L14-Power Series and Taylor Series

Outline Power Series Representing Functions as a Power Series Taylor Series and Maclaurin Series Ap
Chapter 1: Sequences and Series

Lecture 4: Power Series& Taylor Series
Assoc. Prof. Mai Duc Thanh
Assoc. Prof. Mai Duc Thanh Chapter 1: Sequences and Series Lecture 4: Power
Outline
1 Power Series
Outline
1 Power Series
2 Representing Functions as a Power Series

Power Series and Geometric Series
Term-by-Term Differentiation and Integration
Outline
1 Power Series

3 Taylor Series and Maclaurin Series
Outline
1 Power Series

3 Taylor Series and Maclaurin Series
4 Applications: Binomial Series
Power Series
We will see that e x can be expressed as an ”infinite

polynomial” called power series:
∞
x x2 x3 x4 X xn
ex = 1 + + + + + ... =
1! 2! 3! 4! n=0
n!
Power Series
We will see that e x can be expressed as an ”infinite

polynomial” called power series:
∞
x x2 x3 x4 X xn
ex = 1 + + + + + ... =
1! 2! 3! 4! n=0
n!
A power series centered at x = a is a series of the form

∞
X
cn (x − a)n = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 + c3 (x − a)3 + ...
n=0
We determine values x for which the series converges.
Theorem
P∞ n
Given n=0 cn (x − a) , there are 3 possibilities:
Theorem
P∞
Given cn (x − a)n , there are 3 possibilities:
P∞ n=0 n
n=0 cn (x − a) is convergent only for x = a, set
R = 0;
Theorem
P∞
P∞ n=0 n
R = 0;
P∞ n
n=0 cn (x − a) is convergent for all x , set R = ∞;
Theorem
P∞
P∞ n=0 n
R = 0;
P∞ n
n=0 cn (x − a) is convergent for all x , set R = ∞;
P∞ n
∃R > 0 such that n=0 cn (x − a) is absolutely
convergent if |x − a| < R and divergent if
|x − a| > R. It may or may not be convergent at
the endpoints |x − a| = R.
R is called radius of convergence
At the end-points?
It is necessary to check convergence at the endpoints

a − R and a + R separately.
At the end-points?

The interval on which the power series converges is

called Interval of Convergence:
At the end-points?

The interval on which the power series converges is

called Interval of Convergence:
(a − R, a + R), [a − R, a + R], [a − R, a + R),
(a − R, a + R]
Example
Find the radius of convergence and interval of
convergence of the power series
∞
X (x − 3)n
.
n=1
n2n
Example
∞
X (x − 3)n
.
n=1
n2n
(x − 3)n
Solution. Set an = .
n2n
Example
∞
X (x − 3)n
.
n=1
n2n
(x − 3)n
Solution. Set an = . One has
n2n

= lim |x − 3| n = |x − 3| .
an+1
L = lim

n→∞ an n→∞ 2 n+1 2
Example
∞
X (x − 3)n
.
n=1
n2n
(x − 3)n
n2n

= lim |x − 3| n = |x − 3| .
an+1
L = lim
n→∞ an n→∞ 2 n+1 2
By Ratio Test, the series is convergent for
L = |x − 3|/2 < 1, or |x − 3| < 2, and divergent for
|x − 3| > 2.
Example
∞
X (x − 3)n
.
n=1
n2n
(x − 3)n
n2n

= lim |x − 3| n = |x − 3| .
an+1
L = lim
n→∞ an n→∞ 2 n+1 2
By Ratio Test, the series is convergent for
L = |x − 3|/2 < 1, or |x − 3| < 2, and divergent for
|x − 3| > 2.
Thus, the radius of convergence is R = 2, and the
power series is convergent in (1, 5).
Example...
We need to check at the endpoints x = 1, 5 separately.
Example...
At x = 5 the series becomes
∞
X 1
.
n=1
n
This series is divergent.
Example...
∞
X 1
.
n=1
n

∞
X (−1)n
.
n=1
n
This series is convergent, by Alternating series Test.
Example...
∞
X 1
.
n=1
n

∞
X (−1)n
.
n=1
n
This series is convergent, by Alternating series Test.

Thus, the interval of convergence of the power series
is given by [1, 5).
Representing Functions as a Power Series
An important example of a power series is provided by

geometric series.
∞
1 X
= xn |x | < 1 (1)
1−x n=0
Example
Prove that
∞
1 X 1
= 2n x n , |x | <
1 − 2x n=0
2
Example
Prove that
∞
1 X 1
= 2n x n , |x | <
1 − 2x n=0
2
Solution. Substitute 2x for x in (1) we get

∞ ∞
1 X X
= (2x )n = 2n x n (2)
1 − 2x n=0 n=0
Example
Prove that
∞
1 X 1
= 2n x n , |x | <
1 − 2x n=0
2
Solution. Substitute 2x for x in (1) we get

∞ ∞
1 X X
= (2x )n = 2n x n (2)
1 − 2x n=0 n=0
Equation (1) is valid for |x | < 1 thus, the expansion

(2) is valid for |2x | < 1 or |x | < 1/2.
Theorem
Suppose that the power series F (x ) = ∞ n
P
n=0 cn (x − a)
has radius of convergence R > 0. Then
∞
X
0
F (x ) = ncn (x − a)n−1 x ∈ (a − R, a + R)
n=1
Theorem
Suppose that the power series F (x ) = ∞ n
P
n=0 cn (x − a)
has radius of convergence R > 0. Then
∞
X
0
F (x ) = ncn (x − a)n−1 x ∈ (a − R, a + R)
n=1
Z ∞
X cn
F (x )dx = A + (x − a)n+1 x ∈ (a − R, a + R)
n=0
n+1
These series have the same radius of convergence R.
Example: Term-by-Term Differentiation

Prove that
1
= 1 + 2x + 3x 2 + 4x 3 + 5x 4 + ..., −1 < x < 1
(1 − x )2
Example: Term-by-Term Differentiation

Prove that
1
= 1 + 2x + 3x 2 + 4x 3 + 5x 4 + ..., −1 < x < 1
(1 − x )2
Solution. Note
d 1 1
=
dx 1 − x (1 − x )2
Differentiate geometric series term-by-term to get:
d 1 d
= (1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + x 4 + ...)
dx 1 − x dx
or
1
2
= 1 + 2x + 3x 2 + 4x 3 + 5x 4 + ..., −1 < x < 1
(1 − x )
Example: Term-by-Term Integration

Prove that for −1 < x < 1,
∞
−1
X (−1)n x 2n+1 x3 x5 x7
tan x = =x− + − + ...
n=0
2n + 1 3 5 7

Prove that for −1 < x < 1,
∞
−1
X (−1)n x 2n+1 x3 x5 x7
tan x = =x− + − + ...
n=0
2n + 1 3 5 7
Solution. First, substitute −x 2 for x in

∞
1 X
= xn |x | < 1
1−x n=0
to obtain
∞ ∞
1 2 4 6
X
2 n
X
= 1 − x + x − x + ... = (−x ) = (−1)n x 2n
1 + x2 n=0 n=0
This expansion is valid for |x 2 | < 1, that is |x | < 1.

Integrate term-by-term this series:

∞
Z Z !
−1 dx X
n 2n
tan x = +C = (−1) x dx + C
1 + x2 n=0
∞ Z ∞
X
n 2n
X (−1)n x 2n+1
= (−1) x dx + C = +C
n=0 n=0
2n + 1
x3 x5 x7
=C +x − + − + ...
3 5 7
Integrate term-by-term this series:

∞
Z Z !
−1 dx X
n 2n
tan x = +C = (−1) x dx + C
1 + x2 n=0
∞ Z ∞
X
n 2n
X (−1)n x 2n+1
= (−1) x dx + C = +C
n=0 n=0
2n + 1
x3 x5 x7
=C +x − + − + ...
3 5 7
To determine the constant C , set x = 0. We obtain:
tan−1 0 = 0 = C .
Exercises
Expand a function in a power series and determine the

set of x for which the expression is valid
1 x
1) f (x ) = 2) f (x ) =
1 − 3x 1 + x9
1
3) f (x ) =
4 − 2x 3
Taylor Series
Suppose that series

∞
X
f (x ) = cn (x − a)n
n=0
= c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 + c3 (x − a)3 + ...
has radius of convergence R > 0
Taylor Series
Suppose that series

∞
X
f (x ) = cn (x − a)n
n=0
= c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 + c3 (x − a)3 + ...
has radius of convergence R > 0

Differentiate this series term-by-term to get:
f 0 (x ) = c1 + 2c2 (x − a) + 3c3 (x − a)2 + 4c4 (x − a)3 + ...

f ”(x ) = 2c2 + 2 · 3c3 (x − a) + 3 · 4c4 (x − a)2 + ... ···
f (n) (x ) = n!cn + (2 · 3 · · · (n + 1))cn+1 (x − a) + ...
Taylor Series
Setting x = a in these series, we get:
f (a) = c0 , f 0 (a) = c1 , f ”(a) = 2c2 , ..., f (n) (a) = n!cn
Taylor Series
Setting x = a in these series, we get:
f (a) = c0 , f 0 (a) = c1 , f ”(a) = 2c2 , ..., f (n) (a) = n!cn
So, the coefficients of power series are given by
f (n) (a)
cn = , ∀n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... (3)
n!
Taylor Series and Maclaurin Series
∞
X f (n) (a)
f (x ) = (x − a)n
n=0
n!
f ”(a)
=f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a) + (x − a)2 + ...
2!
f (n) (a)
+ (x − a)n + ...
n!
called the Taylor series of f (x ) centered at x = a.
Taylor Series and Maclaurin Series
∞
X f (n) (a)
f (x ) = (x − a)n
n=0
n!
f ”(a)
=f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a) + (x − a)2 + ...
2!
f (n) (a)
+ (x − a)n + ...
n!
called the Taylor series of f (x ) centered at x = a.
In the special case a = 0, it is called Maclaurin series:

∞
X f (n) (0) f ”(0) 2 f (n) (0) n
f (x ) = x n = f (0)+f 0 (0)x + x +...+ x +...
n=0
n! 2! n!
Function Representation by Taylor Series
Theorem
Let f (x ) be infinitely differentiable function on
I = (a − R, a + R) with R > 0. Assume ∃K ≥ 0 such
that for all n ≥ 0:
|f (n) (x )| ≤ K ∀x ∈ I
Then, f (x ) is represented by its Taylor series in I :

∞
X f (n) (a)
f (x ) = (x − a)n ∀x ∈ I
n=0
n!
Example 1
Find Taylor series of f (x ) = e x at x = a
Example 1
Find Taylor series of f (x ) = e x at x = a
Solution. f (n) (a) = e a
So
∞
x
X ea
e = (x − a)n ∀x ∈ RI
n=0
n!
we can prove that series is convergent for all x ∈ R
I .
In particular, for a = 0 we have
x2 x3 xn
ex = 1 + x + + + ... + + ...
2! 3! n!
1 1 1
⇒e ≈1+1+ + + ... +
2! 3! n!
for a large n
Example 2
Find the Maclaurin series for sin x and prove that it

represents for all x
Example 2

Solution.
f (x ) = sin x f (0) = 0
Example 2

Solution.
f (x ) = sin x f (0) = 0
f 0 (x ) = cos x f 0 (0) = 1
Example 2

Solution.
f (x ) = sin x f (0) = 0
f 0 (x ) = cos x f 0 (0) = 1
f ”(x ) = − sin x f ”(0) = 0
Example 2

Solution.
f (x ) = sin x f (0) = 0
f 0 (x ) = cos x f 0 (0) = 1
f ”(x ) = − sin x f ”(0) = 0
f 000 (x ) = − cos x f 000 (0) = −1
Example 2

Solution.
f (x ) = sin x f (0) = 0
f 0 (x ) = cos x f 0 (0) = 1
f ”(x ) = − sin x f ”(0) = 0
f 000 (x ) = − cos x f 000 (0) = −1
f (4) (x ) = sin x f (4) (0) = 0
Example 2

Solution.
f (x ) = sin x f (0) = 0
f 0 (x ) = cos x f 0 (0) = 1
f ”(x ) = − sin x f ”(0) = 0
f 000 (x ) = − cos x f 000 (0) = −1
f (4) (x ) = sin x f (4) (0) = 0
So
∞
X (−1)n
sin x = x 2n+1 ∀x ∈ R
I
n=0
(2n + 1)!
Applications: Binomial Series
Example: Find Maclaurin series for

f (x ) = (1 + x )k , k ∈ R
I
Solution:
f (x ) = (1 + x )k , f (0) = 1
f 0 (x ) = k(1 + x )k−1 , f 0 (0) = k
f ”(x ) = k(k − 1)(1 + x )k−2 , f ”(0) = k(k − 1)
f 000 (x ) = k(k − 1)(k − 2)(1 + x )k−3 f 000 (0) = k(k − 1)(k − 2)
..
.
f (n) (x ) = k(k − 1) · · · (k − n + 1)(1 + x )k−n
f (n) (0) = k(k − 1) · · · (k − n + 1)
Solution:
f (x ) = (1 + x )k , f (0) = 1
f 0 (x ) = k(1 + x )k−1 , f 0 (0) = k
f ”(x ) = k(k − 1)(1 + x )k−2 , f ”(0) = k(k − 1)
f 000 (x ) = k(k − 1)(k − 2)(1 + x )k−3 f 000 (0) = k(k − 1)(k − 2)
..
.
f (n) (x ) = k(k − 1) · · · (k − n + 1)(1 + x )k−n
f (n) (0) = k(k − 1) · · · (k − n + 1)
So, Maclaurin series, called binomial series, is
∞ ∞
X f (n) (0) n X k(k − 1) · · · (k − n + 1) n
x = x
n=0
n! n=0
n!
Binomial Coefficients
Binomial series:
∞
X k(k − 1) · · · (k − n + 1) n
x
n=0
n!
If k ∈ N, the series is finite.

an+1 |k − n| |1 − k/n|
a = n + 1 |x | = 1 + 1/n |x | → |x |, as n→∞

n
By Ratio Test, binomial series converges if |x | < 1 and

diverges for |x | > 1
Coefficients in binomial series, called binomial
coefficients, are

k k(k − 1) · · · (k − n + 1)
=
n n!
Binomial Series
Theorem
If k ∈ R
I and |x | < 1, then
∞
k
X k
(1 + x ) = xn
n
n=0
k(k − 1) 2 k(k − 1)(k − 2) 3
= 1 + kx + x + x + ...
2! 3!
The question whether it is convergent at endpoints ±1
depends on k: The series is convergent at x = 1 if
−1 < k ≤ 0 and at both x= ±1 if k ≥ 0
k
If k ∈ N, n > k > 0, then = 0, since it contains a
n
factor (k − k) = 0
Quiz
1) Determine whether the series is conditionally

convergent, absolutely convergent, or divergent.
∞ ∞
−3n 2n
X X
a) (−1)n−1 n−1/3 b)
n=1 n=1
n+1
2) Find radius of convergence and interval of

convergence of the power series:
∞ ∞
X (3x + 1)n X (x − 2)n
a) b) (−1)n
n=1
(n + 3)3 n=1
n2n
Quiz3
Determine whether the series is convergent, or

P∞ 1
divergent. a) 2 b)
n(ln n)3
P∞ 3 + cos n
n=1 √
n+2 n+1
2) Find radius of convergence and interval of

convergence of the power series:
∞ ∞
X (3x + 2)n X (x − 3)n
a) b) (−1)n
n=1
(n + 1)2 n=1
n3n

L14-Power Series and Taylor Series

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Outline Power Series Representing Functions as a Power Series Taylor Series and Maclaurin Series Ap

Chapter 1: Sequences and Series

Assoc. Prof. Mai Duc Thanh

2 Representing Functions as a Power Series

2 Representing Functions as a Power Series

3 Taylor Series and Maclaurin Series

2 Representing Functions as a Power Series

3 Taylor Series and Maclaurin Series

4 Applications: Binomial Series

We will see that e x can be expressed as an ”infinite

We will see that e x can be expressed as an ”infinite

A power series centered at x = a is a series of the form

We determine values x for which the series converges.

It is necessary to check convergence at the endpoints

It is necessary to check convergence at the endpoints

The interval on which the power series converges is

It is necessary to check convergence at the endpoints

The interval on which the power series converges is

This series is divergent.

This series is divergent.

This series is convergent, by Alternating series Test.

This series is divergent.

This series is convergent, by Alternating series Test.

Representing Functions as a Power Series

An important example of a power series is provided by

Solution. Substitute 2x for x in (1) we get

Solution. Substitute 2x for x in (1) we get

Equation (1) is valid for |x | < 1 thus, the expansion

Term-by-Term Differentiation and Integration

Term-by-Term Differentiation and Integration

Term-by-Term Differentiation and Integration

Term-by-Term Differentiation and Integration

These series have the same radius of convergence R.

Term-by-Term Differentiation and Integration

Example: Term-by-Term Differentiation

Term-by-Term Differentiation and Integration

Example: Term-by-Term Differentiation

Term-by-Term Differentiation and Integration

Example: Term-by-Term Integration

Term-by-Term Differentiation and Integration

Example: Term-by-Term Integration

Solution. First, substitute −x 2 for x in

This expansion is valid for |x 2 | < 1, that is |x | < 1.

Term-by-Term Differentiation and Integration

Example: Term-by-Term Integration

Integrate term-by-term this series:

Term-by-Term Differentiation and Integration

Example: Term-by-Term Integration

Integrate term-by-term this series:

Term-by-Term Differentiation and Integration

Expand a function in a power series and determine the

Suppose that series

has radius of convergence R > 0

Suppose that series

has radius of convergence R > 0

f 0 (x ) = c1 + 2c2 (x − a) + 3c3 (x − a)2 + 4c4 (x − a)3 + ...

Setting x = a in these series, we get:

f (a) = c0 , f 0 (a) = c1 , f ”(a) = 2c2 , ..., f (n) (a) = n!cn

Setting x = a in these series, we get:

f (a) = c0 , f 0 (a) = c1 , f ”(a) = 2c2 , ..., f (n) (a) = n!cn

So, the coefficients of power series are given by

Taylor Series and Maclaurin Series

Taylor Series and Maclaurin Series

In the special case a = 0, it is called Maclaurin series: