GE Oil & Gas Product Overview:

Centrifugal and Axial Compressors

1. Introduction

1.1Centrifugal and Axial Compressors

Welcome to the GE Oil & Gas Product Overview!

This module has the aim to give a general overview of GE Oil & Gas Compressors, with
particular attention to dynamic type: centrifugal and axial compressors.
1.2Learning Objectives

The objective of the course is to provide a general knowledge of compressors

classification and operating principles.

A description of GE Oil & Gas centrifugal compressors fleet and TAG is also provided.
1.3Table of Contents

The course is basically divided into 7 sections:

 2. Compressors Classification

2.1Introduction and Classification

A compressor is gas handling mechanical devices capable of efficiently transferring

energy to a fluid, delivering it at elevate pressure conditions. There are numerous types of
compressors, each one more suitable for particular applications. A first classification can
be made on the strength of their operating principles:

 On one side there are positive displacement compressors, reciprocating and

rotary; these machines increase the pressure of the fluid reducing progressively
the volume in which the fluid is contained.
 On the other side there are dynamic compressors, centrifugal and axial over all,
they are turbo machineries.
In the last group of machines the transfer of pressure energy to the fluid occurs following
a simple principle: at the beginning, in the rotating part, the fluid accelerates because of
the centrifugal force; then, in the stator section, it slows down increasing its pressure. Just
to know, from a more technical point of view, turbo-machineries are machines in which
the energy is transferred following the Euler’s equation; this law regulates the exchange
of work between the fluid and the rotating components of the machine.
Clicking on the black video marker, while attending the online course, are available
videos related to: Centrifugal Compressor Principles (part 1-2-3).
Further informations about Euler’s equation are available clicking on the question mark
in the online course.
2.2Compressors technology Selection Map

In this diagram is showed the typical operating range for different types of compressor;
values should be considered approximate in fact the compressor is a customized machine
par excellence and it can be difficult to establish exact boundaries to its operative range.
Observing the diagram it’s clear that reciprocating compressors are used for high
pressures but limited flow rates, while on the contrary, axial compressors are
characterized by the possibility to operate big volumes reaching limited pressures;
centrifugal compressors cover an intermediate operative range.
This chart can be considered as a simplified technology selection map for compressors.
Technology Selection Map detailed

Here the same diagram about technology selection, detailed with names of all the sub-
families of compressors.
 3. Centrifugal Compressor

3.1Centrifugal Compressor Introduction

Centrifugal compressor, also called radial compressor, is a dynamic machine in which

inner rotating elements transmit energy to the gas flowing into the machine from the inlet
flange to the outlet one. The objective of the compressor is to increase the pressure of the
gas; this phenomenon occurs thanks to an external driver providing a torque, transferred
to the fluid following the Euler’s equation, as in all turbo-machineries.
In simple words in the rotating parts the gas, due to the centrifugal force, accelerates
increasing its kinetic energy, and then it slows down in the stator part, increasing its
pressure. The advantages of centrifugal compressors are related to their reliability,
compactness and robust construction, with a bigger resistance to foreign object damage
such as fouling, etc.
Clicking on the black video marker, while attending the online course, are available
videos related to: Intro to Centrifugal Compressor.
3.2Rotating Components

As we said before, centrifugal compressor is a customized machine with several solutions,

each one with its own properties about architecture and capability; nevertheless it is
possible to give an idea of a typical centrifugal compressor structure. Let’s start from the
rotating inner part; it’s is made up of:
 Shaft: it’s the axial machine rotating body that transmits the torque from the
external driver to the impellers which are assembled on it.
 Impellers: They are the rotating elements of the machine which transfer energy
from the shaft to the fluid.
 Spacers: they are element required to maintain the relative position of one
impeller with another.
 Balancing Drum: It is a balance element acting on the shaft.
All these components, plus seal sleeves, trust bearing collar and coupling hub compose
the rotor assembly, as shown in the chart.
Clicking on the black video marker, while attending the online course, are available
videos related to: Centrifugal Compressor Assembly.
Impeller Details

Impeller:
As we said, the fluid enters the impeller axially, thanks to the action of the previous
return channel, and leaves it radially.
There are several types of impellers, structurally they can be closed or open type; closed
impellers (2d and 3d) are made up of one hub, a certain number of blades and one shroud
while the open type are lacking of the shroud.
3.3Stator Components

Once completed the rotor assembly, components called diaphragms are positioned in the
half inner case creating the rotor compartment.
Positioning the upper part of diaphragms and the other half casing, the bundle is finished.
It appears as a cartridge that will represent the core of the machine.
Note: this solution is typical for BCL compressor, but with some modifications to the
bundle structure it can be applied also to other series.
3.4Operating Principles

A centrifugal compressor consists of three basic sections: rotor assembly, diffuser and
scroll.
It is possible to define a compression stage as impeller + diffuser + return channel. The
gas enters the compressor through a suction nozzle and reaches the center of the machine
thanks to an inlet volute. The transfer of energy, provided by the driver, from the shaft to
the gas occurs mainly in the impeller; this one consists of two discs connected by blades
and pushes the gas outwards, increasing its velocity and pressure. One disc is exposed to
the discharge pressure (P2), while the other is exposed partly to the suction pressure (P1)
and partly to the discharge pressure (the figure shows only an approximation of the
phenomenon; actually pressure is not so constant but we can talk about a distribution);
this phenomenon generates the thrust force that requires the use of the balance drum. At
the exit of the impeller the gas flows into a circular chamber called diffuser and here it
loses part of its velocity, increasing its static pressure; after the diffuser the gas flows
through along the return channel that directs the compressed gas to the inlet of the next
impeller. This gas path, designed to minimize aerodynamic losses, is the same for each
impeller; obviously the last diffuser will discharge the gas to a scroll or volute connected
to the machine discharge.
Modular Approach

The design of each new compressor is based on a modular approach, in the sense that
different parts are taken from an existing database and assembled together. Once the
database is filled the requisition team is appointed of selecting the most suitable
combination of each component in order to cover the customer request in the best way.
Details on Gas Path

Here some important details on Gas Path are showed.

The first and the third columns are relevant respectively to the inlet and the outlet volute,
both designed to minimize friction losses, turbulences, etc.; the gas path is showed
highlighting the velocity stream lines.
In the same way, the second column shows the velocity stream line relevant to the inner
part of the machine, the impeller.
3.5Centrifugal Compressor TAG

Let’s introduce now the GE Nuovo Pignone Centrifugal Compressor Tag; each number in
the chart refers to a particular feature of the compressor.
I. Index 2 or 3 are referred to the number of inlet; D stands for a double inlet with
equal conditions.
II. Here is showed the type of casing: M stays for middle split, B stays for barrel, P
for pipeline and S for single volute.
III. Type of impeller; it can be C, closed, or R, open.
IV. Diaphragm Type; L stays for free vortex while P (no longer used) stays for vaned
V. Size of impeller; the diameter of the impeller is indicated in centimeters
VI. Number of impellers
VII. Class of casing; this feature is related to BCL and there is a letter for each level of
test pressure.
TAG example
 4. Fleet Overview

4.1Fleet Overview

GE Oil & Gas Centrifugal Compressors can be classified into four categories, each one
with different design and specifications:
 Horizontally split casings
 Vertically split casings
 Pipeline Compressors
 SRL Compressors
 Subsea compressor: BLUE-C
 And Integrated compressor line: ICL
Actually BLUE-C and ICL don’t represent another category of machinery, in fact they
can be considered as the result of an alternative configuration compressor-driver.
Fleet Overview: Compressor and Driver

Essentially there are two configurations: external driver and internal driver.
When we talk about external driver we can refer to a Gas Turbine, a Steam Turbine, a
Turbo Expander or an Electric Motor; in this configuration the load, so the compressor,
can be coupled to the driver with or without a gearbox, depending on the particular case.
Otherwise if we talk about internal driver, we’re referring to an electric motor; this is the
particular case of BLUE-C compressor or ICL. The driver is inside the structure of the
compressor and there isn’t a gearbox because variable speed motors are used.
Further informations about Gearbox are available clicking on the question mark in the
online course.
4.2MCL

Applications: These are used primarily for low and medium pressures, up to 60 bar.
Typical applications are:
 Refrigeration
 Gas production and processing
 Ethylene process
 Refinery
 Carbon dioxide compression for urea plants
 Other industrial applications

Specifications: The casing is either cast (cast iron, cast steel) or fabricated; the
diaphragms are cast-iron, cast steel or fabricated depending on the compressor duty,
service temperatures, gas handled and compressor size. Impellers and diffusers are
selected according to applications and desired performances.
Design: This family of compressors consists of half casings joined along the horizontal
center-line; suction and discharge nozzles, as well as any side stream nozzles, lube oil
pipes and all others connections are located on the lower half casing. This structure
makes easier any operation that requires accessing the internal part of the compressor
because the upper casing becomes an easily removable cover. They are indicated by the
letter designation MCL and may be further identified according the number of stages.
4.3BCL

Applications: Barrel compressors are used primarily for high pressure applications, up to
1000bar.
Some typical examples are:
 Ammonia, urea and methanol synthesis
 Refinery recycle
 Natural gas compression and injection
 LNG
 Hazardous gases treatments
 Gas Lift
Specifications: Casings can be of rolled steel or forged; for higher performance,
diaphragms are 100% machined. Basically they can be divided into two big categories:
1) Design for High Pressure Applications with a capacity range up to 15000 m3/h and
pressure up to 1000 bar; these compressors are also called BELL CASING Compressors
because their structure is able to support pressures higher than the classical BCL.
2) Design for Low to Medium Pressure Applications with capacity range up to 50000
m3/h and pressure up to 200 bar.

Design: Vertically-split casings are formed by a cylinder closed by two end covers; for
this reason they are also called BARREL compressors. Generally they are multistage
machines. Inside the casing the structure of the rotor and diaphragms is almost the same
of MCL compressors. Casings up to 350 bars are steel cylinders with end covers either
bolted or secured by shear rings; nozzles can be welded to the casing or machines directly.
Casings with ratings over 350 bars are cup shaped for rings with one end cover only. This
cover is secured to the casing by a patented shear ring locking device; they can be
equipped with traditional tilt pad bearings but also with active magnetic bearings.
 4.4MCL & BCL Configurations

2MCL-2BCL: The compressors, whose Tag starts with the number 2, have two inlets,
two discharge nozzles and there is an intercooling between the first and the second
section. The impellers, within the compressor, are installed on the shaft BACK TO
BACK. The Balancing drum is installed after the second suction first impeller and
between the first and the second section last impellers.
3MCL-3BCL: The compressors, whose Tag starts with the number 3, have one inlet and
one discharge nozzle and one or more side streams. The impellers, within the compressor,
are installed on the shaft INLINE. The Balancing drum is installed after the last impeller.
DMCL-DBCL: The compressors, whose Tags starts letter D, have two inlets and one
discharge nozzle. The impellers, within the compressor, are installed on the shaft BACK
TO BACK; the last impeller of each section is joined with the other one in order to have a
common discharge.
4.5PCL

Applications: PCL Compressors are used only for gas transportation and gas storage.
Specifications: Impellers are optimized for maximum efficiency, milled from single piece
or welded; diaphragms are cast iron, cast steel, fabricated or forged.
These compressors don’t raise excessive levels of pressure; typically their range is up to
127 bar, while their capacity range is up to 100,000 m3/h.
Design: These machines have bell shaped casing with a single vertical end cover instead
of the two classical covers of BCL compressors; they could be considered vertically spit
compressors.
Normally this kind of machine has side suction and discharge nozzle positioned opposed
each other, in order to facilitate their installation on gas pipelines.
4.6SRL

Mostly used for low-medium pressure applications, up to 190bar, they are divided in two
categories: Overhung compressor and Integrally geared compressor.
The peculiarity of this machine is that impellers aren’t assembled on a single shaft; there
are several shafts, each of them can support one or two impellers and for each shaft there
is also the possibility to have an IGV to control the machine. The shaft isn’t positioned
between two bearings, as usual, but there is only one bearing and the impeller is
overhung. Considering that we are talking about centrifugal compressors, at the impeller
exit the fluid has a radial component of velocity but, unlike other centrifugal compressors,
at inlet the fluid has a perfectly axial velocity; this occurs due to the fact that the fluid
reaches the impeller directly after passing through an inlet plenum, without any return
channel. In these machines at the exit of one impeller, the fluid is generally cooled using
an external cooler and eventually flows into a second impeller; the advantage of having
overhung impellers is that they have their own peripheral speed, optimized for particular
conditions of the gas.
This feature permits to reach quite high efficiencies because the compressor works for
each section in high efficiency conditions.
 4.7 Special Applications for Centrifugal Compressors

The unconventional category of centrifugal compressors includes essentially two models:

ICL compressor and BLUE-C compressor.
The ICL is a machine that contains the electric motor (driver) and the compressor in a
closed box. A quote of the gas compressed by the first impeller is used to cool down the
magnetic bearings and the electric motor; this influences negatively the global efficiency.
Typically manufactured in Le Creusot, this compressor is used for small pipeline and
storage applications
The BLUE-C: is a machine realized to take the maximum advantage from subsea wells,
positioning the compressor directly on the sea-bed. It is designed to work at about 1000
meters under the sea and for this reason its reliability has to be guaranteed much more
than a conventional compressor. It could be compared to an ICL, in fact it is a
moto- compressor using magnetic bearings, all closed in a box. This is a module solution,
assembled and ready to be installed on the sea bed.
4.8Axial Compressor

Axial compressors, as centrifugal, are dynamic machines working with an operative fluid
that principally flows parallel to the axis of rotation; the last feature is in contrast with
other dynamic rotating compressors, in which the gas enters axially but at the exit has a
significant radial component of the velocity.
These machines have efficiencies higher than other dynamic machines and are able to
operate large flows thanks to their particular cross-section.
On the other hand they are very expansive and fragile machines because needs several
rows of airfoils to achieve high pressure rises.
Generally driven by:
 Large heavy duty gas turbine
 Steam turbines.
4.9Axial Compressor Components

An axial compressor consists of rotating and fixed components; the shaft is the element
that transfers the torque provided by the external driver and it is retained by bearings.
Assembled on the shaft there is a number of annular airfoils rows, rotor blades; these
rotate between an equal number of stationary airfoil rows attached to the casing, stator
blades. The main concept is that compression occurs whit the gas confined to the space
between the rotor and the stator blading where is compressed in stages by a series of
alternate rotating and stationary airfoil shaped blades. More in details the rotor imparts
energy to the fluid as rotational kinetic energy, while the stator converts it into static
pressure through diffusion. Considering an axial compressor, the cross sectional area
between rotor drum and casing is reduced in the flow direction so that the axial velocity
of the compressed fluid is maintained.
Clicking on the black video marker, while attending the online course, are available
videos related to: Axial Compression Flow.
 5. Dynamic Compressors Performance Curves

5.1Performance Curves Introduction

The performance curves are a graphical way to display the compressor performance
parameters; standing at API 617, knowing suction pressure, temperature and flow, gas
composition, stages characteristics and equation of state it is possible to calculate the
conditions at the discharge of each stage.
These curves are showed on a plot pressure ratio-inlet flow as constant speed curves (in
case of variable speed/frequency drivers)
The plot represents the envelope of all the possible operating conditions relevant to the
given suction parameter; the actual operating point is unique and it is always the
intersection between the compressor curve at the given speed and the plant resistance
curve which is the relationship between the pressure at the plant entry point (compressor
discharge) and the flow.
It is important to remark that the operating area represents the envelope of all the possible
operating conditions relevant to the compressor with the actual gas in the actual suction
conditions.
Obviously these machines have their operating limits; they depend on the correct set up
of the auxiliaries (lube and seal systems, gas system, and instrumentation). In general it is
possible to report two abnormal operating conditions for dynamic compressors: surge and
choking.

SURGE: A characteristic of compressor operations (both centrifugal and axial) is the

instability occurring at low operation flow. Flow and pressure pulsations, noise and shaft
vibrations can be noticed from outside. The intensity of such pulsations is very different
in the various cases; generally it rises by increasing the max compression ratio.
Considering a constant-speed curve we can have with such a phenomenon, called
"surging“, next to the max compression ratio the compressor can reach in those
conditions, at that speed.

ANTISURGE SYSTEM: The anti-surge system maintains the operating point within a
safe operating area by opening the antisurge valve at the appropriate moment; this valve
permits to recirculate part of the gas already compressed, increasing the flow “seen” by
the compressor.

CHOKING: By increasing the flow over the design value at constant speed, the losses
due to friction, in fixed and mobile ducts, and to impact, increase more and more
considerably. The right-hand limit of the performance curve is therefore fixed generally
by a minimum acceptable efficiency value.
Clarification on Resistance Curve
5.2Surge

Let’s consider an example in order to better understand the Surge.

Consider the circuit made up by the driver 1, the compressor 2 and the vessel 3, with gas
as operating fluid.
The compressor 2 sends the gas to the vessel 3 in which there is a pressure p1, through a
very short pipeline so that it is possible to neglect pressure drops; in these conditions the
compressor handles a flow rate Q1 at the pressure P1, and has its operating point in 1, at a
constant speed n1.
As the quantity of gas in the vessel increases, also the pressure rises, so the compressor
has to provide an higher pressure to fill up the vessel and its operating point moves to the
left of the diagram, point 2 and pressure P2, maintaining constant the rotational speed and
reducing the flow, Q2; this means that the compressor is adapting its operation to the new
conditions.
If pressure rises again and again, the operating point continues to move left till it reaches
the maximum of the compressor performance curve; the grey line (also called SURGE
LIMIT LINE) represents the maximum for each curve at constant speed; if the
compressor moves its operative point near to this line, instability arises.
In this conditions each additional increase of pressure will result in a fall in pressure of
the compressor that will not be able to provide the required level of pressure by the
circuit; in this situation the flow goes to zero and the pressure assumes the value
corresponding to Q=0 at a the same velocity, Ps.
The gas in the vessel is no longer blocked by the flow discharged from the compressor
outlet, so it flows again toward the suction side, producing a back flow.
Cause of the back flow, the pressure is now reduced and the compressor can operate
again regularly but handling the flow Qs, corresponding to the new level of pressure Ps.
If no action occurs, this phenomenon presents again and there is the SURGE.
Clicking on the black video marker, while attending the online course, are available
videos related to: Compression Surge and Prevention.
Antisurge

The anti-surge system maintains the operating point within a safe operating area by
opening the antisurge valve at the appropriate moment. If this system is not used,
instability can occur and can potentially damage the compressor. The valve opens when
the operating point reaches the limit marked by the Surge Control Line.
If the operating point is on the right side of the antisurge control line, no action is
performed.
If the operating point is on the left side of the antisurge control line, the controller opens
the antisurge valve in order to move the actual operating point until the antisurge control
line is reached.
The antisurge valve is opened by the controller, recycling the gas flow from discharge to
suction.
5.3Choke

By increasing the flow over the design value at constant speed, the losses due to friction,
in fixed and mobile ducts, and to impact, considerably increase. The right-hand limit of
the performance curve is therefore fixed generally by a minimum acceptable efficiency
value. In this case it is like an abrupt throttling ("choke") resulting in a rather vertical
drop of the performance curve. In other words it is like having a stonewall (this is also
the name of such a phenomenon) limiting the flow. It is very important to study and
foresee the choking flow when designing machines handling heavy gas or, with high
Mach values (e.g. propane, propylene, Freon refrigerating compressors) mainly if driven
at fixed speed. If natural gas is handled, the foregoing can apply only when different off-
design operation points are required at flow values much higher than those provided by
design. In any case the experiments carried out when studying the stages' standardization
represent the safe means to foresee and fix, beyond any theory, the right-hand limit,
namely the maximum flow of every curve at any speed.
 6. Auxiliary Systems

6.1Auxiliary Systems

Auxiliaries for axial and centrifugal compressor basically are part of five categories:

Lube Oil System: Its aim is to guarantee the lubrication of the compressor bearings to
permit good functionality of the machine and avoid any damage. This system can be
different depending on the compressor driver.
Seal System: its aim is to minimize the leakage of gas from the compressor. The most
used solution is dry gas seal, while oil seal are no longer used; labyrinth seals are used
only for non-dangerous gases at low pressures).

Machinery Protection System: its aim is to check continuously the mechanical parameters
of the compressor, verifying the proper operation and avoiding any damage.

Antisurge System: It has the aim to maintain the compressor in a stable operating range.
(Details on surge will follow)

IGV System: IGV that means Inlet Variable Vanes is used only on axial compressors;
basically IGV is constituted by a certain number of variable stator vanes that are used to
change the flow handled by the compressor and for this reason is also used to control the
operation of the machine.
 7. Information

7.1Information