Topic: Foundation For Assessment: What To Assess

Topic  Foundation for
Assessment:
2 What to Assess
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Justify the behaviours that are to be measured to present a holistic
assessment of students;
2. Describe the various types of cognitive learning outcomes to be
assessed;
3. Describe the various types of affective learning outcomes to be
assessed; and
4. Describe the various types of psychomotor learning outcomes to be
assessed.
 INTRODUCTION
If you were to ask a teacher, what should be assessed in the classroom, the
immediate response would be, of course, the facts and concepts taught. They are
the facts and concepts found in science, history, geography, language, arts,
religious education and other similar subjects. However, the Malaysian
Philosophy of Education states that education should aim towards the holistic
development of the individual. Hence, it is only logical that the assessment system
should also seek to assess more than the acquisition of the facts and concepts of a
subject area. What about assessment of physical and motor abilities? What about
socioemotional behaviours such as attitudes, interests, personality and so forth?
Do they not contribute to the holistic person?
In this topic, you will learn the types of learning outcomes that need to be assessed
in a curriculum. The topic will conclude with a brief explanation on how to plan a
table of specification for a classroom test.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION FOR ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS  21
2.1 IDENTIFYING WHAT TO ASSESS

When educators are asked what should be assessed in the classroom, the majority
would refer to evaluating the acquisition of the facts, concepts, principles,
procedures and methods of a subject area. You might find a minority of educators
who insist that skills acquired by learners should also be assessed especially in
subjects such as physical education, art, drama, music, technical drawing,
carpentry, automobile engineering and so forth. Even fewer educators would
propose that the socioemotional behaviour of learners should also be assessed.
National Philosophy of Malaysian Education

Education in Malaysia is an ongoing effort towards further developing the
potentials of individuals in a holistic and integrated manner so as to produce
individuals who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically
balanced and harmonic, based on a firm belief in and devotion to God. Such an
effort is designed to produce Malaysian citizens who are knowledgeable and
competent, who possess high moral standards and who are responsible and
capable of achieving a high level of personal well-being as well as being able to
contribute to the harmony and betterment of the family, society and the nation
at large.
(Curriculum Development Centre, Ministry of Education Malaysia, 1988)
The National Philosophy of Malaysian Education has important implications for

assessment. Theoretically, a comprehensive assessment system should seek to
provide information on the extent to which the National Philosophy of Education
has achieved its goal. In other words, the assessment system should seek to
determine:
(a) Whether our schools have developed „the potentials of individuals in a
holistic and integrated manner‰;
(b) Whether our students are „intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and
physically balanced‰;
(c) Whether our students are „knowledgeable and competent‰ and „possess
high moral standards‰;
(d) Whether our students have a „high level of personal well-being‰; and
(e) Whether students are equipped with the abilities and attitudes that will
enable them „to contribute to the harmony and betterment of the family,
society and the nation at large‰.
22  TOPIC 2 FOUNDATION FOR ASSESSMENT: WHAT TO ASSESS
On the contrary, in actual practice the assessment tends to overemphasise on

intellectual competence which translates into the measurement of cognitive
learning outcomes of specific subject areas. The other aspects of the holistic
individual are given minimal attention because of various reasons. For example,
how does a teacher assess the spiritual or emotional growth and development?
These are constructs that are difficult to evaluate and extremely subjective. Hence,
it is no surprise that assessment of cognitive outcomes has remained the focus of
most assessment systems all over the world because it is relatively easier to
observe and measure. However, in this topic we will make an attempt to present
a more „holistic‰ assessment of learning, focusing on three main types of human
behaviour. These are behaviours that psychometricians and psychologists have
attempted to assess and are closely aligned to realising the goals of the National
Philosophy of Malaysian Education.
2.2 THREE TYPES OF LEARNING OUTCOMES

Few people will dispute that the purpose of schooling is the development of the
holistic person. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, a group of psychologists and
psychometricians proposed that schools should seek to assess three domains of
learning outcomes (refer to Figure 2.1):
(a) Cognitive learning outcomes (knowledge or mental skills);
(b) Affective learning outcomes (feelings or emotions); and
(c) Psychomotor learning outcomes (manual or physical skills).
Figure 2.1: Holistic assessment of learners

Domains can be thought of as categories. Educators often refer to these three

domains as KSA (Knowledge, Skills and Attitude). Each domain consists of
subdivisions, starting from the simplest behaviour to the most complex, thus
forming taxonomy of learning outcomes. Each of the taxonomy of learning
behaviour can be thought of as „the goals of the schooling process.‰ That means
that after schooling, the learner should have acquired new skills, knowledge,
and/or attitudes. However, the levels of each division outlined are not absolutes.
While there are other systems or hierarchies that have been devised in the
educational world, these three taxonomies are easily understood and are probably
the most widely used today.
To assess the three domains, one has to identify and isolate the behaviour that
represents these domains. When we assess we evaluate some aspects of the
learnerÊs behaviour, for example, his ability to compare, explain, analyse, solve,
draw, pronounce, feel, reflect and so forth. The term „behaviour‰ is used broadly
to include the learnerÊs ability to think (cognitive), feel (affective) and perform a
skill (psychomotor). For example, you have just taught about „The Rainforest of
Malaysia‰ and you would like to assess your students in their:
(a) Thinking ă You might ask them to list the characteristics of the Malaysian
rainforest and compare it with the coniferous forest of Canada;
(b) Feelings (emotions, attitudes) ă You could ask them to design an exhibition
on how students could contribute towards conserving the rainforest; and
(c) Skill ă You could ask them to prepare satellite maps about the changing
Malaysian rainforest by accessing websites from the Internet.
ACTIVITY 2.1
Refer to Figure 2.1. To what extent are affective and psychomotor

behaviours assessed in your institution?
Discuss with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum.

2.3 ASSESSING COGNITIVE LEARNING

OUTCOMES
When we evaluate or assess a human being, we are assessing or evaluating the
behaviour of a person. This might be a bit confusing to some people. Are we
not assessing a personÊs understanding of the facts, concepts and principles of a
subject area? Every subject, whether it is history, science, geography, economics,
or mathematics, has its unique repertoire of facts, concepts, principles,
generalisations, theories, laws, procedures and methods that are transmitted to
learners (illustrated in Figure 2.2).
Figure 2.2: Contents of a subject assessed
When we assess we do not assess the learnerÊs store of the facts, concepts or
principles of a subject but rather what the learner is able to do with the facts,
concepts or principles of a subject area. For example, we evaluate the learnerÊs
ability to compare facts, explain the concept, analyse a generalisation (or
statement) or solve a problem based on a given principle. In other words, we assess
the understanding or mastery of a body of knowledge based upon what the learner
is able to do with the contents of the subject. Let us look at two mechanisms used
to measure or assess cognitive learning, namely BloomÊs Taxonomy and The
Helpful Hundred.
(a) BloomÊs Taxonomy

In 1956, Benjamin Bloom led a group of educational psychologists to develop
a classification of levels of intellectual behaviour which are important to
learning. They found that over 95 per cent of the test questions which
learners encountered required them to think only at the lowest possible level,
that is the recall of information. Bloom and his colleagues developed a widely
accepted taxonomy (method of classification on differing levels) for cognitive
objectives. This is referred to as BloomÊs Taxonomy (refer to Figure 2.3).
There are six levels in BloomÊs classification with the lowest level termed
knowledge. The knowledge level is followed by five increasingly difficult
levels of mental abilities: comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and
evaluation.
Figure 2.3: BloomÊs taxonomy of cognitive learning outcomes
Now, read further to find out what each level constitutes.
(i) Knowledge: The behaviours at the knowledge level require learners to

recall specific information. The knowledge level is the lowest cognitive
level. Examples of verbs describing behaviours at the knowledge level
include the ability to list, define, name, state, recall, match, identify, tell,
label, underline, locate, recognise, select and so forth. For example,
learnersÊ ability to recite the factors leading to the World War II, quote
formula for density and force, tell laboratory safety rules.
(ii) Comprehension: The behaviours at the comprehension level which is a

higher level of mental ability than the knowledge level require the
understanding of the meaning of concepts and principles, translation
of words and phrases into oneÊs own words, interpolation which
involves filling in missing information, interpretation which involves
inferring and going beyond the given information. Examples of verbs
describing behaviours at the comprehension level are explain,
distinguish, infer, interpret, convert, generalise, defend, estimate,
extend, paraphrase, retell using own words, predict, rewrite,
summarise, translate and so forth. For example, learners are able to

rewrite NewtonÊs three laws of motion, explain in oneÊs own words the
steps for performing a complex task and translate an equation into a
computer spreadsheet.
(iii) Application: The behaviours at the application level require learners to

apply a rule or principle learned in the classroom into novel or new
situations in the workplace or unprompted use of an abstraction.
Examples of verbs describing behaviours at the application level are
apply, change, compute, demonstrate, discover, manipulate, modify,
give an example, operate, predict, prepare, produce, relate, show,
solve, use and so forth. For example, learners are able to use the formula
for projectile motion to calculate the maximum distance a long jumper
jumps and apply laws of statistics to evaluate the reliability of a written
test.
(iv) Analysis: The behaviours at the analysis level require learners to

identify component parts and describe their relationship, separate
material or concepts into component parts so that its organisational
structure may be understood and distinguish between facts and
inferences. Examples of verbs describing behaviours at the analysis
level are analyse, break down, compare, contrast, diagram,
deconstruct, examine, dissect, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish,
identify, illustrate, infer, outline, relate, select, separate and so forth.
For example, learners are able to troubleshoot a piece of equipment by
using logical deduction, recognise logical fallacies in reasoning, analyse
information from a company and determine needs for training.
(v) Synthesis: The behaviours at the synthesis level require learners to

build a structure or pattern from diverse elements and put parts
together to form a whole with emphasis on creating a new meaning or
structure. Examples of verbs describing behaviours at the synthesis
level are categorise, combine, compile, compose, create, devise, design,
explain, generate, modify, organise, plan, rearrange, reconstruct,
relate, reorganise, find an unusual way, formulate, revise, rewrite,
summarise, tell, write and so forth. For example, learners are able to
write a creative short story, design a method to perform a specific task,
integrate ideas from several sources to solve a problem, devise a new
plan of action to improve the outcome.

(vi) Evaluation: The behaviours at the evaluation level require learners to

make judgment about materials and methods, and the value of ideas or
materials. Examples of verbs describing behaviours at the evaluation
level are appraise, compare, conclude, contrast, criticise, critique,
defend, describe, rank, give your own opinion, discriminate, evaluate,
explain, interpret, value, justify, relate, summarise, support and so
forth. For example, learners are able to evaluate and decide on the most
effective solution to a problem, justify the choice of a new procedure or
course of action.
(b) The Helpful Hundred

Heinich, Molenda, Russell and Smaldino (2001) suggested 100 verbs that
highlight performance or behaviours that are observable and measurable.
This is not to say that these 100 verbs are the only ones but they definitely are
a great reference for educators. Table 2.1 displays the verbs that would be
appropriate to use when you are writing instructional objectives in each level
of BloomÊs Taxonomy.
Table 2.1: The Helpful Hundred
add compute drill label predict state

alphabetise conduct estimate locate prepare subtract
analyse construct evaluate make present suggest
apply contrast explain manipulate produce swing
arrange convert extrapolate match pronounce tabulate
assemble correct fit measure read throw
attend cut generate modify reconstruct time
bisect deduce graph multiply reduce translate
build defend grasp name remove type
cave define grind operate revise underline
categorise demonstrate hit order select verbalise
choose derive hold organise sketch verify
classify describe identify outline ski weave
colour design illustrate pack solve weigh
compare designate indicate paint sort write
complete diagram install plot specify
compose distinguish kick position square

In 2001, Krathwohl and Anderson modified the original BloomÊs Taxonomy (1956).
They identified and isolated the following list of behaviours that an assessment
system should address (refer to Table 2.2).
Table 2.2: Revised Version of BloomÊs Taxonomy
Category and Cognitive Process Alternative Names

1. Remembering
Ć Recognising Ć Identifying
Ć Recalling Ć Retrieving
2. Understanding
Ć Interpreting Ć Clarifying, paraphrasing, representing,
Ć Exemplifying translating
Ć Classifying Ć Illustrating, instantiating
Ć Summarising Ć Categorising, subsuming
Ć Inferring Ć Abstracting, generalising
Ć Comparing Ć Concluding, extrapolating, interpolating,
predicting
Ć Explaining
Ć Contrasting, mapping, matching
Ć Constructing models
3. Applying
Ć Executing Ć Carrying out
Ć Implementing Ć Using
4. Analysing
Ć Differentiating Ć Discriminating, distinguishing, focusing,
Ć Organising selecting
Ć Attributing Ć Finding coherence, integrating, outlining,
structuring
Ć Deconstructing
5. Evaluating
Ć Checking Ć Coordinating, detecting, monitoring, testing
Ć Criticising Ć Judging
6. Creating
Ć Generating Ć Hypothesising
Ć Planning Ć Designing
Ć Producing Ć Constructing
Source: Krathwohl & Anderson (2001)

Note that the sequencing of some of the levels has been rearranged and renamed.
The first two original levels of „knowledge‰ and „comprehension‰ were replaced
with „remembering‰ and „understanding‰ respectively. The „synthesis‰ level was
renamed with the term „creating‰. Note that in the original taxonomy the sequence
was „synthesis‰ followed by „evaluate‰. In the modified taxonomy, the sequence
was rearranged to „evaluating‰ followed by „creating‰.
As you can see, the primary differences between the original and the revised
taxonomy are not in the listings or rewordings from nouns to verbs, or in the
renaming of some of the components, or even in the re-positioning of the last two
categories. The major differences lie in the more useful and comprehensive
additions of how the taxonomy intersects and acts upon different types and levels
of knowledge ă factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive.
(a) Factual knowledge refers to essential facts, terminologies, details or elements

that learners must know or be familiar with in order to understand a
discipline or solve a problem with it;
(b) Conceptual knowledge is knowledge of classifications, principles,

generalisations, theories, models or structures pertinent to a particular
disciplinary area;
(c) Procedural knowledge refers to information or knowledge that helps

learners do something specific to a discipline, subject or area of study. It also
refers to the methods of inquiry, very specific or finite skills, algorithms,
techniques and particular methodologies; and
(d) Metacognition is simply thinking about oneÊs thinking. More precisely, it

refers to the processes used to plan, monitor and assess oneÊs understanding
and performance. Activities such as planning how to approach a given
learning task, monitoring comprehension and evaluating progress toward
the completion of a task are metacognitive in nature.
BloomÊs aim was to promote higher forms of thinking in education such as

analysing, creating and evaluating rather than just teaching learners to remember
facts (rote learning). Higher-order thinking (HOT) takes thinking to higher levels
other than restating the facts and requires learners to do something with the facts
such as understand them, infer from them, connect them to other facts and
concepts, categorise them, manipulate them, put them together in new or novel
ways, and apply them as we seek new solutions to new problems.

SELF-CHECK 2.1
1. Explain the differences between analysis and synthesis according

to BloomÊs Taxonomy.
2. How is the revised version of BloomÊs Taxonomy different

from the original version?
ACTIVITY 2.2
1. Do you agree that BloomÊs Taxonomy is a hierarchy of cognitive
abilities? Justify.
2. You need to be able to „analyse‰ before being able to „evaluate‰.

Comment.
3. Using The Helpful Hundred, list the learning outcomes

appropriate for the subject area you are teaching.
Share all your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online
forum.
2.4 ASSESSING AFFECTIVE OUTCOMES

Affective characteristics involve the feelings or emotions of a person. Attitudes,
values, self-esteem, locus of control, self-efficacy, interests, aspirations and anxiety
are all examples of affective characteristics. Unfortunately, affective outcomes
have not been a central part of our education system even though they are
arguably as important as, or even more important than, any cognitive or
psychomotor domain of learning outcomes targeted by schools. Some possible
reasons for the lack of emphasis on affective outcomes include:
(a) The belief that the development of appropriate feelings is the task of the
family and religion.
(b) The belief that appropriate feelings develop automatically from knowledge
and experience with content and do not require any special pedagogical
attention.

(c) Attitudinal and value-oriented instructions are difficult to develop and

assess because:
(i) Affective goals are intangible;
(ii) Affective outcomes cannot be attained in the typical periods of

instruction offered in schools;
(iii) Affective characteristics are considered to be private rather than public

matters; and
(iv) There are no sound methods to gather information about affective

characteristics.
However, affective goals are no more intangible than cognitive ones. Some have
claimed that affective behaviours can be developed automatically when specific
knowledge are taught while others argue that affective behaviours have to be
explicitly developed in schools. Affective goals do not necessarily take longer to
achieve in the classroom than cognitive goals. All that is required is to state a goal
more concretely and behaviourally-oriented so that it can be assessed and
monitored.
There is also the belief that affective characteristics are private and should not be
made public. While people value their privacy, the public also has the right to
information. If the information gathered is needed to make a decision, then the
gathering of such information is not generally considered an invasion of privacy.
For example, if an assessment is used to determine whether a learner needs further
attention such as special education, then gathering such information is not an
invasion of privacy. On the other hand, if the information being sought-after is not
relevant to the stated purpose, then gathering of such information is likely to be
an invasion of privacy.
Similarly, information about affective characteristics can be used for good or bad.
For example, if a mathematics teacher discovers a learner has a negative attitude
towards mathematics and ridicules that learner in front of the class, then the
information has been misused. However, if the teacher uses the information to
change his instructional methods so as to help the learner develop a more positive
attitude towards mathematics, then the information has been used wisely.
Krathwohl, Bloom and Bertram and their colleagues developed the affective
domain in 1973 which deals with things emotionally such as feelings, values,
appreciation, enthusiasm, motivation and attitudes. The five major categories
which listed the simplest behaviour to the most complex behaviour are receiving,
responding, valuing, organisation and characterisation (refer to Figure 2.4).

Figure 2.4: Krathwohl, Bloom and BertramÊs taxonomy of affective learning outcomes
Let us read on to find about more about the taxonomy.
(a) Receiving
The behaviours at the receiving level require the learner to be aware of,
willing to hear and focus his or her attention. Examples of verbs describing
behaviours at the receiving level are ask, choose, describe, follow, give, hold,
locate, name, point to, reply and so forth.
For example, the learner:
(i) Listens to others with respect; and
(ii) Listens for and remembers the names of other learners.
(b) Responding
The behaviours at the responding level require the learner to be an active
participant, attend to and react to a particular phenomenon, be willing to
respond and gain satisfaction in responding (motivation). Examples of verbs
describing behaviours at the responding level are answer, assist, aid, comply
with, conform, discuss, greet, help, label, perform, practise, present, read,
recite, report, select, tell, and write.
(i) Participates in class discussion;
(ii) Gives a presentation; and
(iii) Questions new ideals, concepts and models in order to fully

understand them.

(c) Valuing
This level relates to the worth or value a person attaches to a particular object,
phenomenon or behaviour. It ranges from simple acceptance to the more
complex state of commitment. Valuing is based on the internalisation of a set
of specified values while clues to these values are expressed in the learner as
overt behaviours and are often identifiable. Examples of verbs describing
behaviours at the valuing level are demonstrate, differentiate, explain,
follow, form, initiate, invite, join, justify, propose, read, report, select, share,
study and work.

(i) Demonstrates belief in the democratic process;
(ii) Is sensitive towards individual and cultural differences (value
diversity);
(iii) Shows the ability to solve problems;
(iv) Proposes a plan to social improvement; and
(v) Follows through with commitment.
(d) Organisation
At this level, a person organises values into priorities by contrasting different
values, resolving conflicts between them and creating a unique value system.
The emphasis is on comparing, relating and synthesising values. Examples
of verbs describing behaviours at the level of organisation are adhere to,
alter, arrange, combine, compare, complete, defend, explain, formulate,
generalise, identify, integrate, modify, order, organise, prepare, relate and
synthesise.

(i) Recognises the need for balance between freedom and responsible
behaviour;
(ii) Accepts responsibility for his behaviour;
(iii) Explains the role of systematic planning in solving problems;
(iv) Accepts professional ethical standards;
(v) Creates a life plan in harmony with abilities, interests and beliefs; and
(vi) Prioritises time effectively to meet the needs of the organisation, family
and self.

(e) Characterisation
At this level, a personÊs value system controls his behaviour. The behaviour
is pervasive, consistent, predictable and most importantly, characterises the
learner. Examples of verbs describing behaviours at this level are act,
discriminate, display, influence, listen, modify, perform, practise, propose,
qualify, question, revise, serve, solve and verify.
(i) Shows self-reliance when working independently;
(ii) Cooperates in group activities (displays teamwork);
(iii) Uses an objective approach in problem-solving;
(iv) Displays a professional commitment to ethical practice on a daily basis;
(v) Revises judgment and changes behaviour in light of new evidence; and
(vi) Values people for what they are, not how they look.
Table 2.3 shows how the affective taxonomy may be applied to a value such as
honesty. It traces the development of an affective attribute such as honesty from
the „receiving‰ level up to the „characterisation‰ level where the value becomes a
part of the individualÊs character.
Table 2.3: An Affective Taxonomy for Honesty
Individual Character Explanation

Receiving (Attending) Aware that certain things are honest or dishonest
Responding Saying that honesty is better and behaving
accordingly
Valuing Consistently (but not always) telling the truth
Organisation Being honest in various situations
Characterisation by a value or Honest in most situations, expects others to be honest
value complex and interacts with others with all honesty
SELF-CHECK 2.2
Explain the differences between characterisation and valuing according

to the affective taxonomy of learning outcomes.

ACTIVITY 2.3
1. The Role of Affect in Education
„Some say schools should only be concerned with content.‰
„It is impossible to teach content without teaching affect as well.‰
„To what extent, if at all, should we be concerned with the
assessment of affective outcomes?‰
Discuss the three statements in the context of the Malaysian
education system.
2. Select any two values from the list of 16 universal values and design
an affective taxonomy for each value as shown in Table 2.3.
3. „A student is operating at the responding level.‰
What does the statement mean? Explain.
Share all your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online
forum.
2.5 ASSESSING PSYCHOMOTOR LEARNING

OUTCOMES
The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination and use of
the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is
measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures or techniques in
execution. The seven major categories listed from the simplest behaviour to the
most complex are shown in Figure 2.5.
Figure 2.5: The taxonomy of psychomotor learning outcomes

Let us read further to find out more about psychomotor learning.
(a) Perception
Perception is the ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity. This
ranges from sensory stimulation through cue selection to translation.
Examples of verbs describing these types of behaviours are choose, describe,
detect, differentiate, distinguish, identify, isolate, relate and select.
(i) Detects non-verbal communication cues from the coach;
(ii) Estimates where a ball will land after it is thrown and then moving to
the correct location to catch the ball;
(iii) Adjusts heat of the stove to the correct temperature through smell and
taste of food; and
(iv) Adjusts the height of the ladder in relation to the point on the wall.
(b) Set
It includes mental, physical and emotional sets. These three sets are
dispositions that predetermine a personÊs response to different situations
(sometimes called mindset). Examples of verbs describing „set‰ are begin,
display, explain, move, proceed, react, show, state and volunteer.
(i) Knows and acts upon a sequence of steps in a manufacturing process;
(ii) Recognises his abilities and limitations; and
(iii) Shows desire to learn a new process (motivation).
 Note: This subdivision of the psychomotor domain is closely

related with the „responding‰ subdivision of the affective domain.
(c) Guided Response

Guided response refers to the early stages of learning a complex skill which
includes imitation and trial and error. Adequacy of performance is achieved
by practicing. Examples of verbs describing „guided response‰ are copy,
trace, follow, react, reproduce and respond.

(i) Performs a mathematical equation;
(ii) Follows instructions when building a model of a kampung house; and
(iii) Responds to hand signals of the coach while learning gymnastics.
(d) Mechanism
This is the intermediate stage in learning a complex skill. Learned responses
have become habitual and the movements can be performed with some
confidence and proficiency. Examples of verbs describing „mechanism‰
include assemble, calibrate, construct, dismantle, display, fasten, fix, grind,
heat, manipulate, measure, mend, mix and organise.
(i) Uses a computer;
(ii) Repairs a leaking tap;
(iii) Fixes a three-pin electrical plug; and
(iv) Rides a motorbike.
(e) Complex Overt Response

Complex overt response involves the skilful performance of motor acts that
involve complex movement patterns. Proficiency is indicated by quick,
accurate and highly coordinated performance requiring minimum energy.
This category includes performing without hesitation and automatic
performance. For example, tennis players such as Maria Sharapova and
Serena Williams often utter sounds of satisfaction or expletives as soon as
they hit a tennis ball. Similarly for golf players when they immediately
realised that they have hit a bad shot. This is because they can tell by the feel
of the act and the result that will follow. Examples of verbs describing
„complex overt responses‰ are assemble, build, calibrate, construct,
dismantle, display, fasten, fix, grind, heat, manipulate, measure, mend, mix,
organise and sketch.
(i) Manoeuvres a car into a tight parallel parking spot;
(ii) Operates a computer quickly and accurately; and
(iii) Displays competence while playing the piano.

 Note that many of the verbs are the same as „mechanism‰, but will
have adverbs or adjectives that indicate that the performance is
quicker, better and more accurate.
(f) Adaptation
Skills are well-developed and the individual can modify movement patterns
to fit special requirements. Examples of verbs describing „adaptation‰ are
adapt, alter, change, rearrange, reorganise, revise and vary.
(i) Responds effectively to unexpected experiences;
(ii) Modifies instructions to meet the needs of learners;
(iii) Performs a task with a machine that it was originally not designed to
do (assuming that the machine is not damaged and there is no danger
in performing the new task).
(g) Origination
Origination is about creating new movements or patterns to fit a particular
situation or specific problem. Learning outcomes emphasise creativity based
upon highly developed skills. Examples of verbs describing „origination‰ are
arrange, build, combine, compose, construct, create, design, initiate, make
and originate.
(i) Constructs a new theory;
(ii) Develops a new technique for goalkeeping; and
(iii) Creates a new gymnastic routine.
SELF-CHECK 2.3
Explain the differences between adaptation and guided response
according the psychomotor taxonomy of learning outcomes

ACTIVITY 2.4
„A student is operating at the origination level.‰
What does the statement mean? Explain.
Share your answer with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

forum.
As a guide, Table 2.5 shows the allotment of time for each type of question.
Table 2.5: Allotment of Time for Each Type of Question
Task Approximate Time Per Item

True-False 20ă30 seconds
Multiple-choice (factual) 40ă60 seconds
Multiple-choice (complex) 70ă90 seconds
Matching (5 stems or 6 choices) 2ă4 minutes
Short answers 2ă4 minutes
Multiple-choice (with calculations) 2ă5 minutes
Word problems (simple math) 5ă10 minutes
Short essays 15ă20 minutes
Data analysis or graphing 15ă25 minutes
Extended essays 35ă50 minutes
Once your questions are developed, make sure that you include clear instructions
for the learners. For the objective items, specify that they should select one answer
for each item and indicate the point value of each question, especially if you are
allocating different weightage to different sections of the test. For essay items,
indicate the point value and suggested time to be spent on the item. We will
discuss different types of questions in more detail in Topics 3 and 4. If you are
teaching a large class with close seating arrangements and are giving an objective
test, you may want to consider administering several versions of your test to
minimise the opportunities for cheating. This is done by creating versions of your
test with different numberings of the items.

 Assessment of cognitive outcomes has remained the focus of most assessment

systems all over the world because it is relatively easier to observe and
measure.
 Each domain of learning consists of subdivisions, starting from the simplest

behaviour to the most complex thus forming taxonomy of learning outcomes.
 When we evaluate or assess a human being, we are assessing or evaluating the

behaviour of a person.
 Every subject area has is unique repertoire of facts, concepts, principles,

generalisations, theories, laws, procedures and methods that are transmitted
to learners.
 There are six levels in BloomÊs taxonomy of cognitive learning outcomes with
the lowest level termed knowledge followed by five increasingly difficult
levels of mental abilities, which are comprehension, application, analysis,
synthesis and evaluation.
 The six levels in the revised version of BloomÊs taxonomy are remembering,
understanding, applying, analysing, evaluating and creating.
 Affective characteristics involve the feelings or emotions of a person. Attitudes,

values, self-esteem, locus of control, self-efficacy, interests, aspirations and
anxieties are examples of affective characteristics.
 The five major categories of the affective domain from the simplest behaviour
to the most complex behaviour are receiving, responding, valuing,
organisation and characterisation.
 The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use

of the motor-skill areas.
 The seven major categories of the psychomotor domain from the simplest
behaviour to the most complex are perception, set, guided response,
mechanism, complex overt response, adaptation and origination.

Affective learning outcomes Holistic assessment

BloomÊs taxonomy Psychomotor learning outcome
Cognitive learning outcomes The Helpful Hundred

Topic: Foundation For Assessment: What To Assess

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Topic  Foundation for

2.1 IDENTIFYING WHAT TO ASSESS

National Philosophy of Malaysian Education

(Curriculum Development Centre, Ministry of Education Malaysia, 1988)

The National Philosophy of Malaysian Education has important implications for

On the contrary, in actual practice the assessment tends to overemphasise on

2.2 THREE TYPES OF LEARNING OUTCOMES

Figure 2.1: Holistic assessment of learners

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Domains can be thought of as categories. Educators often refer to these three

Refer to Figure 2.1. To what extent are affective and psychomotor

Discuss with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum.

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2.3 ASSESSING COGNITIVE LEARNING

Figure 2.2: Contents of a subject assessed

(a) BloomÊs Taxonomy

Figure 2.3: BloomÊs taxonomy of cognitive learning outcomes

Now, read further to find out what each level constitutes.

(i) Knowledge: The behaviours at the knowledge level require learners to

(ii) Comprehension: The behaviours at the comprehension level which is a

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(iii) Application: The behaviours at the application level require learners to

(iv) Analysis: The behaviours at the analysis level require learners to

(v) Synthesis: The behaviours at the synthesis level require learners to

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(vi) Evaluation: The behaviours at the evaluation level require learners to

(b) The Helpful Hundred

Table 2.1: The Helpful Hundred

add compute drill label predict state

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Table 2.2: Revised Version of BloomÊs Taxonomy

Category and Cognitive Process Alternative Names

Source: Krathwohl & Anderson (2001)

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(a) Factual knowledge refers to essential facts, terminologies, details or elements

(b) Conceptual knowledge is knowledge of classifications, principles,

(c) Procedural knowledge refers to information or knowledge that helps

(d) Metacognition is simply thinking about oneÊs thinking. More precisely, it

BloomÊs aim was to promote higher forms of thinking in education such as

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1. Explain the differences between analysis and synthesis according

2. How is the revised version of BloomÊs Taxonomy different

2. You need to be able to „analyse‰ before being able to „evaluate‰.

3. Using The Helpful Hundred, list the learning outcomes

2.4 ASSESSING AFFECTIVE OUTCOMES

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(c) Attitudinal and value-oriented instructions are difficult to develop and

(i) Affective goals are intangible;

(ii) Affective outcomes cannot be attained in the typical periods of

(iii) Affective characteristics are considered to be private rather than public

(iv) There are no sound methods to gather information about affective

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Let us read on to find about more about the taxonomy.

For example, the learner:

(i) Listens to others with respect; and

(ii) Listens for and remembers the names of other learners.

For example, the learner:

(i) Participates in class discussion;

(ii) Gives a presentation; and

(iii) Questions new ideals, concepts and models in order to fully

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For example, the learner:

For example, the learner: