE DIAGRAMS

Melting
Freezing

Condensation

Vaporization
Deposition
Sublimation

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 21
ONE-COMPONENT (OR UNARY) PHASE DIAGRAMS

Freezing/Melting/Fusion Curve

Vaporization/Condensation Curve

Sublimation/Deposition Curve

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 22
ONE-COMPONENT (OR UNARY) PHASE DIAGRAMS

Triple Point/Invariant Point

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 23
 TWO-COMPONENTS (OR BINARY) PHASE DIAGRAMS

• Temperature and composition are variable

parameters, and pressure is held
constant—normally 1 atm.
• Binary phase diagrams are maps that
represent the relationships between
temperature and the compositions and
quantities of phases at equilibrium, which
influence the microstructure of an alloy.
Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 24
 ONE COMPONENT VS TWO COMPONENTS
PHASE DIAGRAM
(UNARY VS BINARY PHASE DIAGRAM)
One component/Unary Two components/Binary
Phase diagram Phase diagram
Temperature – Variable Temperature – Variable
Pressure – Variable Pressure – Constant
Composition – Constant Composition – Variable
Used for only one component Used for two components
Example : Phase diagram of Example : Phase diagram of
𝐻2 𝑂 Cu-Ni
In which only one component In which two components Cu &
𝐻2 𝑂 is present Ni are present
Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 25
 ISOMORPHOUS
• In crystallography crystals are described
as isomorphous if they are closely similar in
shape.
• For example, Cu & Ni both have same FCC
crystal structure. So they are called
isomorphous.

(visit site http://www.periodictable.com/Properties/A/CrystalStructure.html to find out

crystal structure of various elements)

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 26
 BINARY ISOMORPHOUS SYSTEM

• It is a system of two components which are

isomorphous.

• To understand in detail, example of Cu-Ni

phase diagram is considered.

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 27
BINARY ISOMORPHOUS SYSTEM
• L means liquid region/field
• L represents homogeneous liquid
solution composed of both copper
and nickel
• means solid region/field
• represents solid solution
• for metallic alloys, solid solutions
are commonly designated by
lowercase Greek letters
• +L means two phase
region/field
• +L represents solution in which
both solid and liquid phases are
present.
Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 28
Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 29
 Cu 100%
Ni 0%

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 30
 Cu 100% Cu 0%
Ni 0% Ni 100%

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 31
1085°C is the melting
point of Cu

Cu 100% Cu 0%
Ni 0% Ni 100%

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 32
 1453°C is the melting
point of Ni

1085°C is the melting

point of Cu

Cu 100% Cu 0%
Ni 0% Ni 100%

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 33
 1453°C is the melting
At temperatures below point of Ni
about 1080°C copper
and nickel are
mutually soluble in
each other in the solid
state for all
compositions.

1085°C is the melting

point of Cu

Cu 100% Cu 0%
Ni 0% Ni 100%

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 34
 1453°C is the melting
At temperatures below point of Ni
about 1080°C copper
and nickel are
mutually soluble in
each other in the solid Complete solubility of
state for all Cu & Ni is explained
compositions. by the fact that both
Cu and Ni have the
same crystal
structure (FCC), nearly
identical atomic radii
and electronegativities,
and similar valences.
The copper–nickel
1085°C is the melting system is termed
point of Cu isomorphous
because of this
complete liquid and
solid solubility of the
two components.

Cu 100% Cu 0%
Ni 0% Ni 100%

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 35
INTERPRETATION OF PHASE DIAGRAMS

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 36
INTERPRETATION OF PHASE DIAGRAMS

You have Phase

Diagram.

So what ?

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 37
INTERPRETATION OF PHASE DIAGRAMS

You have Phase

Diagram.

So what ?

What to do
with Phase
diagram ?

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 38
INTERPRETATION OF PHASE DIAGRAMS

You have Phase

Diagram.

So what ?

What to do
with Phase
diagram ?

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 39
INTERPRETATION OF PHASE DIAGRAMS

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 40
INTERPRETATION OF PHASE DIAGRAMS
At least three kinds of information available from Phase Diagram

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 41
INTERPRETATION OF PHASE DIAGRAMS
At least three kinds of information available from Phase Diagram

1.
The phases that
are present

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 42
INTERPRETATION OF PHASE DIAGRAMS
At least three kinds of information available from Phase Diagram

1.
The phases that
are present

2.
The compositions
of these phases

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 43
INTERPRETATION OF PHASE DIAGRAMS
At least three kinds of information available from Phase Diagram

1.
The phases that
are present

2.
The compositions
of these phases
3.
the percentages or
fractions of the
phases

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 44
 1. PHASES PRESENT

Which phase is
present ?

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 45
 1. PHASES PRESENT

Which phase is
present ?
Solid ?

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 46
 1. PHASES PRESENT
Liquid ?

Which phase is
present ?
Solid ?

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 47
 1. PHASES PRESENT
Liquid ?

Which phase is
present ?
Solid ?

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 48
 1. PHASES PRESENT
Liquid ?

Which phase is
present ?
Solid ?

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 49
 1. PHASES PRESENT Continue…

Which phase is
present ?

How to use
given
composition &
temperature ?

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 50
 1. PHASES PRESENT Continue…

Which phase is present,

if composition is 60 wt% Ni-40 wt% Cu
& temperature is 1100°C ?

Find graphically with

the help of Cu-Ni
phase diagram.
Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 51
 Continue…
1. PHASES PRESENT

Answer :

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 52
 Continue…
1. PHASES PRESENT

Answer :

Composition is
60 wt% Ni-40 wt% Cu

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 53
 Continue…
1. PHASES PRESENT

Answer :

Composition is
60 wt% Ni-40 wt% Cu

Temperature is 1100°C

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 54
 Continue…
1. PHASES PRESENT

Answer :

Composition is
60 wt% Ni-40 wt% Cu

Temperature is 1100°C

Obtained point is in Solid region

So, answer is Solid phase

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 55
 2. DETERMINATION OF PHASE COMPOSITION
• In previous topic, it is discussed to find the present phase (i.e.
solid, liquid or both) with the help of obtained point.

Now the
At particular obtained point
question
is What is the wt% of Ni as Solid phase ?

What is the wt% of Cu as Solid phase ?

What is the wt% of Ni as Liquid phase ?

What is the wt% of Cu as Liquid phase ?

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 56
 2. DETERMINATION OF PHASE COMPOSITION

It the obtained point is in

-solid region
One can easily find the
wt% composition
by taking projection on X-axis.
Because there is no liquid
phase

Here for given point, phase composition is

60 wt% Ni as solid phase
40 wt% Cu as solid phase
There is no liquid phase.

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 57
 2. DETERMINATION OF PHASE COMPOSITION

It the obtained point is in

L-liquid region
One can easily find the
wt% composition
by taking projection on X-axis.
Because there is no solid phase

Here for given point, phase composition is

20 wt% Ni as liquid phase
80 wt% Cu as liquid phase
There is no solid phase.

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 58
 2. DETERMINATION OF PHASE COMPOSITION

The problem occurs when the

obtained point is in
+L region

Now what to
do with this
point ? How to find wt%
composition as
solid phase &
liquid phase?

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 59
 2. DETERMINATION OF PHASE COMPOSITION
Methodology to obtain wt% composition

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 60
 2. DETERMINATION OF PHASE COMPOSITION
• Draw horizontal line (i.e.
parallel to X-axis) passing
from the obtained point.
• Extend in both direction
such a way that it
intersects with liquidus &
solidus line
• This horizontal line is
called Tie Line or
Isotherm
• From the both intersection
points, take projections on
X-axis.
Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 61
 2. DETERMINATION OF PHASE COMPOSITION

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 62
 2. DETERMINATION OF PHASE COMPOSITION

Represents
the
composition
of liquid
phase

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 63
 2. DETERMINATION OF PHASE COMPOSITION

Represents
the
composition
of liquid
phase

31.5 wt% Ni
68.5 wt% Cu
as liquid
phase

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 64
 2. DETERMINATION OF PHASE COMPOSITION

Represents
the
Represents
composition
the
of liquid
composition
phase
of solid
phase

31.5 wt% Ni
68.5 wt% Cu
as liquid
phase

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 65
 2. DETERMINATION OF PHASE COMPOSITION

Represents
the
Represents
composition
the
of liquid
composition
phase
of solid
phase

31.5 wt% Ni
68.5 wt% Cu
42.5 wt% Ni
as liquid
57.5 wt% Cu
phase
as solid
phase

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 66
 3. DETERMINATION OF PHASE AMOUNTS

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 67
 3. DETERMINATION OF PHASE AMOUNTS

In previous
two topics,
it is
discussed
that…

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 68
 3. DETERMINATION OF PHASE AMOUNTS

In previous Which type

two topics, of phase is
it is present ?
discussed Solid, liquid
that… or both ?

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 69
 3. DETERMINATION OF PHASE AMOUNTS
What is the wt%
In previous Which type
two topics, of phase is composition of
it is present ? components as
discussed Solid, liquid solid & liquid
that… or both ? phase ?

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 70
 3. DETERMINATION OF PHASE AMOUNTS
What is the wt%
In previous Which type
two topics, of phase is composition of
it is present ? components as
discussed Solid, liquid solid & liquid
that… or both ? phase ?

And we know that

problem occurs only when
both phases are present.

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 71
 3. DETERMINATION OF PHASE AMOUNTS

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 72
 3. DETERMINATION OF PHASE AMOUNTS
Assume that you have obtained a point in Cu-Ni binary phase
diagram. And this obtained point is in +L region. It means both
solid & liquid phases are present.

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 73
 3. DETERMINATION OF PHASE AMOUNTS
Assume that you have obtained a point in Cu-Ni binary phase
diagram. And this obtained point is in +L region. It means both
solid & liquid phases are present.

X Y
percent or percent or
fraction of fraction of
solid phase liquid phase

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 74
 3. DETERMINATION OF PHASE AMOUNTS
Assume that you have obtained a point in Cu-Ni binary phase
diagram. And this obtained point is in +L region. It means both
solid & liquid phases are present.

X Y
percent or percent or
fraction of fraction of
solid phase liquid phase

a wt% Cu e wt% Cu g wt% Cu

c wt% Cu
b wt% Ni f wt% Ni h wt% Ni
d wt% Ni
as solid as liquid as liquid
as solid
phase phase phase
phase

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 75
 3. DETERMINATION OF PHASE AMOUNTS
Assume that you have obtained a point in Cu-Ni binary phase
diagram. And this obtained point is in +L region. It means both
solid & liquid phases are present.

X Y One can find

percent or percent or a, b, c, ,d ,e, ,f, g, h
fraction of fraction of with help of
solid phase liquid phase Tie Line

a wt% Cu e wt% Cu g wt% Cu

c wt% Cu
b wt% Ni f wt% Ni h wt% Ni
d wt% Ni
as solid as liquid as liquid
as solid
phase phase phase
phase

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 76
 3. DETERMINATION OF PHASE AMOUNTS
Assume that you have obtained a point in Cu-Ni binary phase
diagram. And this obtained point is in +L region. It means both
solid & liquid phases are present.

X Y But the problem is,

percent or percent or how to find X & Y
fraction of fraction of percent or fraction.
solid phase liquid phase

a wt% Cu e wt% Cu g wt% Cu

c wt% Cu
b wt% Ni f wt% Ni h wt% Ni
d wt% Ni
as solid as liquid as liquid
as solid
phase phase phase
phase

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 77
 3. DETERMINATION OF PHASE AMOUNTS

How to find X & Y

percent or
fraction ?

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 78
 3. DETERMINATION OF PHASE AMOUNTS

How to find X & Y LEVER RULE

percent or
fraction ?

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 79
 LEVER RULE or
THE INVERSE LEVER RULE
• To understand lever rule, we will
consider an example.
• Assume that our obtained point is
B. So both solid & liquid phases are
present.
• Consider that
• WL is the mass fraction of liquid
phase &
• W is mass faction of solid phase.
• Total mass fraction must be 1.
• So, WL + W = 1 ……..(Eq.1)

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 80
 LEVER RULE or
THE INVERSE LEVER RULE
• the mass of one of the
components (either Cu or
Ni) that is present in both
of the phases must be
equal to the mass of that
component in the total
alloy,
• So,
WLCL+ W C = C0 ……..(Eq.2)

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 81
 LEVER RULE or
THE INVERSE LEVER RULE
• After solving Eq.1 & Eq.2

𝑪𝜶 − 𝑪𝟎 𝑺
𝑾𝑳 = =
𝑪𝜶 − 𝑪𝑳 𝑹+𝑺

𝑪𝟎 − 𝑪𝑳 𝑹
𝑾𝜶 = =
𝑪𝜶 − 𝑪𝑳 𝑹+𝑺

Expression of lever rule

(For this particular situation of binary isomorphous system)

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 82
 LEVER RULE or
THE INVERSE LEVER RULE
• Now for our point B
• C = 42.5 wt%
• C0 = 35 wt%
• CL = 31.5 wt%
𝑪𝜶 − 𝑪𝟎 𝟒𝟐. 𝟓 − 𝟑𝟓
𝑾𝑳 = =
𝑪𝜶 − 𝑪𝑳 𝟒𝟐. 𝟓 − 𝟑𝟏. 𝟓
𝑾𝑳 = 0.68
Same way
𝑾𝜶 = 0.32

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 83
 VOLUME FRACTION
• For multiphase alloys, it is often more convenient to specify relative
phase amount in terms of volume fraction rather than mass
fraction. Phase volume fractions are preferred because they (rather
than mass fractions) may be determined from examination of the
microstructure; furthermore, the properties of a multiphase alloy
may be estimated on the basis of volume fractions.
• For an alloy consisting of and β phases, the volume fraction of
the phase, is defined as

𝒗𝜶 𝒗𝜶 𝐢𝐬 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝜶 𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒚

𝑽𝜶 = 𝒗𝜷 𝐢𝐬 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝜷 𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒚
𝒗𝜶 + 𝒗𝜷
Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 84
 CONVERSION BETWEEN
MASS FRACTION & VOLUME FRACTION
𝑾𝜶 𝑾𝜷
𝝆𝜶 𝝆𝜷
𝑽𝜶 = 𝑽𝜷 =
𝑾𝜶 𝑾𝜷 𝑾𝜶 𝑾𝜷
+ +
𝝆𝜶 𝝆𝜷 𝝆𝜶 𝝆𝜷

𝑽𝜶 𝝆𝜶 𝑽𝜶 𝝆𝜶
𝑾𝜶 = 𝑾𝜶 =
𝑽𝜶 𝝆𝜶 + 𝑽𝜷 𝝆𝜷 𝑽𝜶 𝝆𝜶 + 𝑽𝜷 𝝆𝜷

𝝆𝜶 𝒊𝒔 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝜶 𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆
𝝆𝜷 𝒊𝒔 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝜷 𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆
Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 85
 EQUILIBRIUM COOLING
•It is the condition or situation in which
the cooling occurs very slowly, in such
a way that phase equilibrium is
continuously maintained.
•Sufficient time must be allowed to
achieve equilibrium cooling.

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 86
EQUILIBRIUM COOLING
• In equilibrium cooling, there is
no change in microstructure.
• In L (liquid) region, only one
kind of liquid phase is there in
which wt% Ni is same.
• In +L region, two phases are
there, in which wt% Ni is same
for whole individual phases.
• Same way is (solid) region,
only one kind of solid phase is
there in which wt% Ni is same
for whole solid phase.
Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 87
 NONEQUILIBRIUM COOLING
•As discussed in previous topic, to
achieve equilibrium cooling, sufficient
time must be allowed and cooling rate
is very slow.
•Now if the sufficient time is not allowed
or in other words say cooling rate is
high, the obtained cooling is called
Nonequilibrium cooling.
Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 88
NONEQUILIBRIUM COOLING
• In equilibrium, it is observed
that in solid phase, there is
only one kind of solid
phase, in which wt% Ni is
same throughout the phase.
• Here one can observe that
on solid phase, there are
more than one kinds of
different phases are present
with different-different wt%
Ni.
Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 89
NONEQUILIBRIUM COOLING
• Consider point c’ at which two
kinds of phases are present in
which wt% Ni are 46 & 40
respectively.
• To understand the degree of
displacement, approx. average
composition is considered as 42
wt% Ni & plotted in the diagram.
• Same way for other points, approx.
average composition is considered.
• One can see the degree of
displacement indicated with
dashed line.
Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 90
NONEQUILIBRIUM COOLING
• The slower the cooling rate, the smaller
the displacement; that is, the
difference between the equilibrium
solidus and average solid composition
is lower.
• One can observe that in
nonequilibrium cooling the distribution
of the two elements within the grains is
nonuniform, a phenomenon termed
segregation; that is, concentration
gradients are established across the
grains that are represented by the
insets.

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 91
NONEQUILIBRIUM COOLING
• The center of each grain,
which is the first part to freeze,
is rich in the high-melting
element (e.g., nickel for this
Cu–Ni system), whereas the
concentration of the low-
melting element increases with
position from this region to the
grain boundary. This is termed
a cored structure, which
gives rise to less than the
optimal properties.
Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 92
 Equilibrium

NonEquilibrium

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 93
 Equilibrium NonEquilibrium

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 94
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
ISOMORPHOUS ALLOYS

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 95
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
ISOMORPHOUS ALLOYS

What this figure indicate ?

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 96
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
ISOMORPHOUS ALLOYS

What this figure indicates ?

The given figure indicates

that Tensile strength
increases with addition of
second component.

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 97
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
ISOMORPHOUS ALLOYS

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 98
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
ISOMORPHOUS ALLOYS

Now what about this figure ?

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 99
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
ISOMORPHOUS ALLOYS

Now what about this figure ?

This given figure indicates

that ductility decreases with
addition of second
component.

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 100
 END OF PART – 1 ….

PLEASE CHECK PART – 2 ….

Prepared by VISHAL MEHTA || Reference : Material Science and Engineering, An Introduction by William D. Callister, Jr 101