BIO REVIEWER STOMACH- muscular, clastic, pear-shaped bag,

lying crosswise in the abdominal cavity beneath

the diaphragm. Its main purpose is digestion of
L1: ORGANS food through production of gastric juices which
break down, mix and churn the food into a thin
BRAIN- control center of the nervous system. liquid.

Functions include: INTESTINES- located between the stomach and

the anus and are divided into two major
•muscle control & coordination sections:

•sensory reception and integration
•speech production and memory storage
•elaboration of thoughts and emotion
LUNGS- two sponge-like, cone-shaped structure
that filled most of the cavity.
Functions include:
•provide oxygen from inhaled air to the
bloodstream and to exhale carbon dioxide. This
process called RESPIRATION.
SMALL INTESTINE- The function of the small
intestine is to absorb most ingested food.
LARGE INTESTINE- The large intestine is
responsible for absorption of water and
excretion of solid waste material.
BLADDER - act as filters to help your body
eliminate toxins and excess fluid from your
blood.
THYROID-releasing and controlling thyroid
hormones that control metabolism.

LIVER- process the content of the blood to L2: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

ensure composition remains the same.

•Breaking down of fats producing urea, filtering

harmful substances and maintaining a proper
level of glucose in blood.

KIDNEYS- two bean-shaped organs located at

the back of the abdominal cavity, one of each
side of the spinal column.

•To maintain body's chemical balance by

excreting waste product & excess fluid in the
form of urine.

HEART- hollow, muscular organ that pumps

blood through the blood vessels by repeated,
rhythmic contractions.
DIGESTION- is a form of catabolism or breaking
down of substances that involves two separate
processes:
MECHANICAL DIGESTION- involves physically
breaking down food substances into smaller,
particles to more efficiently undergo chemical
digestion.
Here, peristaltic contractions (mechanical
digestion) churn the bolus, which mixes with
strong digestive juices that the stomach lining
cells secrete (chemical digestion).
BOLUS- from Latin bolus meaning "ball". A ball-
like mixture of food and saliva that forms in the
mouth during the process of chewing (which is
largely an adaptation for plant-eating
mammals). Under normal circumstances, the
bolus is swallowed, and travels down the
esophagus to the stomach for digestion.
REGION OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
1. Mouth
2. Pharynx & Esophagus
3. Stomach
4. Small and Large Intestine
SIX ACTIVITIES DURING DIGESTION
1.Ingestion- food intake.
2.Propulsion- swallowing of foods.
3.Mechanical or Physical digestion- It includes
mastication, or chewing, as well as tongue
movements that help break food into smaller
bits and mix food with saliva.
The mechanical churning of food in the stomach
serves to further break it apart and expose
more of its surface area to digestive juices,
creating an acidic “soup” called chyme.
4.Chemical digestion- starting in the mouth,
digestive secretions break down complex food
molecules into their chemical building blocks
(for example, proteins into separate amino
acids). These secretions vary in composition,
but typically contain water, various enzymes,
acids, and salts. The process is completed in the
small intestine.
5.Absorption- absorption of nutrients.
6.Defecation- the final step in digestion,
undigested materials are removed from the
body as feces.
L3: CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS
- Circulates OXYGEN and removes Carbon
Dioxide.
-Provides cells with NUTRIENTS.
- Removes the waste products of metabolism to
the excretory organs for disposal.
-Protects the body against disease and
infection.
3 Independent SYSTEMS
Cardiovascular ( The Heart)
Pulmonary ( The Lungs)
Systemic ( Blood vessels)
PULMONARY CIRCUIT- carries deoxygenated
blood from heart to lungs.
SYSTEMIC CIRCUIT- delivers oxygenated blood water enters the root by osmosis and moves
from the heart to the tissues or all other parts toward the centre of the root into the xylem
of the body. vessels.

HEART- muscle that acts as pump.
4 CHAMBERS:
ATRIUM (ATRIA)- receive the blood that
entering the heart.
VENTRICLES- pump blood out of the heart.
--
VALVES- prevent the backflow of blood.
-the pericycle prevents the water from moving
backward.
-root pressure builds up in the xylem and
pushes water up.
MOVING WATER THROUGH THE SYSTEMS
-while the roots push the water column from
below, the leaves pull from above.
TRANSPIRATION aids in this process.

MUSCULAR SEPTUM- Divides up the two section

of heart.

BLOOD (FOUR COMPONENTS):

PLASMA- carries all parts of the blood through

your circulatory system.

RBC (erythrocytes)- transporting oxygen from

your lungs to your body's tissues.

WBC (leukocytes)- protects your body from

infection.

PLATELETS- form clots and stop or prevent

bleeding.

L4: PLANT ORGANS

SYSTEM – a group of tissues and organs that

perform specific functions.

SHOOT SYSTEM –supports the plant, performs

photosynthesis, and transports sap.

ROOT SYSTEM – takes in water & nutrients from

the soil and transports them to the shoot
system.

How does water move upward in a plant

(against gravity)?

L5: GENETICS
GENETICS- is the study of heredity (the
transmission of traits from generation to
generation).
TRAIT- A trait is a specific characteristic that
varies from one individual to another.
Examples: Brown hair, blue eyes, tall, curly
ALLELES- are the different possibilities for a
given trait. Every trait has at least two alleles
(one from the mother and one from the father)
Example: Eye color – Brown, blue, green, hazel
GENES- are the sequence of DNA that codes for
a protein and thus determines a trait.
GREGOR MENDEL
•Father of Genetics
•1st important studies of heredity
•Identified specific traits in the garden pea and
studied them from one generation to another
MENDEL'S CONCLUSIONS
LAW OF SEGREGATION – Two alleles for each
trait separate when gametes form; Parents pass
only one allele for each trait to each offspring.
LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT – Genes
for different traits are inherited independently
of each other.
DOMINANT - Masks the other trait; the trait
that shows if present, represented by a capital
letter.
RECESSIVE – An organism with a recessive allele
for a particular trait will only exhibit that trait
when the dominant allele is not present; Will
only show if both alleles are present,
represented by a lower case letter.
GENOTYPE – The genetic makeup of an
organism; The gene (or allele) combination an
organism has.
Example: Tt, ss, GG, Ww
PHENOTYPE – The physical characteristics of an
organism; The way an
organism looks
Example: Curly hair,
straight hair, blue eyes,
tall, green
HOMOZYGOUS – Term used to refer to an
organism that has two identical alleles for a
particular trait (TT or tt).
HETEROZYGOUS - Term used to refer to an
organism that has two different alleles for the
same trait (Tt).
PUNNETT SQUARE – Diagram showing the gene
combinations that might result from a genetic
cross. Used to calculate the
probability of inheriting a particular trait.
PROBABILITY – The chance that a given event
will occur.
 POLYGENIC TRAIT - Trait controlled by two or
more genes.

Polygenic traits often show a wide range of

phenotypes.

Example: The wide range of skin color in

humans comes about partly because more than
four different genes probably control this trait.

INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE - Situation in which

one allele is not completely dominant over
another.

Example – Red and white flowers are

crossed and pink flowers are produced.

CODOMINANCE - Situation in which both alleles

of a gene contribute to the phenotype of the
organism.

Example – A solid white cow is crossed with a

solid brown cow and the resulting offspring are
spotted brown and white (called roan).

MULTIPLE ALLELES- Three or more alleles of the

same gene.

Even though three or more alleles exist for a

particular trait, an individual can only have two
alleles - one from the mother and one from the
father.