20-11-2020

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

JAYARAM NAYAK B
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
CIVIL DEPARTMENT

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ROCKS
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1. INTRODUCTION

Geology literally means "study of the Earth."

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Physical geology examines the materials and processes of

the Earth.

Historical geology examines the origin and evolution of our

planet through time.

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PETROLOGY

Rocks are building blocks of earth,

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these are formed when the

different minerals combine in a
favorable environment

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PETROLOGY

Branch of geology that deals with

the study of rocks ,their formation
and properties.

ROCKS

IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC

ROCKS ROCKS ROCKS

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Igneous Rocks
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 Igneous rock (derived from the Latin word ignis meaning 10

fire), or magmatic rock, is one of the three main rock
types, the others being sedimentary and metamorphic.
 Igneous rock is formed through the cooling and
solidification of magma or lava.
 The magma can be derived from partial melts of existing
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rocks in either a planet's mantle or crust.

 Typically, the melting is caused by one or more of three
processes: an increase in temperature, a decrease in
pressure, or a change in composition.
 Solidification into rock occurs either below the surface as
intrusive rocks or on the surface as extrusive rocks.

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PETROLOGY

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Based on
silica content
Igneous rocks
Based on
mode of
origin

Acidic >65% of
Sio2 12
granite

Intermediate 55-
65%
Syenite diorite
Based on silica
content
Basic
45-55%
Dolerite

Ultra basic
<45%
dunite

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Plutonic
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(deep seated)
Ex:granite

Hypabyssal
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(near the surface)

Based on mode of origin
Ex: Pegmatite

Volcanic
(on the surface)
Ex: basalt

3. CONCEPT OF BASE ISOLATION

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BASED MODE OF ON THE BASIS OF SILICA CONTENT
ORIGIN

ACIDIC >65% INTERMEDIATE 55- BASIC 45-65% ULTRABAS IC

SiO2 65% SiO2 SiO2 <45% SiO2

PLUTONIC Granite Syenite Diorite Dunite

HYPABYSSAL Pegmatite Porphyry Porphyry

VOLCANIC Rhyolite Trachite Basalt Olivine basalt

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CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS 15

BASED ON THEIR STRUCTURES

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EXTRUSIVE
Igneous
rocks
INTRUSIVE

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 Extrusive bodies: Igneous rocks that cool and crystallize on
the Earth's surface are called extrusive igneous rocks.
Another name for extrusive igneous rocks is volcanic
igneous rocks. Ex: Basalt
 Intrusive bodies: Igneous rocks that cool and crystallize
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beneath the Earth's surface are called intrusive igneous

rocks. Another name for intrusive igneous rocks is plutonic
igneous rocks. Ex: Granite

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PETROLOGY

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CONCORDANT
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INTRUSIVE

DISCORDANT

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PETROLOGY

Concordant intrusive bodies: If the intrusion is parallel 19

to the structure of the country rock, they are called
‘Concordant intrusive bodies’. Ex: Sill, Phacolith,
Laccolith and Lopolith
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Concordant intrusive bodies 20

 i) Sill: It is a concordant intrusive sheet like body which runs parallel to
the bedding planes of the enclosing sedimentary rock. They are
typical of basic magma and varies in thickness from few centimeters
to several kilometers.
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 ii) Phacolith: It is a concordant intrusive lens shaped form found in

crests and troughs of folded rocks.
 iii) Lopolith: It is a concordant intrusive bowl-like bodies, which are
sagged downwards due to the weight of the intruded magma
 iv) Laccolith: It is a concordant intrusive mushroom like bodies which
have a convex upper surface and relatively flat lower surface.
 v) Euhedral: crystals having perfect outline or boundary Subhedral:
crystals having perfect outline or boundary

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 IMAGE SILL
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b) Discordant intrusive bodies: If the intrusion is cut across the
structure of pre-existing country rock, thy are called ‘Discordant
intrusive bodies’ Ex: Batholith, Dy ke, Volcanic Neck

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Discordant intrusive bodies 23

 i) Batholith: Batholiths are known to be largest kind of discordant intrusive

bodies which are spread over very large area covering several kilometers.
They increase in size with depth and they are thought to be bottomless. A
Stock is a small batholith of irregular and cylinder form. A stock having a
circular form is called batholith.
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 ii) Dyke: Dykes are discordant igneous body of more or less tabular shape
and exhibit a cross –cutting relationship with the country rocks they occur
commonly n the forms of wall like masses of exactly or nearly vertical
attitude. If the rocks constituting the dyke are hard and compact, they can
resist weathering and Erosional process.
 iii) Volcanic neck: The vents of quiet volcanoes have become sealed with
the igneous intrusions and is called volcanic necks/plugs. These forms may
be circular, semicircular or irregular and in varying diameter.

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Sedimentary Rocks
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 Sedimentary rocks are those, which are

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formed by the accumulation,

compaction and consolidation of
sediments. The sediments are the
particles produced from the
disintegration of pre-existing rocks
(Igneous/metamorphic rocks).

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TRANSPORTATION DEPOSITION WELDING CEMENTATION

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Stratification and Lamination

Graded bedding
Current bedding Ripple marks
Mud cracks

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Classification of 31

sedimentary rocks
The classification of sedimentary rocks is based on the mineralogy, depositional
environment, origin or mode of formation and structural features. However, for
practical purpose, they are broadly classified into

Clastic
SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
Non-clastic
rocks

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Rudaceous rocks
Ex: Conglomerate
GRAIN SIZE > 2mm Breccia
dia

Arenaceous rocks
Ex: Sandstone, Grit
CLASTIC GRAIN SIZE
1mm-2mm

Argillaceous rocks
Ex: Shale, Mudstone
Grain size<1mm

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Ex :Flint, Chert, Jasper

Chemically Limestone, Dolomite, Magnesite
Bog iron ores
formed rocks Phosphate
Evaporitis : Rock salt, Anhydrites,
Gypsum, Borates
NON-
CLASTIC
Organically Ex: Coal and

formed rocks petroleum Fossiliferous

limestone

Stalactites and Stalagmites 34

 The underground water is charged with CaCO3 in the limestone

region. During its downward movement, it trickles drop by drop on the
roof of the caves. If the drops are small they hang in the roofs itself
and evaporate leaving a thin film of CaCO3. this process continues
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and a hanging pillar / inverted cone like structure forms and they are
called ‘Stalactites’.
 If the drops are big, thy fall down on the floor of the caves and
evaporates leaving a film of CaCO3. This process continues and a
pillar / cone like structure grows upward. This is called ‘Stalagmites’.
 Kankar: In tropical and sub-tropical regions in India, where the rainy
season is followed by a summer season, a peculiar deposit is formed
just below the surface of the soil.

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THANK YOU

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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

JAYARAM NAYAK B
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
CIVIL DEPARTMENT

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METAMORPHIC ROCKS
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Metamorphic rocks are those rocks that are formed as a result of transformation that takes place

in the pre-existing rocks (Igneous/sedimentary rocks). When the pre-existing rocks are subjected to

higher temperature, pressure and chemically active liquids and gases, the minerals present in the

original rocks changes to new environmental condition.

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Temperature: It is responsible in bringing the recrystalllization or reconstitution

of the original minerals into newer ones

Pressure: Pressure is one of the important dominant factors in metamorphic rocks

and in majority of rocks it is associated with temperature
• Load pressure
• Direct pressure

Fluids: Any existing open space between mineral grains in a rocks can
potentially contain a fluid. The chemical solution, gases and vapors plays an
important role in metamorphism which is normally associated with
temperature and pressure

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Thermal metamorphism: Here, temperature is the dominant factor and pressure

and fluid are the sub-ordinate factors. When the thermal metamorphism occurs in
the immediate contact of igneous intrusions, it is called contact metamorphism
and when it occurs on a regional scale at depth it is called Plutonic
metamorphism.
Ex: Limestone , Marble, Sandstone ,Quartzite

Dynamic metamorphism: This type of metamorphism takes place in the rock by

means of direct pressure / stress which is a dominant which leads to new structures.
It is also called Cataclastic / kinetic metamorphism and the rock undergo
mechanical breaking down and they may be crushed into smaller ones by pressure.
Ex. Shale ,Slate
Dynamo-thermal metamorphism: It is a kind of metamorphism where temperature
and pressure are the dominant factors which operates upon pre-existing rocks. The
metamorphism may be regional / local scale and it is called Regional
metamorphism

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Properties: 43
 The following are the important petrographic characteristic properties helpful in the
identification and classifications of rocks in hand specimens by naked eye or with the aid of
hand lens and also with some testing tools like pen knife, Magnet, streak plate and Dil.
HCL.
1. Colour
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2. A) Texture B) Grain size

3. Mineral composition
4. Cementing material
5. Specific gravity
6. Special properties
7. Acid reaction
8. Magnetism

1. Colour: - The colour of rocks depends upon the colour of their

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aggregated minerals or cementing materials and is generalized
according to the overall shade.

2. a) Texture:- The texture is defined as the mutual relationship of

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the constituent mineral grains their size, shape and etc.

2. (b) Grain Size:-
 This is the diameter of the component mineral grains, expressed as
follows.
 Fine grained – grain diameter 1 mm to less.
 Medium grained – grain diameter 1 mm to 5 mm.
 Coarse grained – grain diameter 5 mm and above.

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Mineral Composition:
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 The combination and proportion of the component
minerals.
 a) Essential minerals – easily identified by necked eye.
 b) Accessory minerals – finer particles of deleterious
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component.

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Igneous Rocks
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Sedimentary Rocks
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METAMORPHIC ROCKS
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INDEX PROPERTIES OF ROCKS

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1. Porosity: Porosity is the size, shape and degree of packing 53

of the crystal grains.

𝑃𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = (%)
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 Granite 0.1 – 0.5 %

 Sandstone 5 – 25 %
 Low porosity in rock is due to interlocking crystals uniformity in
distribution of cementing material.

2. Density: Density is weight per unit volume of rock/stone. 54

 The density of rocks may be differtiated into
1. Dry Density: It is weight per unit volume of an absolutely dried
rock. It includes the volume of pore spaces in rocks.
2. Bulk Density: It is rock density with natural moisture content.
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3. Saturated Density: It is density of rock fully saturated with water.

 In most engineering purpose it is the Bulk Density that is taen into
consideration which helps in estimating rock strength.
 Ex:
 Granite 2.7 gm/cm3
 Sand stone 2.9 gm/cm3

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3. Permeability: is the property of rocks that is an 55

indication of the ability for fluids (gas or liquid) to flow through
rocks.
 High permeability will allow fluids to move rapidly through rocks.
 Permeability is affected by the pressure in a rock.
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 The unit of measure is called the Darcy, named after Henry Darcy
(1803–1858).
 Sandstones may vary in permeability from less than one to over
50,000 millidarcys (md).
 Permeabilities are more commonly in the range of tens to hundreds
of millidarcies.

 A rock with 25% porosity and a permeability of 1 md will not yield

a significant flow of water. 56
 Such “tight” rocks are usually artificially stimulated (fractured or
acidized) to create permeability and yield a flow.
 The concept of permeability is of importance in determining the
flow characteristics of hydrocarbons in oil and gas reservoirs, and of
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groundwater in aquifers

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4. Durability: (resistance to weathering) durability means

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the capacity to withstand the imposed loads without
under going any deterioration depends on the fact
whether or not they have been used in the environment
which is in tune with their geological characters.
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 Nothing is everlasting, stones included.

 But the rate at which a stone deteriorates under the attack
of natural process varies from rock to rock.

 Durability of a stone can be experimentally determined by

subjecting the stone sample to disintegration action of sodium 58
Sulphate.
 Test specimens, generally of 5 cm side- cubes are dried perfectly and
weighed.
 They are suspended in 14% solution of sodium Sulphate decahydrate
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for 4 hours at 27+/- 2◦ C.

 These are taken out, and oven dried at 100+/- 5 ◦ C.
 These makes one cycle.
 These samples are then subjected to 30 such cycles and loss of
weight determined at the end.
 Greater the loss in weight, poorer the durability of the stone under
test.

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THANK YOU
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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

JAYARAM NAYAK B
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
CIVIL DEPARTMENT

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Rock Weathering
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Weathering: 62
 It is defined as the process of decay and disintegration of rocks under
influence of certain physical and chemical agencies of atmosphere.
 Weathering is a natural process of in-situ mechanical disintegration and/or
chemical decomposition of the rock of the crust of the earth by certain
physical and chemical agencies of the atmosphere.
 It is a process that cause the breakdown of rocks, either to form new minerals
that are stable on the surface of the Earth, or to break the rocks down into
smaller particles.
 Weathering is the result of the interactions of air, water, and temperature on
exposed rock surfaces and prepares the rock for erosion.
 The most important aspect of this process is that the weathered product
remains laying over and above or near to parent rock unless it is removed
from there by some other agency of nature.

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Mechanical (physical) Weathering 63

 It is a natural process of in-situ disintegration of rocks into smaller
fragments and particles through physical process without change in
their composition.

1. Frost Action 64
 It results due to freezing of water which are trapped in the cracks
of the rocks widens and deepens the cracks, breaking off pieces
and slabs.
 Water on freezing undergoes an increase in its volume by about
10% with exertion of pressure at the rate of 140 kg/cm2 on the
walls of the rock containing the freezing point of water.
 This process of freezing of water happening within the pores,
cracks, fracture and cavities of rocks affects them considerably.
 The original opening are widened at he first stage of attack and
there by accommodate more and more water to come and freeze in
subsequent cycles.

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 A freezing cycle is often followed by a Thawing cycle that means

melting of ice formed with in the cavities. 65

 Eventually, repetition of freezing and thawing cycle over many

years leads to gradual disintegration of the rocks because of
internal stresses exerted in the process.
 Exudation is process similar to frost action but in this case
disintegration takes place due to formation of crystals of sodium
chloride, etc. within the cavities of rocks there by causing their
disintegration.

2. Thermal Effects (insolation) 66

 In Desert, arid and semi-arid regions where summer and winter
temperatures differ considerably, rocks undergoes physical
disintegration by another phenomenon related to temperature.
 Rocks, expands on heating and contract on cooling.
 The rocks classed as bad conductors of heat but even then
prolonged exposure to directly heating by the sun does induce
appreciable volumetric changes in rocks.
 Repeated variations in temperature experienced by a body of rock
gradually break it into smaller pieces, especially in top layers, by
development of tensile stress developing from alternate expansions
and contraction.

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Exfoliation: 67
 In a thick rock body or where the rock is layered, these are the
upper layers get affected most due to the temperature variations.
 As a result, the upper layers may virtually peal off from the
underlying rock mass.
 This phenomenon of pealing off of curved shells from the rocks
under the influence of thermal effects in association with chemical
weathering is often termed as Exfoliation.

3. Unloading 68
 This is another process of mechanical weathering where large scale
development of fracturing in confined rock masses is attributed to
removal of overlying rock cover due to prolonged erosional work
of other agencies.
 These rock masses remain confined from sides but from sides but
due to relief of pressure from above, they expand upwards;
consequently joints develop in them parallel to the uncovered
surface dividing them into sheets.

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Chemical Weathering 69
 It is a process of alteration of rocks of the crust by chemical
decomposition brought about by atmospheric gases and moisture.
 The chemical changes in the nature of the rocks takes place in the
presence of moisture containing many active gases from the
atmosphere such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen and
oxygen.
 The end product of chemical weathering has a different chemical
composition and poorer physical constitution as compared to the
parent rock.

1. Solution 70
 Some rock contain one or more minerals that are soluble in water
to some extent.
 Rock salt, Gypsum and Calcite are few common examples.
 The pure water is not a good solvent of minerals in most cases, but
when water is carbonated, its solvent action for many common
minerals is enhanced.
 Thus, limestone is not easily soluble in pure water carbonated
water dissolves the rock effectively.
 Limestone gets pitted and porous due to chemical weathering.

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2. Hydration and Hydrolysis 71

 These 2 processes indicated the direct attack of atmospheric
moisture on the individual minerals of the rock that ultimately
affect its structural make up.
 First, Ions tend to hold the polarized side of the water molecule
and form a hydrate.
 This process of addition of water molecule is termed as Hydration.
 𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂 + 2𝐻 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂 2𝐻 𝑂
 Anhydrite + water → Gypsum

 Second, Ions may be exchanged whereby some ions from water

may enter into crystal lattice of the mineral. 72

 This process of exchange of ions is called Hydrolysis.

 𝐾 + 𝐴𝑙𝑆𝑖 𝑂 + 𝐻 → 𝐻𝐴𝑙𝑆𝑖 𝑂 + 𝐾
 Orthoclase + iron from water → Silicic acid like structure + pot ion

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3. Oxidation and reduction 73

 Oxidation
 4𝐹𝑒 + 3𝑂 → 2𝐹𝑒 𝑂
 Ferrous iron (Fe++) of the mineral is oxide to ferric iron (Fe+++)
 𝐹𝑒 𝑂 + 2𝐻 𝑂 → 𝐹𝑒 𝑂 . 𝐻 𝑂
 Ferric iron further oxidized to a stable ferric hydroxide.
 Reduction
 In specific types of environment, such as where soil is rich in
decaying vegetation, minerals and rocks containing iron oxide may
undergo reduction of oxides to elemental iron.

4. Carbonation 74
 It is the process of weathering of rocks under the combined action
of atmospheric carbon dioxide and moisture, whuch on
combination form a mildly reacting Carbonic acid.
 The acid formed exerts an especially corrosive action over a niber
of silicate bearing rocks.
 2𝐾𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑖 𝑂 + 2𝐻 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂 → 𝐴𝑙 𝑆𝑖 𝑂 𝑂𝐻 + 𝐾 𝐶𝑂 + 4𝑆𝑖𝑂
 Orthoclase + carbonic acid → Kaoline + pot. Carbonate + silicate

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5. Colloidal Formation 75
 The process of hydration, hydrolysis, oxidation and reduction
operating on rocks and minerals under different atmospheric
conditions may not always end in the formation of stable end
products.
 Often they resulting in splitting of particles into smaller particles, the
Colloids.
 Colloids, characterized by atmos with only partially satisfied
electrical charges.
 Formation of colloidal particles is especially common in weathering
of clay mineral, silica and iron oxide.
 The colloids of these minerals are, however, soon precipitated as
their charges are satisfied and they form stable products.

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SOIL FORMATION
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How is soil formed?

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 Soils are dynamic, forming continuously over a long
period of time. Soil types differ, depending on the parent
materials from which they came and from the surrounding
environment. The way in which soil forms depends on:
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1. parent material
2. climate
3. topography
4. living organisms
5. time

Soil is a natural medium made up of five major components:

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1. mineral particles: clay, silt, sand and gravel
2. organic matter: decaying plant and animal material
3. water
4. air
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5. living organisms (soil biota): ranging from bacteria, fungi

and earthworms
 A healthy soil should have a balance of these components.

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 A soil profile is made up of parallel layers or horizons of different

soil and rock materials. 79
 A soil profile develops over a long period of time and is quite a
complex process.
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The major points are:

1. Soil forming factors interact to form the soil profile, including climate, 80
topography, parent rock material and vegetation cover.
2. Soil profiles may be formed by weathering or deposition processes.
3. Parent material sitting on top of bedrock may be weathered to form part
of the soil profile.
4. Addition of organic matter on the surface or deposits carried by wind and
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rain form duplex soil types.

5. Fine clays and mineral salts wash down through the topsoil to create the
B horizon.
6. In cultivated soil, fine particles can cement together to form hardpans in
the profile.
7. Soil biota break down organic matter and form pores and clusters in the
soil.
 The depth of the topsoil varies due to factors such as erosion, vegetation
cover over time and climate. The way we manage the soil on our farms can
determine the depth of topsoil.

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Most soils exhibit 4 main horizons:

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1. A horizon—humus-rich topsoil where nutrient, organic matter and
biological activity are highest (i.e. most plant roots, earthworms, insects and
micro-organisms are active). The A horizon is usually darker than other
horizons because of the organic materials.
2. B horizon—clay-rich subsoil. This horizon is often less fertile than the
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topsoil but holds more moisture. It generally has a lighter colour and less
biological activity than the A horizon. Texture may be heavier than the A
horizon too.
3. C horizon—underlying weathered rock (from which the A and B horizons
form).
4. D horizon- in a true soil profile, a sample from this horizon is the parent
rock itself, unaltered as yet.

 Some soils also have an O horizon mainly consisting of plant litter which has
accumulated on the soil surface. 82
 The properties of horizons are used to distinguish between soils and
determine land-use potential.
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THANK YOU
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84

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

JAYARAM NAYAK B
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
CIVIL DEPARTMENT

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DRAINAGE PATTERN
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 In geomorphology, drainage systems, also known as river systems,

are the patterns formed by the streams, rivers, and lakes in a 86
particular drainage basin.
 They are governed by the topography of the land, whether a
particular region is dominated by hard or soft rocks, and the
gradient of the land.
 Geomorphologists and hydrologists often view streams as being
part of drainage basins.
 A drainage basin is the topographic region from which a stream
receives runoff, through flow, and groundwater flow.
 The number, size, and shape of the drainage basins found in an
area vary

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 Superimposed drainage: it is developed in geologically old

and complex folded regions. 89

 In such a system, streams do don’t seen to have followed the

normal practice of cutting down their channels selective.
 The drainage system was initially developed in accordance
with geological formations at the top, which were subsequently
removed due to the erosive work of the streams.
 On encountering the underlying complex formations, streams
did not change their course to suit the local geology but
imposed, they imposed their original pattern on these rocks
forming their channels.
 Such a system is referred to as superimposed drainage.

 Antecedent drainage: gradual uplift of the crustal blocks

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forming the mountain systems is believed to be well
established geological phenomenon.
 Many streams may fail to adjust themselves to this activity and
undergo drastic changes in their courses.
 Such systems of streams that existed prior to uplift of the area
to present status and that have succeeded in maintaining their
courses through the uplifted block form the antecedent
drainage.

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Landform
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Landform 92
 A landform is a natural or artificial feature of the solid surface
of the Earth or other planetary body.
 Landforms together make up a given terrain, and their
arrangement in the landscape is known as topography.

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Landform Classification 93
 Based on the natural agent involved in shaping various
landforms, they are classified into
1. Fluvial landforms (geological action of water)
2. Aeolian landforms (geological action of wind)
3. Glacier landforms
4. Coastal landforms

Fluvial Landform
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 Rivers and streams are not only conduits of water, but also of
sediment.
 The water, as it flows over the channel bed, is able to mobilize
sediment and transport it downstream, either as bed load, suspended
load or dissolved load.
 The rate of sediment transport depends on the availability of
sediment itself and on the river's discharge.
 Rivers are also capable of eroding into rock and creating new
sediment, both from their own beds and also by coupling to the
surrounding hillslopes.
 In this way, rivers are thought of as setting the base level for large-
scale landscape evolution in non glacial environments.
 Rivers are key links in the connectivity of different landscape
elements.

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 As rivers flow across the landscape, they generally increase in

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size, merging with other rivers.
 The network of rivers thus formed is a drainage system. These
systems take on four general patterns: dendritic, radial,
rectangular, and trellis.
 Dendritic happens to be the most common, occurring when the
underlying stratum is stable (without faulting).
 Drainage systems have four primary components: drainage
basin, alluvial valley, delta plain, and receiving basin.

 Fluvial land forms can be broadly classified into

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1. Erosional landforms
2. Depositional landforms

 The geological action of water depends on

1. Velocity of flow
2. Gradient
3. Discharge
4. Competence (ability to transfer material)
5. Type of flow
6. Lithology and load of sediments.

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2. Aeolian Landforms 97
 Aeolian landforms pertain to the activity of the winds and more
specifically, to the winds' ability to shape the surface of the
Earth.
 Winds may erode, transport, and deposit materials, and are
effective agents in regions with sparse vegetation and a large
supply of fine, unconsolidated sediments.
 Although water and mass flow tend to mobilize more material
than wind in most environments, Aeolian processes are
important in arid environments such as deserts

 Aeolian land forms can be broadly classified into

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1. Wind Erosional landforms
2. Wind Depositional landforms

 The geological action of air depends on

1. Wind Velocity Gradient
2. Wind Volume
3. Nature of surface
4. Duration of Wind blow etc.

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3. Glacier landforms 99
 Glaciers, while geographically restricted, are effective agents
of landscape change.
 The gradual movement of ice down a valley causes abrasion
and plucking of the underlying rock.
 Abrasion produces fine sediment, termed glacial flour.
 The debris transported by the glacier, when the glacier recedes,
is termed a moraine.
 Glacial erosion is responsible for U-shaped valleys, as opposed
to the V-shaped valleys of fluvial origin.

4. Coastal landforms 100

 Coastal landforms are those associated with the action of
waves, marine currents and seepage of fluids through the
seafloor. Mass wasting and submarine lands sliding are also
important processes for some aspects of marine
geomorphology.
 Because ocean basins are the ultimate sinks for a large fraction
of terrestrial sediments, depositional processes and their related
forms (e.g., sediment fans, deltas) are particularly important as
elements of marine geomorphology.

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101

THANK YOU
MIT KUNDAPURA

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