hi sis so for the nmat, try to practice part 1 as much as part 2 bc malaki rin hatak!!!

anyways, focus on the topic

seen in the mock exam ng CEM before other topics. Like example so Bio practice, may question on cells, study cells.
May one question dun na ang hirap nung computation sa physics tapos lumabas haha so the topics there are high
yield. Practice perceptual acuity and inductive talaga, then try to practice reading also kasi ang daming pinabasa
samin tas 40 minutes lang. We had like 5 or 6 selections, then it was so long talaga, like at least one page (2
columns) or 2 ½ pa minsan -_- but their perceptual acuity was hard, as hard as the UPLINK simulated reviewer
(which is hard copy). I neglected part I so practice it talaga, sayang :( its not as easy, like i had a harder time with part
I than part II. Then the sets are different rin for each person, and the topics vary talaga, like i had no optics AT ALL
(physics), but my friend had one question ganun. Org chem questions (based on my exam) was pretty basic, like
naming and what reactions ganun.

Btw in this doc I included youtube links that’s easy to watch and really helped me understand the topic haha
● For bio, if u wanna read further the campbell summary in the drive is enough (the nmat questions aren’t that
in depth)

Also the topics here r just the ones I had difficulty with while studying, so it’s not everything.

NMAT FLASHCARDS QUIZLET: https://quizlet.com/join/kyfAPhvDE

Answers and explanations to CEM mock test: https://www.dropbox.com/sh/vqxy04sxnoenn6j/AAAQXaMD-

dLNHUgxd20kd0OEa/NMAT%20Reviewer?dl=0

Physics
Biology
Chem

PHYSICS
Constants
● Planck’s constant: 6.626 x 10-34 J or 4.136 x 10-15 eV • s

Relative Motion and Inertial Reference Frames

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wD7C4V9smG4
● Inertial reference frame = the thing we pretend does not move; we assess objects from this inertial reference
frame
e.g. earth as the inertial reference frame, we can say that a car is moving 60km/h, but if we are in the car, it
seems like the surroundings are moving (the car has become the inertial reference frame)

Special Relativity
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rBmYUEnafok&list=PLybg94GvOJ9FAFBqQGf5-4YbfKpWbJtGn&index=8
● The speed of light is the same in every inertial reference frame → must be experiencing time in different ways
● Each inertial ref frame has its own axes and a clock/time
● 2 postulates:
○ Law of physics are the same in every inertial reference frame
○ The speed of light (c) is the same in every inertial reference frame (speed of light is a fundamental
law and the universal speed limit)
■ To do this, time flows at different rates for different observers
Time dilation and twin paradox: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iIEeSiT3SI4&list=PLybg94GvOJ9FAFBqQGf5-
4YbfKpWbJtGn&index=9
● Faster speed = slower time passes
Length contraction
https://youtu.be/FPzGAksFCbs?list=PLybg94GvOJ9FAFBqQGf5-4YbfKpWbJtGn
● Faster speed (e.g. inside the fast ship) = object and distances appear shorter
 ● Observer at rest observes fast moving object to be contracted but observer inside the fast moving object
registers the ship to be longer
Earth at rest w/r to start & end pts Ship in motion w/r to start and end pts

Longer journey Shorter journey

(experiences dilated time interval) (experiences proper time interval)

Shorter ship Longer ship

(measures proper length) (measures contracted length)

Optics
Mirror: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xrMvnjOgsig
Converging (Concave) Mirror Diverging (Convex) Mirror

Image formed f&beyond: real, inverted, same side Virtual, upright, other side (behind mirror)
b/w f&mirror: virtual, upright, other side

Image size Same size at 2f Reduced in size

Image size f&beyond: bigger closer to mirror Bigger closer to mirror

relative to mirror b/w f&mirror: smaller closer to mirror

Lens: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mfytZxM8lho | https://simbucket.com/lensesandmirrors/

Converging (Convex) Lens Diverging (Concave) Lens

Image formed f&beyond: real, inverted, other side Always virtual, upright, same side
b/w f and mirror: virtual, upright, same side

Image size Same size at 2f Image is reduced in size

Image size f&beyond: bigger closer to lens (enlarged Always bigger closer to mirror
relative to mirror b/w 2f and f)
b/w f and mirror: enlarged (but gets smaller
closer to lens)

Treats Hyperopia Myopia

E=mc2
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wabnINynBGc
● Mass is a measure of energy content
https://youtu.be/pBQjsOaRHxg?list=PLybg94GvOJ9FAFBqQGf5-4YbfKpWbJtGn
● Requires infinite energy to accelerate something to the speed of light
● Mass is a form of dense energy
● Nothing with mass can reach or exceed the speed of light
● Travel faster than c → experience (zero) imaginary time and space
● Particle accelerator → moves faster but at a certain speed near the speed of light, it only gains mass
○ Anything with mass can’t reach the speed of light

Electric Field
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-physics-2/ap-2-electric-charge-electric-force-and-voltage
● Positive charges experience an electric force in the same direction as the electric field
● Negative charges experience an electric force in the opposite direction as the electric field
Law of Reflection and Refraction
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4l2thi5_84o
● Perpendicular to the surface = does not change direction
● Incident ray and refracted ray all lie in the same plane
● Refractive index (n) of the medium
○ Speed of light in the incident medium (1)/refractive medium (2) = v1/v2 = n
● Absolute refractive index = refractive index of a medium w/respect to a vacuum

Refraction and Snell’s Law

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y55tzg_jW9I
● Higher refractive index = denser medium = closer to the normal = slower
● Lower refractive index = less dense = bent away from the normal = faster

Elevator Problem
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hoRsHNSrMpc
Stationary Upward Acc Moving up Downward Acc

v=0 v=2

a=0 a=2 a=0 a= -2

No net force Net force up No net force Net force down

Wgt = Normal f. Higher N force Wgt=N. force Lower N force

Carnot Efficiency
● When cold and hot temperature are given (Thermal Efficiency for Heat Engine)
○ [(TH-TC)/TH]*100% = W/QH
■ W = Q = QH+ QC = |QH| - |QC| = work done by working substance
○ Use KELVIN unit for temperature (C+273=K)
● Coefficient of Performance (Refrigerator)
○ |W| = |QH| - |QC|
○ K = |QC|/|W| = coefficient of performance
● Isothermal - no change in temp = no change in internal energy
○ NO CHANGE IN TEMP
○ ADIABATIC - NO HEAT TRANSFER
● Isovolumetric - no work done

Circuit Analysis
https://youtu.be/7zs5MPTdgvc
● AC circuits
○ Changing from min and max currents
● Kirchhoff’s loop with 2 batteries
○ Decide direction of current - higher voltage will dictate direction of the current
○ Minus voltage of resistor (current*resistor), minus or add other battery voltage depending whether it
supplements or pushes against the current of the reference battery (positive & negative ends)

Right Hand Rule

https://youtu.be/dFT7-_s0jh0?t=161
● In magnetic fields
○ Proton: use right hand
○ Electron: use left hand
● Elementary charge: 1.6x10-19 C
● Force = magnetic force
 ● V = particle/current
● B = magnetic field
https://youtu.be/s94suB5uLWw?t=211
● Thumb: current
● Curled fingers: magnetic field

Photon Energy
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zqt3btS1FwE
● Planck-einstein equation E=hf
● h = 6.626x10-34 J s or 4.136x10-15eV s
● Microscopic scale = photons are absorbed as all or nothing (stepwise rather than smooth line on a graph)

Flux and Magnetic Flux

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m1PPujngqAw
● Flux = how much of something is flowing into something in a given amount of time
e.g. same air density, the one with faster speed will have more flux = more things go through
● Magnetic flux = density or component of the magnetic field (based on the strength of MF)
○ Strong or weak magnetic field
○ Smaller or larger surface

Faraday’s Law and Lenz’s Law

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9q-T8o1HUcw
● Flux = average magnetic field*area = Tesla*m2
○ Perpendicular to the surface
● Change in flux = final flux-initial flux
● FARADAY’S LAW = - N (change in flux/change in time) = Volts
○ N = number of loops or surfaces defined by it
○ (-) sign is to remind you to use LENZ’S LAW
■ Voltage induced is going to be in a direction so to include a current whose induced
magnetic field will counteract the change in flux
○ What direction will the current go in? Use the right hand rule #1 (curled fingers)
■ Direction of the magnetic field has to counter the flux
■ This is because if the MF is additive to the existing magnetic field, it would increase the
flux even more and increase the current and increase the flux = never-ending cycle =
violate the conservation of energy due to appearance of new energy

EMF induced rod

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rqq11Id_x5E
● Electromotive force - measure of the total electric PE per unit charge available in a source of electricity
● Induced voltage and current INCREASE
○ Move magnet through more coils of wire (MORE COILS)
○ Move magnet faster through wire (FASTER MAGNET)
○ Move stronger magnet through wire (STRONGER MAGNET)
○ Move more coils of wire around a magnet (MOVE MORE COILS)

Photoelectric effect
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vuGpUFjLaYE
● Photon will hit the electron and if it has enough energy, it’ll knock the electron loose
○ Freed electron = photoelectron

Steam vs Boiling water (Latent Heat of Vaporization)

https://youtu.be/hiGzXJ3emcY
● Boiling water = contains only specific amount of heat energy req. to boil
● Steam = steam is formed from boiling water
 ○ Contains heat energy of boiling water + latent heat of vaporization → steam has more heat energy = more
severe burns than boiling water

Special Angles

Conversions
1L=0.001m3
Nano = 1x10-9
Micro = 1x10-6

Units
Hz = cycle/sec

BIOLOGY
Prokaryotic cell

Photosynthesis
https://youtu.be/g78utcLQrJ4
https://youtu.be/dAF5FngVa7A
LIGHT REACTIONS CALVIN CYCLE

Location Thylakoid Stroma

Reactants that Water (provides electrons) CO2, ATP, NADPH

enter Light (provides energy)

Others PS II, PS I Rubisco, RUBP

1G3P requires 9 ATP, 6 NADPH
 Products Oxygen (waste), NADPH, ATP G3P, ADP, NADP+

Light reactions (light + 2H2O + 2NADP+ + 3Pi → O2 + 3 ATP + 2 NADPH)

● Light - power the movement of an electron through the electron transport chain, eventually to NADP+ →
NADPH
● Water will split - O2 (diffuse out) and protons (H+)
● As the electron moves through the electron chain (powered by light), it pumps protons to the inside as it goes through
the proteins → build up of positive charge in the inside → proton goes through ATP-synthase (everytime a proton goes
through, ATP is made in the stroma)
● NADPH and ATP is created in the stroma
Calvin Cycle (anabolic)
● Rubisco enzyme attaches C (of CO2) to RUBP → breaks into 3-C molecules and gets energy from ATP and
NADPH → G3P → assembled into a sugar
1. Carbon Fixation - Rubisco captures CO2 to RUPB → unstable 6-C → 2 3-C PGA
2. Reduction - phosphorylation and reduction by NADPH which produces G3P
a. Each molecule receives a phosphate from ATP and is reduced by NADPH
b. Loses a phosphate to be glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
3. Regeneration - Some G3P is the output, some generate more RUBP and start the cycle again
a. 6 ATP and 6 NADPH → G3P
b. 3 ATP to convert G3P back to RuBP
Photorespiration
● Not enough CO2 → oxygen reacts with rubisco which creates a useless molecule and the cell has to break it down
● BAD

Cellular Respiration
https://youtu.be/FmEm0CgHGdA | https://youtu.be/vZz-KLK-X40 | https://youtu.be/ajZajFrCjtA
https://youtu.be/4Eo7JtRA7lg
(1) Glycolysis: glucose → 2 pyruvate + 2 ATP
● Cytoplasm
● Anaerobic (does not require oxygen)
Investment Phase: 2 ATP Pay-off Phase: 4 ATP Net ATP

Glucose + 2 ATP→ 2 G3P or GADP 2 GADP → 2 pyruvate + 4 ATP 2 ATP per glucose
1st step: Phosphorylation of glucose Substrate-level phosphorylation 2 NADH (enzyme that
transfers e-s)

If no O2: Anaerobic respiration

● Regeneration of NAD+ to increase affinity of electrons and hydrogens in glycolysis
● Pyruvate → reduced to lactic acid or ethanol (anaerobic conditions, 0 ATP)

(2) Citric acid cycle [requires oxygen]

● Mitochondrial matrix
○ Endosymbiotic theory - separate organism that were incorporated into eukaryotes
● Pyruvate + coenzyme A + NAD+ → decarboxylates and oxidizes to Acetyl-CoA
● Acetyl-CoA will enter citric acid cycle/Krebs cycle → 8-step pathway (oxaloacatate, etc)
● 1 glucose ⇒ 2 pyruvate ⇒ 2 Acetyl-CoA ⇒ 6 NADH + 2 FADH2 + 2 ATP + CO2

(3) Oxidative phosphorylation: big energy payoff

● Location: Mitochondrial matrix (34-36 ATPs)
● NADH → NAD+ + H+ + 2e- (oxidation) → 2 e- + 2H+ + ½ O2 → H2O
○ 2 e-s are transferred from NADH or FADH to several electron carriers → proton gradient → powers ATP
synthase (ADP+phosphate=ATP) → O2 acceptor → H2O
● 2-step process
 ○ Electron transport chain
■ NADH and FADH2 as energy to pump protons into intermembrane space
● 1 NADH → pumps 10 protons across membrane
● 1 FADH2 → pumps 6 protons since complex I isn’t involved
○ Chemiosmosis: 4 protons through ATP synthase = 1 ATP produced

Phosphorylation
● Substrate level phosphorylation: converting ADP + P → ATP
○ Occurs in glycolysis: conversion of glucose → 2 pyruvate
○ Occurs in krebs cycle: acetyl-CoA → 2 molecules of CO2 + ATP + NADH + NADH2
● Phosphorylation of glucose: glucose + ATP → glucose-6-phosphate + ADP
○ https://youtu.be/KyEeUU13YK8

C3, C4, CAM photosynthesis

https://youtu.be/HbLg4lMpUa8
https://youtu.be/13h5oC4jIsk
C3 C4 CAM

Location Mesophyll cells Mesophyll and Bundle sheath Mesophyll cells

Processes RUBP → PGA M: PEP → oxaloacetate → malate (4- Night: CO2 take up → malate
CO2 is converted into a 3-C C molecule) (stored til day)
molecule B: malate → (pyruvate +) CO2 → fix Day: Malate → (pyruvate +)
w/ RUBP → glucose CO2 → fix w/ RUBP →
glucose

Others - Hot, dry conditions Drier climates (e.g. cactus)

-CO2 moves from mesophyll to
bundle sheath cells to protect from
O2 build up

Stomatal opening and closing

https://youtu.be/6Pv5vq2eR7c
● Occurs by means of a potassium pump
● K ions influence stomatal movement, H+ ions are linked to this movement
○ K ions rush in the cell, H ions rush out
● Internal factor: controlled by abscisic acid (ABA)
● External factor: light causes K+ to move into the guard cells from the surrounding epidermal cells
○ K ions move by active transport through specific channels of guard cells
○ Increase in K ions → transforms starch into malate → decrease water potential → water enters into guard
cells from epidermal cells → change in the guard cells (turgid) → stoma opens
○ Late afternoon → K ions leave the guard cells → malate changes to starch → water potential in guard cells
increases → water leaves the cell → flaccid → closes

Water Potential
https://youtu.be/L-osEc07vMs?t=461
● Measurement of potential energy in water
○ Water travels to places with lower water potential
● Water potential = pressure potential + solute potential
○ Exerting pressure increases pressure potential
○ Higher concentration of solutes lowers water potential

Photoperiodism
https://youtu.be/Tyt7L8LF2fE
● Red light has the effect (other colors has no effect)
https://youtu.be/tf3avaZCCQo
● PR: inactive form
○ Shine FAR RED converts far red to red, INACTIVE
● PFR: active form
○ shine RED LIGHT converts red to far red, ACTIVE
Short day plants/Long night plants
● PFR inhibits flowering
● Night -- far red decays back to PR; PFR falls below threshold = FLOWER
● Red flash shortens dark period = no flowering BUT a succeeding flash of far red terminates the effect of the
red flash
● If darkness is interrupted by a flash of light, it will not flower
Long day plants/Short night plants
● PFR promotes flowering
● PFR does not fall below threshold = FLOWER
● Darkness is interrupted by a flash of light → flower

Double Fertilization
https://youtu.be/eqEyy5CGZXQ
● Both sperms released by a pollen tube are involved in ferilization
● Unique to angiosperms or flowering plants
● Sperm + egg cell → diploid zygote (syngamy)
● Two polar nuclei in the central cell + sperm → triploid endosperm nucleus (triple fusion)

Plant Hormones
Auxins Cytokinins (division) Abscisic Acid Gibberellin Ethylene
(growth) (slows growth) (dormancy) (ripen)

-Root initiation -Cell division (shoot -inhibits growth -Stem elongation -Stimulates fruit
-apical dominance & roots) -promotes stomatal -Fruit growth ripening
-regulation of fruit -modify apical closure (drought) Seed development -leaf abscission
development dominance -promotes seed -Germination -enhance rate of
-Stem elongation at -stimulate seed dormancy -Pollen development senescence
low conc. germination -inhibits early & tube growth -triple response in
-cell elongation -delay leaf germination -regulate sex seedlings (inhibit
-phototropism senescence -promotes leaf determination stem elongation,
-gravitropism -promote movement senescence -transition from promote lateral
-vascular diff. of nutrients -promotes juvenile to adult expansion &
-plant development -promote lateral bud desiccation horizontal growth)
-retard leaf growth tolerance -promote root and
abscission -anti-aging effects root hair formation

Stimulate cell division and determine Stimulates rapid leaf Stem elongation Ripening of fruits
differentiation aging & abscission Induces flowering Senescence
Can counteract and germination
effects of auxin and
gibberellin

Shoot apical Roots Almost all plant cells Meristems of apical Can be produced by
meristems buds & roots, young most parts of the
leaves, developing plants
seeds

● Gibberellin
○ Embryo of seed - rich source of gibberellins
■ Signals seed to break dormancy and germinate
● ABA
 ○ Seed dormancy increases the likelihood that seeds will germinate only when there are sufficient
amounts of light, temperature, and moisture for survival
○ Germinate when ABA is removed or inactivated (e.g. heavy rains wash off ABA)
● Ethylene triple response to mechanical stress → when it encounters an obstacle (e.g. stone)
● Senescence - the programmed death of certain cells or organs or entire plant
● Cytokinin acts in concert with auxin (cytokinin alone has no effect)
○ Ratio of auxin and cytokinin controls cell division and differentiation
○ Cytokinin level increase → shoot buds develop
○ Auxin levels increase → roots form

Hypertonic and Hypotonic

https://youtu.be/VqMSYqhlh-Y
● Hyper means more = more concentration, water flows into it
● Plant cells = plasmolysis, turgid
● Animal cells = crenate, bursting
● Isotonic = flaccid

Active and Passive Transport

https://youtu.be/Gecu_RKFPho
Example Protein Channel Flow ATP

PASSIVE Diffusion No H→L No

Facilitated Diffusion Yes H→L No

ACTIVE Pumping No Both Yes

Endocytosis and Exocytosis No Both Yes

Protein Sequencing
https://youtu.be/iACY379o1X4

Density-dependent/independent factors
https://youtu.be/3RYkpEexeD0

DNA
● Translation of RNA sequences starts with a start codon (AUG - Methionine)
● 3 different stop codons (UAA, UAG, UGA) - does not code for any amino acid
● Antiparallel - goes in opposite directions
○ 5’ → 3’ or 3’ → 5’
● Replication → Transcription (RNA is formed from DNA) → Translation (form amino acid sequence)

DNA RNA

H on its second carbon -OH group on its second carbon

Protein Synthesis
https://youtu.be/oefAI2x2CQM
● Transcription: DNA → message
○ RNA polymerase connect RNA bases in the DNA → mRNA → nucleus to the cytoplasm → attach to the
ribosome
● Translation (ribosome will build protein)
○ tRNA are in the cytoplasm that carries amino acids
 ■ tRNA pairs with complementary bases to leave its amino acid (anticodon)
○ Amino acids are held together by peptide bonds

DNA replication
https://youtu.be/5qSrmeiWsuc
● Semi-conservative
● Helicase - unzipping enzyme
○ Can have multiple origin points
● DNA polymerase - replicates DNA molecules
● Primase - makes primer (RNA) where DNA polymerase will start
● Ligase - glue DNA fragments together
● Topoisomerase - relieve tension and stress → prevent supercoiling
● STEPS
○ Helicase unwinds DNA
○ SSB (single stranded binding proteins) bind to DNA strands (X reattachment)
○ Primase creates RNA primers on both strands
○ DNA polymerase begins to build
■ Only works to the 5’ to 3’ direction (add nucleotides at the 3’ end)
● No difficulties with leading strand 3’ to 5’
● Lagging strand 5’ to 3’
■ Lagging strand (has to set multiple primers → multiple okazaki fragments)
■ Has proofreading ability
DNA polymerase I DNA polymerase II

- Polymerization - Synthesizes leading strand

- Exonuclease active (can (eventually replaced by DNA
cleave wrong incorp. base) polymerase III)
* lagging strand: DNA pol III

Mutations
https://youtu.be/GieZ3pk9YVo
● Mutations are random
● Gene mutation
○ Substitution
○ Potentially dangerous - # of bases total has changed/frameshift mutation
■ Insertion
■ Deletion
● Chromosome mutation
○ Duplication
○ Deletion
○ Inversion
○ Translocation - fragment from one chromosome attaches to another
https://youtu.be/sX6LncNjTFU
● Silent mutation
● Missense mutation
● Nonsense mutation - stop codon/premature termination

Cell membrane potential

https://youtu.be/hk09AkV5_Kc
● Sodium-potassium pump
○ Low internal Na+, Ca2+, Cl- [high conc. outside the cell]
○ High internal K+ (consist of most ions moving across membrane)
● Potassium leak channel or inward rectifier channel pushes K outside the cell
○ Negative charge builds up in the cell → Electrostatic gradient → attracts K + into the cell
 ○ Kout (due to concentration gradient) = Kin (due to electrostatic gradient) ⇒ nernst/equilibrium potential (-
92mV)
● Equilibrium potential of an ion is dependent on...
○ Cell permeability to the ion
○ Concentration gradient

Meiosis
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VzDMG7ke69g
● Meiosis I - crossing over, homologous chromosomes
*in humans Before Interphase After interphase After Meiosis I After Meiosis II

Chromosomes 46 46 23 23

Chromosomes 46 92 46 23

Prophase I
Leptonema: chromosomes visibly condense into long, thin threads
Zygonema: Homologous chromosomes find each other and synapse
● Synapsis: the joining of homologous chromosomes
● Synaptonemal complex: precisely aligned homologous chromosomes
Pachynema: homologous chromosomes exchange genetic information by crossing over
Diplonema: chromosomes begin to condense and the synaptonemal complex disassembles
Diakinesis: chromosomes continue to condense and tetrads are clearly visible

Mitosis
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f-ldPgEfAHI&t=14s

Mitosis vs Meiosis
https://youtu.be/_IzfJSxa-uA
Mitosis Meiosis

DNA replication yes yes

Synapsis n/a Homologous pairs

Chromosome number 2N N

Function Somatic Gametes

Interphase
G1 (first gap) S (synthesis) G2 (second gap)

Proteins are synthesized DNA replication Organelles are replicated

Growth of cell Microtubules are synthesized
Chromosomes start to condense

Cell Cycle Control System

https://youtu.be/eqJqhA8HSJ0
● Cell Cycle Signaling Molecules
○ Protein kinase
■ Typically inactive → activated by cyclin (CDK) (varying conc.)
■ Activate/deactivate other proteins through phosphorylation
 ○ Cyclins
■ Mitotic (b-type) cyclins synthesized at S and G2 phases
■ Degrades later in mitosis → kinase becomes inactive
○ Cyclin + CDK = MPF (allow the cycle to pass G2 checkpoint)
● Density-dependent inhibition (no more room)
○ Relies on contact between surface proteins of adjacent cells

Immune System
https://youtu.be/zQGOcOUBi6s
Innate Defense System
● Types of cells
○ Neutrophils
○ Macrophages
○ Natural Killer Cells → triggers apoptosis
○ Dendritic cells (linking innate to adaptive immunity by presenting antigens)
● Inflammatory response “internal fire alarm”
○ e.g. mast cells release histamine → redness, heat, calls other cells
● Release pyrogens that tap the hypothalamus → fever
https://youtu.be/2DFN4IBZ3rI
https://youtu.be/rd2cf5hValM
Adaptive/Acquired Immune System
● Humoral Immunity - antibodies
○ B-cell → have their own unique membrane-bound antibodies
■ Activated when they meet their match → clone itself a lot
■ Antibody factory (neutralization, agglutination)
■ Effector cells, memory cells
○ Passive humoral immunity → through the womb or breast milk (won’t create memory cells)
● Cell-mediated response
○ Major histocompatibility complex → proteins binded in their membrane
○ Antigen presenting cells (macrophage, b-cells, dendritic cells)
○ T-cells (made in the bone marrow, mature in the thymus)
■ Helper T cells - can activate cells that kill, call the shots
● Activated by dendritic cells (innate) present an antigen → multiply
● Releases cytokines → boost signal that there’s a problem, help activate cytotoxic T cells
■ Cytotoxic T cells - do the killing, roam and look for hijacked cells
● Check and balance between B and T cells
○ Regulatory T-cells → releases inhibitory cytokines when threat is gone
○ B-cells don’t release cytokines until activated by Helper T cells

Blood Types
● Blood type A - has antigen A and antibody against B
● Blood type B - has antigen B and antibody against A
● Blood type AB - has antigen A and B
● Blood type O - has no antigen, antibody against A and B

Macronutrients
Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, sulfur

Germ Layers
https://youtu.be/QPvhl66QCqo
https://youtu.be/y4QjEcZrVXg
● Ectoderm “attractoderm”
○ Nervous system
○ Cornea and lens
 ○ Epidermis: hair, nails, sweat glands, sensory receptors
○ Nasal, oral, anal epithelium
○ Pituitary gland
● Mesoderm “muscle derm”
○ Muscle, bone, connective tissue
○ Cardiovascular system
○ Lymphatic system
○ Urogenital organs (gonads, ureters, reproductive, kidneys)
○ Dermis
● Endoderm “tubing derm”
○ GI epithelium (does not include mouth or anus)
○ GI glands (liver, pancreas)
○ Respiratory epithelium
○ Epithelium of urogenital
○ Urinary duct

Embryogenesis
https://youtu.be/dAOWQC-OBv0
1. Zygote c. Epiblast
2. Cleavage → morula d. Hypoblast
3. Blastulation 6. Gastrulation (primitive streak marks
a. Trophoblast beginning of this stage)
b. Embryoblast a. Ectoderm
4. Blastocyst b. Mesoderm
a. Inner cell mass c. Endoderm
b. Blastocoel 7. Neurulation
5. Zona pellucida disappears a. Notochord
a. Amniotic cavity b. Neural plate
b. Trophoblast c. Neural crest cells

Integumentary System
https://youtu.be/Orumw-PyNjw
● Epidermis → avascular (nutrients and oxygen comes from dermis)
○ Stratified squamous epithelial tissue
○ Made up of primarily keratinocytes (building blocks of the tough, fibrous protein keratin)
○ Melanocytes
○ Langerhans cells (ingests invaders)
○ Merkel cells (tactile/sensory cells)
○ LAYERS
■ Stratum corneum: dead keratin layers
■ Stratum lucidum: dead keratinocyte
■ Stratum granulosum: living keratinocytes forming keratin
■ Stratum spinosum
■ Stratum basale: thinnest layer, single layer of columnar cell, cell factory
■ “Come Let’s Get Sun Burnt”
● Dermis
○ Collagen, elastin fibers, capillaries, blood vessels, nerve vessels, hair follicles, oil glands, sweat
glands
○ Layers
■ Papillary Layer (thin sheet of areolar connective tissue, dermal papillae)
■ Reticular Layer (dense irregular connective tissue)
● Hypodermis
○ Adipose (fat) connective tissue
○ Insulation, shock absorption, energy storage, anchors the skin
Hemostasis (Blood clotting process)
https://youtu.be/RQpBj8ebbNY?t=70
https://youtu.be/SPSvc7-1dec
● Platelet plug - block cuts in blood vessel
○ Collagen chemically interacts with the platelets and causes them to stick together
● Intrinsic (slow-acting) or extrinsic (tissue factor/triggered by the injury) pathway
● Prothrombinase (protease) → activates prothrombin to thrombin (calls platelets)
● Fibrinogen circulates in the blood → activated by thrombin → fibrin
○ Fibrin: strengthens the plug through fibrin strands made up of fibrin subunits (that naturally
polymerizes or stick together)
● Agglutination: when antibodies are mixed with their corresponding antigens form clumps
● Coagulation: body prevents blood loss

Spinal Reflex
● Receptor “perceives” the stimulus and sends a signal through sensory neurons and down the dorsal root →
pass through interneuron → ventral root → motor neuron → response via effector

Muscle Summation
https://youtu.be/t0X0YcTNB1Y

● Treppe - applied to a rested muscle; heat increases contractions

● Tetanus - sustained contraction
● Summation - another stimulus activates another motor unity → increase of contraction

Muscle Contraction Process

https://youtu.be/ousflrOzQHc
● Skeletal muscle are composed of bundles of muscle fibers (long multinucleated cylindrical cells)
○ Muscle fibers are composed of myofibril which contains contractile units called sarcomeres
(alternating thick “myosin” and thin “actin” filaments)
● Sliding filament mechanism - myosin pulls on actin
○ Sarcomeres shorten without myosin or actin changing in length
○ Contraction begins when a bound ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP and phosphate
■ Myosin extends and attach on a binding site on actin → forms cross-bridge → power stroke is
triggered → myosin pulls actin toward the M-line → sarcomere shortens → ADP and P are
released during the stroke → another ATP attaches
○ Muscle contractions are contorlled by actions ofcalcium
■ Thin actin filaments are associated with troponin and tropomyosin
■ Relaxed: tropomyosin blocks the cross-bridge binding sites on actin
● High Ca levels + ATP present → Ca ions binds on the troponin → troponin changes
shape → displaces tropomyosin → exposing myosin binding sites on actin → myosin can
bind with actin
■ Calcium ions are stored in sarcoplasmic reticulum and are released in response to signals
from the nervous system to contract
 ● Sodium channel opens → Sodium channels flow into the muscle → influx of ions causes
a wave of depolarization → electrical impulse travels down the t-tubule and opens
calcium stores → calcium ions flow to the myofibrils which trigger a muscle contraction
● Neuromuscular junction - site of signal exchange with nervous system

Respiratory System
https://youtu.be/XMgbF-P5miQ
● Hemoglobin contains 4 protein chains which each contains iron atom since it readily binds with oxygen
● Harder to breathe in higher altitudes because of partial pressures (diffusion gradient)
● Increased breathing rate
○ Increase in H+ → decrease in blood pH
○ When body creates energy, it also produces CO2 (cellular respiration)
○ (1) CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ (2) HCO3- + H+
■ (2) - spontaneous

Digestive System
https://youtu.be/goSC-1YvHVk
● Mastication: oral cavity, mechanical breakdown, salivary glands lubricate food
● Deglutination (swallowing) → food is now BOLUS → stomach
○ Peristalsis -- involuntary contractions of smooth muscles
● Stomach → liquification of food → CHYME → Pylorus sphincter
○ Primary fat digestion
○ Parietal cells → HCl acid → activates pepsinogen into pepsin & maintain acidity
○ Chief cells → pepsinogen (+HCl) → pepsin → chemical digestion
○ Mucin neck cell → mucin → activated into mucus by water (protect from acid)
● Small intestine (most of digestion and nutrient absorption happens)
○ Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum (longest)
○ Primary lipid digestion
○ Accessory organs
■ Liver → bile (lipid digestion) → gallbladder stores bile → bile duct → small intestine
■ Pancreas (endocrine and exocrine gland)
● Lipase (lipid digestion)
● Amylase (carbohydrate digestion)
● Protease (protein digestion)
● Chyme (protect food from bacteria) → monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol → body can absorb into the
bloodstream
● Large intestine: non-digestible foods undergo fermentation, absorption of water

Female Reproductive System

https://youtu.be/2_owp8kNMus
● Anterior pituitary gland
○ LH and FSH
○ GnRH - releasing hormone responsible for the release of FSH and LH
● Menstrual Cycle
○ 1st phase: Follicular Phase
■ FSH initially increases to stimulate follicle maturation of primary follicles
■ Primary follicle will mature to a secondary follicle → produce estrogen
● Low estrogen level inhibits LH release
● FSH is secreted primarily to low estrogen concentrations
■ 10 days after, estrogen levels increase → massive spike in LH levels
● Trigger ovulation of the most mature follicle → release egg/oocyte
● LH levels will drop back down
○ 2nd phase: Luteal Phase
■ After ovulation, follicle will turn into corpus luteum (dead follicle)
 ■
Corpus luteum will secrete estrogen, inhibin, and progesterone
● Inhibin will inhibit FSH (does not need follicle to mature)
● Progesterone has a negative effect on hypothalamus (inhibit GnRH)
■ Progesterone increase, estrogen decrease slowly → inhibit GnRH
■ Progesterone and estrogen stimulate endometrial growth
■ No menstrual cycle → corpus luteum will degenerate, allowing a new set of follicles to mature →
progesterone will decrease → GnRH will increase → new cycle
● As progesterone and estrogen decrease, it won’t be able to maintain the
endometrium and will shed
Male Reproductive System
● Seminiferous tubule - spermatogenesis, sperm cell differentiation and development
● Epididymis - long coiled tube where sperms cells are delivered to mature further
● Vas deferens - delivered here afterwards for storage
● Urethra - site where reproductive and urinary tracts join and empty through the penis

Hormones
● Gonadotropic hormones
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) Luteinizing hormone (LH)

Female Male Female Male

Menstrual Stimulates certain testes cells to Menstrual cycle Stimulates production of

cycle produce another hormone that testosterone
regulates sperm development
● Thyroid-stimulating hormone
○ Stimulates thyroid gland to produce thyroxin → stimulates oxidative respiration and regulates blood calcium
levels
Others (Body Systems)
● Glucagon - hormone that prevents blood glucose levels from dropping too low
○ Stimulates conversion of stored glycogen to glucose

Genetic Disorders
● XXY - Klinefelter syndrome (male)
○ Underdeveloped testes, breast development
● XYY - Jacob syndrome (male)
○ Barely normal intelligence

Gram-staining Bacteria
https://youtu.be/Jvo6IGKTvxA
Shapes
● Sphere - coccus (cocci)
● Rod - bacillus (bacilli)
● Squiggle - spirochete (spirilla)
Gram stain: crystal violet → iodine → wash with alcohol (de-staining) → safranin

Gram positive Gram negative

Stain Purple stain Pink (washed off due to thin peptidoglycan)

Plasma membrane One Inner and outer membrane

Peptidoglycan (cell wall) Thick Thin

Lipopolysaccharide None Present

 Outer capsule Present Present

Antibiotic treatment Easier Harder due to dual phospholipid bilayer

Equations
● Hardy-Weinberg equation (allele frequency)
○ (p+q)2 = p2 + 2pq + q2
○ p+q = 1

Evolution
● Evolution mainly happens in the level of population
● Parallel evolution: two species with a common ancestor evolve similar traits independent of each other (trait
not present in the ancestor)
● Convergent evolution: two different species evolve similar traits
● Divergent evolution: one trait evolves into two different traits
● Macroevolution: refer to major events and evolutionary trends
○ Over millions of years, large scale, transform into a different/new organism

Succession
● Succession → populations grow → more nutrients are used up → depletes nutrients
● Primary succession: virtually lifeless; no soil, new volcanic islands, retreating glaciers
○ Hundreds of years
○ R-selected organisms
● Secondary succession: fire, catastrophic events, existing community wiped out
○ Faster rate
○ K-selected organisms

K-selected and R-selected species

K-selected species R-selected species

Relatively stable population High growth rates

Relatively low number of offspring Many offsprings

Long life cycle Short life cycle

Bigger offspring Smaller offspring

Water biomes
Marine Biome Freshwater Biome
 Benthic zone - layer rich in nutrients, sand Oligotrophic lakes - high conc. Of O2
Pelagic zone - not near or close the sea cost or Eutrophic lakes - high nutrients
continental shelf

CHEMISTRY
Acid Base Strength
https://youtu.be/PdqFSw_SRug

Acid
● Ka closer to 1 has higher acidity; higher Ka higher acidity
● pKa and acidity = inverse relationship; higher pKa, lower acidity
● pH = lower, higher acidity
● Directly attached to H, trend is increasing acidity to the right and down of PT
● When it is attached to O e.g. HOCl, trend reverses, increasing acidity to the left and up of PT
Oxyacid
● HNO3 is stronger than HNO2 (SAME CPO)
● Acid w/ greater number of oxygen is the stronger acid
● Trend works for oxyacids ONLY
Base
● Base strength increases w/ higher Kb values; higher Kb higher basicity
●

Balance redox reaction in acid

https://youtu.be/IZ1tKxsqV74
● Determine oxidation numbers
● Figure out out which are oxidized and reduced
● Write half reactions
● Balance using H2O and H+
● Balance charges
● Multiply half reactions to make number of electrons equal in both
● Add half reactions
*solids or atoms such as Fe2 or H2 = 0 charge
Oxidation is loss of electrons, gains oxygen, loss hydrogen
Reduction is gain of electrons, loss of oxygen, gain hydrogen

Kinetic Molecular Theory

● Gas particles move through space in straight lines and in random directions
● The greater and faster the gas particles move, the higher the kinetic energy, and hence, the higher
temperature
● No attractive or repulsive forces between the gas particles
● Gas molecules collide with the walls of the container
○ Collision → pressure
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OP6RKqSp1Xw&t=542s
Arrhenius
● Acids → H+; in water, they associate w/ water as hydronium ion H3O+
○ HCl + H2O → H3O+ + Cl-
● Base → OH-
○ NaOH → H2O + Na+
Bronsted-Lowry
● Acid → H+ donor
 ● Base → H+ acceptor
● HF + H2O → H3O+ + F+
○ HF arrhenius acid because it release hydronium ion, also bronsted lowry acid because its a proton
donor
*add H ⇒ conjugate acid
*remove H ⇒ conjugate base
Lewis
● Acid → e pair acceptor
● Base → e pair donor

Gibbs Free Energy

● (+) Nonspontaneous
● (-) Spontaneous

Exothermic: H decreased
Endothermic: H increased

Gas Laws

Ionic Radius
● Cation (lose electrons) is always smaller than a neutral atom
● Anion (gains electrons) is always bigger than a neutral atom

Trend in the Periodic Table

Specific Heat
● Higher specific heat - longer time to heat up/cool down
● Latent heat (Q) = mH

ORG CHEM REACTIONS

TEST FOR (+) (-)

Tollen’s reagent aldehydes Silver mirror Colorless sol’n

2,4-DNPH Carbonyl group (ald+ket) Yellow-orange-orange ppt Red sol’n

Schiff’s Test aldehydes violet pink

Benedict’s Test Aliphatic aldehydes, Brick red ppt Blue soln

reducing sugar

Iodoform Test Methyl ketones Bright yellow ppt Yellow soln

Molisch Test Carbohydrates Red violet/purple ring

Bial’s test pentoses Blue green soln Yellow to brown soln

Seliwanoff’s Test ketoses Bright red soln Pink soln

Barfoed’s Test monosaccharides Brick red ppt Blue soln

Osazone Nonreducing sugars Yellow ppt Red soln

Br2 Light Aliphatic compounds colorless Smoky yellow

Br2 Dark, KMnO4 Alkene colorless Red orange

Lugol’s Test Iodine

Fehling’s Test Carbohydrates

Millon’s Test Protein (Casein, soya) Red pdt

Biuret Test Protein