SKELETAL SYSTEM

LESSON 1: SKELETAL STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS

BONES
- The primary organs of skeletal system

FUNCTIONS OF SKELETAL SYSTEM

1. Protection of vital structures
2. Support of body structures
3. Body locomotion through coordination with the muscular system
4. Hematopoiesis - generation of blood cells within the red marrow spaces of bones
5. Storage and release of the inorganic minerals, calcium, and phosphorus are needed for functions such as muscle
contraction and neural signal conduction

CONNECTIVE TISSUES

● TENDONS
- Technically a muscular system structure
- An important connective tissue for stabilizing joint and supporting structures.

● CARTILAGE
- Firm yet pliable substance that protects, shapes maintenance and support, lubricates the joints,
and provides shock absorption.
- Coats the bones’ ends where they articulate with one another, providing a smooth and cushioned
surface.

2 FUNCTIONAL FUNCTION OF SKELETAL ANATOMY

1. AXIAL SKELETON
- Composed of:
● Skull
- Collection of bones that protects the brain
- Mandible - two major parts of the skull.

● Hyoid bone
- The U-shaped bone in the neck which supports the tongue.
● Vertebral column
- Consists of individual vertebrae separated by cartilaginous discs.
- Form the middle axis of the skeleton
● Thorax
- Provides a base for the muscle attachment of the upper extremities, the head and neck, the
vertebral column, and the pelvis.
- Provides protection for the heart, lungs, and viscera.

BONES LOCATION FUNCTION MAJOR

GROUPING

Cranium Head ● Supports facial structure.

● Encloses and protects the brain. Skull
● Provides muscle attachments for chewing
and moving the head.

Mandible Lower jaw ● Permits chewing Skull

Vertebrae Spine ● Permit mechanical stability for the body. Vertebral

● Protect the spinal cord column

Ribs Chest wall ● Protect the organs of the upper body. Thoracic cage

Sternum Center of the chest ● Provides attachment for many (not all) ribs Thoracic cage
 2. APPENDICULAR SKELETON
- Comprises the upper limbs, lower limbs, pectoral girdle, and pelvic girdle.
- Functions to anchor the limbs to the axial skeleton.

BONES LOCATION FUNCTION MAJOR

GROUPING

Scapula Posterior side of each ● Articulates with the clavicle and humerus Pectoral girdle
shoulder

Clavicle Each shoulder at the ● Helps to keep the shoulders in place as part Pectoral girdle
base of the neck of the pectoral girdle

Extends from the scapula ● Provides attachments for muscle that move
to the elbow the shoulder and upper arm at the proximal
Humerus end. Upper limbs
● Articulates with the radius and ulna at the
distal end.

Lateral side of the ● Provides attachment for muscles that rotate

Radius forearm between the and bend the arm at the elbow and muscles Upper limbs
elbow and wrist that allow movement of the wrist.

Medial side of the ● Provides attachment for muscles that bend

Ulna forearm between the and straighten the arm at the elbow and Upper limbs
elbow and wrist muscles that allow movement of the wrist.

Illium Superior portion of coxal ● Connects bones of the lower limbs to the Lower limbs
bone axial skeleton.

Extends from hip to the ● Provides attachment for muscles of the lower
Femur knee limbs and buttocks. Lower limbs
● Distal end articulates with the tibia and fibula.

Medial side of the leg ● Articulates with the femur, on its superior
between the knee and side, to form the knee joint
Tibia the ankle ● Articulates with the fibula on the lateral side Lower limbs
● Articulates with the patella on the anterior
side, and the tarsal to form the ankle joint.

Lateral side of the tibia ● Forms the lateral part of the ankle joint.
Fibula between the knee and Lower limbs
ankle

Anterior surface of the ● Supports movement of the knee joint.

Patella articulation between the Lower limbs
femur and tibia

CLASSIFICATION BY MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE

BONE
- Composed of bone tissue, cartilage, ligaments, tendons, vasculature, and nervous tissue in a broad sense.
- Bone tissue is a collection of specialized cells, organic extracellular matrix proteins, and inorganic salt crystals to
provide strength and flexibility.

2 TYPES OF BONE TISSUE

1. COMPACT BONE
- cortical or lamellar bone
- Gives bone their stiffness
- If bone structures were made only of compact bone, they would be very heavy and brittle.

2. SPONGY BONE
- Cancellous bone or trabecular bone
- Consists of branching bone structure called trabeculae
- Helps reduce the weight and brittleness of bone
- Found at the ends of bone where forces are high.
- Allows bones to bend a slight amount without cracking.
 CLASSIFICATION OF BONES BY SHAPE
SHAPE DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE

Long bones Significantly longer in one direction than in either of ● Humerus

the other two directions ● Femur

Short bones Similar length in all direction ● Carpal

● Tarsal

Flat bones Flat and plate-like ● Bones of the skull

Irregular bones Not regular or systematic in shape ● Vertebrae

● Hip bones

COMPONENTS OF LONG BONE:

● Diaphysis or shaft
● Epiphyses
- found at the bone ends
- Contain mainly spongy bone and red marrow
- In children, the junction between the epiphysis and metaphysis contains a hyaline cartilage layer
termed the epiphyseal plate.
- Allows the bone to continue to lengthen.
- In adult, the entire plate has become calcified such that there is no longer active cartilage in
this area. It is now referred to as epiphyseal plate
● Metaphyses the transitional areas between the diaphysis and epiphysis.
● Medullary cavity
- Houses the yellow bone marrow in adults.
- Begins at the boundary between the metaphysis and diaphysis of each bone end and runs throughout
the bone’s shaft or diaphysis.

ARTICULATIONS: SYNARTHROSIS, AMPHIARTHROSIS, DIARTHROSIS

- Each connection of bones is called articulation (joint)
- Synarthrosis
- immovable articulations
- Joined with fibrous connective tissue
- Some are formed by hyaline cartilage, such as the articulation between the first rib and the sternum
- Amphiarthrosis
- Articulations that have limited motion
- Held in place with fibrocartilage or fibrous connective tissue
- Cartilaginous amphiarthrosis
- The anterior pelvic girdle joint between pubic bones and the spinal column
- The two parallel bones in the arms and legs
- The lateral distal articulation between the tibia and fibula
- Diarthrosis
- Articulations that are freely moveable and have a joint cavity
- Joint cavity
- A structure that consists of joint capsule that surrounds the joint
- Synovial membrane
- Inside the joint and produces a fluid known as synovial fluid
- Synovial joint
- Are further classified according to the type of movement allowed at the joint
THE ANATOMICAL TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS WITH EXAMPLES

TYPE OF FRACTURE DESCRIPTION

GLIDING JOINT ● Acromioclavicular and sternoclavicular joint

● Intercarpal and intertarsal joint
● Vertebrocostal joint
● Sacro-iliac joint

HINGE JOINT ● Elbow joint

● Knee joints
● Ankle joint
● Interphalangeal joint
 PIVOT JOINT ● Atlas and axis
● Proximal radio-ulnar joints

ELLIPSOID JOINT ● Radiocarpal joints

● Metacarpophalangeal joints 2-5
● Metatarsophalangeal joints

SADDLE JOINT ● First carpometacarpal joints

BALL AND SOCKET JOINT ● Shoulder joints

● Hip joints

DIARTHROSIS: ACCORDING TO THE TYPES OF MOVEMENT

1. NON-AXIAL JOINT
- Do not have a pivot or axis of movement
- Plain joints

2. UNIAXIAL or MONOAXIAL JOINT

- Have one axis of movement and are more movable than the gliding joints
- These joints have protrusions that fit into a corresponding depression
- Hinge joints
3. BIAXIAL JOINT
- Have two axes of movement and therefore allow more movements than uniaxial joint
- Saddle joint

4. TRIAXIAL JOINT
- Are the most movable joints with three axes of movement like the ball and socket joints
- Named as the head of the bone resembles a “ball” and the articulating bone of the joint has a deep pit
for the “socket”

LESSON 2: SKELETAL SYSTEM LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

● Collagen
- Major structural protein (type I in bone & type II in cartilage)
● Proteoglycans
- Negatively charged glycosylated proteins
- Have carbohydrate sugar modifying the protein
● Bone
- Approximately 60 to 70% inorganic material
- 10% water by weight
- 20 to 30% is an organic material (osteoid), such as collagen and proteoglycans
- The body contains 1 to 2 kg of calcium and nearly 600g of phosphorus
- Nearly 99% of the calcium and 86% of the phosphorus is stored in the bones.
- Blood vessel in extracellular matrix is 1% of calcium

INORGANIC COMPONENTS OF BONE

● CALCIUM IONS (CA2+)

- stored in bone tissue but can be released into the bloodstream when blood levels fall below optimal.
- Blood calcium is important for muscle contractions, nerve impulses, and blood clotting

● IN BONE
- Phosphorous (p) is found in the form of phosphate ions (h2po4-)
- Plays roles in energy storage (such as atp) and is required to form dna and rna.
- Required for cellular growth, maintenance, and tissue repair.
- When combined with hydrogen, phosphorus forms dihydrogen phosphate ions (h2po4-)

● DIHYDROGEN PHOSPHATE
- acts as a buffer to maintain a constant ph balance by acting as either a hydrogen ion donor (acid) or a
hydrogen ion acceptor (base)
● DURING BONE FORMATION
- the collagen fiber matrix is formed
- the matrix’s mineralization occurs when calcium, phosphate, and water from the extracellular fluids
combine to form insoluble hydroxyapatite
● HYDROXYAPATITE
- Incorporates into the small pores within collagen fibrils and crystallizes into long, thin, nanosized plates
within the collagen network.
- The incorporation of hydroxyapatite within the collagen fibers contributes to the overall compressive
strength of bone.
- Because the crystals are nanosized, they have a large surface area. The crystal’s large surface area
makes it easy to release ions into the extracellular fluids when blood levels decrease.

● FLUORIDE
- similar to the hydroxyl ion in charge and size. When fluoride replaces hydroxyl ion in hydroxyapatite
crystals, it forms fluorapatite

● FLUORAPATITE
- similar to the hydroxyl ion in charge and size. When fluoride replaces hydroxyl ion in hydroxyapatite
crystals, it forms fluorapatite

● water is initially present in the collagen matrix of the un-mineralized bone extracellular matrix (osteoid).
● AS crystals fill in the spaces between collagen fibrils, the bone is mineralized, and the water is displaced.
● After this process, the water that remains in the bone completely forms hydrogen bonds with polar, hydrophilic
components of collagen. Water also assists with the compressive resistance of bone due to osmotic interactions
caused by negatively charged proteoglycans.
● In addition to calcium, phosphorus, water, and fluoride, the inorganic bone parts also contain sodium, potassium,
carbonate, and magnesium. Although these molecules do not form their crystals, they are bound to
hydroxyapatite crystals within the bone mineral.

ORGANIC COMPONENTS OF BONE

● Mineralization of the bone matrix occurs when calcium, phosphate, and water from the extracellular fluids
combine to form insoluble hydroxyapatite.
● The minerals, water, collagens, and proteoglycans function together to provide strength in tension and
compression within the bone matrix.
● This unique environment binds and releases chemicals into the extracellular fluids for use throughout the body.

EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX IN BONE

➔ OSTEOCLAST
- Withdraw calcium
- break down and reabsorb bone
- Is important for creating the medullary cavities of diaphyses, which houses bone marrow
- Are important for removing calcium from bone if blood calcium levels fall, such as when a diet deficient
in calcium

➔ OSTEOBLAST
- Deposits calcium
- Deposit and build new bone
- Build bone and fill in the cavities created by osteoclasts
- Stimulated when blood calcium levels increase.
- The excess calcium is deposited into the bones for storage.

➔ OSTEOCYTE
- Mature bone cells that act as sensors for repair
- Sense mechanical strain within the bone and regulates osteoblasts or osteoclasts’ activity, depending
on the needs for calcium and phosphate.
- Maintaining bone strength, bone resorption and bone deposition must be in constant balance with each
other.
 2 TYPES OF OSSIFICATION PROCESS AND BONE REPAIR MECHANISMS

1. INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION (FLAT BONES)

- Direct synthesis of bone by specialized stem cells (mesenchymal cells) from fibrous connective tissue
- Process that form and repairs the flat bones of the skull, clavicles, and other irregular shaped bones
- The process of intramembranous ossification:
1. Increased vascularization
2. Recruitment of mesenchymal stem cells
3. Differentiation
4. Secretion of osteoid
5. Mineralization
6. Formation of trabeculae
7. Formation of outer compact bone

2. ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION (LONG AND SHORT BONES)

- The synthesis of bone from a hyaline cartilage template
- The process:
1. Formation of a cartilage template
2. Growth of the template
3. Differentiation
4. Vascularization
5. Calcification
6. Bone formation
- People who lived near the sea - more prone to calcium deficiency because they don't have the
capability to eat vegetables.
- Poor in Vitamin D = calcium deficiency
- Acromegaly - like gigantism but they are somewhat square shaped.
BONE MECHANICS, FORMATON, AND AGING

OSTEOPOROSIS
- Decrease bone density, strength, and mineral content. As a result, the bones develop canals filled with fibrous
and fatty tissues.

FRACTURES
- Typically causes blood vessels in the bone to rupture, reducing the bone tissue’s blood flow.
- The dead cells and the related cellular debris from fracture are removed by immune cells and osteoclasts. Over
time, various cell types - fibroblasts, chondroblasts, and osteoblasts - work together to repair the mineralized
bone tissue.
- There are pain receptors and nerves in the bone. The pain experienced when a fractured bone moves are one
way the body reacts to help itself heal
- Bones heal more quickly and thoroughly if kept immobilized (which is why the typical treatment for a broken bone
is to put it in a cast or other restraint). Because we instinctively avoid actions that cause pain, the pain that occurs
when a broken bone is moved causes us to minimize that bone’s movement & helps keep the bone stable while it
heals.

TYPE OF FRACTURE DESCRIPTION

Simple Fracture ● The bone breaks completely but no penetration in the skin.
(closed)

Compound Fracture ● The bone breaks and penetrates through the skin.
(open)

Comminuted Fracture ● The bone is shattered or broken into several pieces.

Greenstick Fracture ● Occurs in children when one side of a bone breaks and the
other side bends.

Impacted Fracture ● One of the fractured bones is forced into the interior of the
other end of the bone.

Stress Fracture ● A set of tiny fractures or fissures in a bone caused by

repeated stress on the bone.
 LESSON : SKELETAL HOMEOSTASIS

➔ MAINTAIN CALCIUM LEVELS IN THE BONE

- Purpose of the 1% of calcium in the system - divided in the extracellular and intra fluid.
- Extra - the cells need calcium to survive
- Calcium in blood - distributed to different parts of the body
- Parathyroid - osteoclast
- Thyroid - osteoblast for parathyroid
- Goiter arthritis - accumulation of uric acid deposit
- 20% of uric acid from diet
- 80% of uric acid is produced by the body
● Approx 99% of the body’s calcium is stored in the bone
● The extracellular calcium intake levels are affected by calcium intake from foods, excretion of
calcium as waste, and the storage and release of calcium from the bones.
● If extracellular calcium levels are too low, the nervous system becomes over excited, resulting
in tetany.
● If calcium levels are above normal, the nervous system becomes sluggish (muscle activity of
the heart and gastrointestinal tract slows down)
● MIlk and dark green vegetables are rich in calcium, and an adequate supply of calcium helps
maintain healthy bones.
● Vitamin D is an important dietary supplement, increasing calcium absorption in the small
intestine.
● Parathyroid hormone increases bone resorption by stimulating osteoclasts, leading to
increased calcium levels to blood.
● Calcitonin acts in children to decrease bone resorption, leading to less calcium entering the
blood.
● Calcitriol (Vitamin D) increases the absorption of dietary calcium.

➔ OTHER IMPORTANT REGULATORY FACTORS

- Vitamin D is a group of lipid-soluble compounds involved in calcium regulation
- Under the influence of the parathyroid hormone, vitamin D is converted to an active molecule, calcitriol
that circulates through the blood to maintain normal blood calcium level.
- When the blood does not have sufficient calcitriol levels, the intestines do not absorb as much calcium,
and blood calcium levels decrease.

➔ HOMEOSTASIS OF CARTILAGE
- Cartilage is composed primarily of a network of elastic type II collagen fibers embedded in gel-like
proteoglycans
- Collagen fibers can withstand a lot of tension (pulling) without damage. However, collagen fibers have
very little compressive strength and that is, under compression (squeezing), they bend easily.
- Proteoglycans are gel-like, elastic substances, they deform easily under stress and return to their
original shape when the stress is removed.
- “Proteoglycans give cartilage its resiliency and elasticity”
- Cartilage in the knee can support up to 8 to 10x the body weight for short periods of time without being
damaged.

➔ ARTHRITIS
- Arthro = joint ; -itis = inflammation
- Is an inflammation of the cartilage or bone tissue within a joint
- Osteoarthritis
- Common form of arthritis
- Caused primarily by physical damage to the cartilage that cushions many joints.
- Rheumatoid arthritis
- Caused by inflammation of the synovial capsule’s membranes, not the articular cartilage.
- A disease in which the body’s immune system attacks normal healthy cartilage and synovial
membranes.