IGCSE Revision guide: Chemistry The Periodic Table 15

Quick check for 15.3 (Answers on page 168) 15.5 Group VIII: the noble gases
1 Which group of the Periodic Table contains the halogens?
2 Which halogen has the lowest boiling point? Six elements form the noble gas family, which is Group VIII of the Periodic Table.
3 Which is lighter in colour, bromine or iodine?
4 Compare the trends in reactivity for Groups I and VII. What do you notice? Noble gas helium neon argon krypton xenon radon
5 Astatine is a very rare unstable element. Its properties have not been Symbol He Ne Ar Kr Xe Rn
established by experiment.
Appearance colourless gas colourless gas colourless gas colourless gas colourless gas colourless gas (radioactive)
a What physical properties would you predict, for astatine?
b Which other halogen would astatine be most like, in its reactivity?
c How would astatine compare with this other halogen? Similar – but not exactly the same helium
• The Group VIII elements are all non-metals.
neon density and boiling
• They are colourless gases, and occur naturally in air.
points increase
• They exist as single atoms – they are monatomic argon down the group
• They are unreactive or inert – they do not normally react with anything.
15.4 The transition elements • But their physical properties show trends down the group, as shown on the right.
krypton
xenon
There are thirty transition elements. They form a block in the middle of the Why are they unreactive?
Periodic Table. The top row of the block contains six of the most familiar The noble gases are unreactive because their atoms have a very stable arrangement of
The transition
transition elements: elements outer-shell electrons. They do not need to bond to other atoms to gain, or lose, electrons.

Transition element chromium manganese iron cobalt nickel copper

Their uses
Symbol Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu The unreactivity of the noble gases makes them very useful. For example:
• helium is used in balloons and airships because it is lighter than air, and non-ammable
Appearance metallic metallic metallic metallic metallic metallic
• argon is used to provide an inert atmosphere, for example in welding and in tungsten
silver silver grey grey silver bronze
light bulbs. (Oxygen would react with hot metals being welded, and hot tungsten.)

They are similar in some ways

The transition elements have some general similarities: Quick check for 15.5 (Answers on page 168)
1 All the noble gases are unreactive, and monatomic. Why is this?
Their similarities Using iron as example 2 Give two reasons why helium is used in airships.

They are all metals, and share these properties: Iron:

• they are hard, tough, and strong • is strong enough to be used in building bridges
• they have high density • has nearly 8 times the density of water
• they have high melting points. • melts at 1535 ºC. 15.6 Across a period
They form coloured compounds. The compounds of iron are usually green or brown.
The elements change from metal to non-metal, across a period. Look at Period 3.
They can form ions with different charges – in other words, Iron can form Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions.
they have variable oxidation states The name of the iron compound tells you which ion is in it: Group I II III IV V VI VII VIII
(The different oxidation states lead to the different colours iron(II) oxide contains Fe2+ ions
of compound.) iron(III) oxide contains Fe3+ ions. Element sodium magnesium aluminium silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon

The elements and their compounds often act as Iron is used as a catalyst in the manufacture of ammonia. No. of outer-shell 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 (stable
catalysts for other reactions. (See page 67.) (See page 132–33.) electrons arrangement)

Element is a … metal metal metal metalloid non-metal non-metal non-metal non-metal

Quick check for 15.4 (Answers on page 168) Oxide is … basic basic amphoteric acidic acidic acidic acidic –––––
1 Where in the Periodic Table are the transition elements?
2 Do transition elements have high, or low, melting points? Silicon is called a metalloid because it acts as a metal in some ways, and as a non-metal in
3 Do transition element sink, or oat, in water? others. Note the change in the oxides across the period.
4 Cobalt(II) chloride and cobalt(III) sulfate are two compounds of cobalt.
a Which property of the transition elements do their names illustrate?
Quick check for 15.6 (Answers on page 168)
b You should be able to tell these compounds apart, at a glance. Why?
1 How do the oxides of the elements change across a period?
5 Which element, sodium or nickel, is more likely to act as a catalyst in a reaction?
2 Aluminium forms an amphoteric oxide. What does that mean? (Check page 89.)

108 109
IGCSE Revision guide: Chemistry The Periodic Table 15

Extended curriculum

Extended
Questions on Section 15 1 From the elements in Period 3 of the Periodic Table (page 105) select the one which:
a forms an ion with a single negative charge
Answers for these questions are on page 168. b has a full outer shell of electrons
c is metallic, and forms an oxide which has both acidic and basic properties
Core curriculum d is an alkali metal
1 The table below shows an early form of the Periodic Table made by John Newlands e is a green gas at room temperature
in 1866: f forms a hydride with the formula H2X
g can form four covalent bonds with uorine.
H F Cl Co, Ni Br
Li Na K Cu Rb 2 Use the Periodic Table on page 105 to help you answer these questions.
Be Mg Ca Zn Sr
a Predict the formula of each of the following compounds.
B Al Cr Y
i barium oxide
C Si Ti In
N P Mn As ii boron oxide
O S Fe Sc b Give the formula of the following ions.
i sulde
a Newlands arranged the elements according to their relative atomic masses. ii gallium
What governs the order of the elements in the modern Periodic Table? c Draw a diagram showing the arrangement of the valency electrons in one molecule
b Use your modern Periodic Table to suggest why Newlands put cobalt and nickel in of the covalent compound nitrogen trichloride.
the same place. Use × to represent an electron from a nitrogen atom.
c Which group of elements is missing from Newlands’ table? Use o to represent an electron from a chlorine atom.
d Describe three other differences between Newlands’ table and the modern Periodic d Potassium and vanadium are elements in Period IV.
Table. You must not give any of the answers you mentioned in parts a, b, or c. i State two differences in their physical properties.
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry 0620 Paper 2 Q6a, b, c and d November 2007 ii Give two differences in their chemical properties.
e Fluorine and astatine are halogens. Use your knowledge of the other halogens to
2 The table below gives information about the elements in Group I of the Periodic Table. predict the following:
i The physical state of uorine at r.t.p
element boiling point / °C density / radius of the atom reactivity
ii The physical state of astatine at r.t.p
g cm–3 in the metal / nm with water
iii Two similarities in their chemical properties
lithium 1342 0.53 0.157 Adapted from Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry 0620 Paper 3 Q4 June 2007
sodium 883 0.97 0.191 rapid

potassium 760 0.86 0.235 very rapid

rubidium 1.53 0.250 extremely rapid

caesium 669 1.88 explosive

a How does the density of the Group I elements change down the Group?
b Suggest a value for the boiling point of rubidium.
c Suggest a value for the radius of a caesium atom.
d Use the information in the table to suggest how fast lithium reacts with water
compared with the other Group I metals.
e State three properties shown by all metals.
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry 0620 Paper 2 Q1a, b, c, d and e November 2004

3 Chlorine is in Group VII of the Periodic Table. When chlorine reacts with a solution of
potassium bromide, the solution turns a reddish-brown colour.
a Write a word equation for this reaction.
b Explain why iodine does not react with a solution of potassium bromide.
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry 0620 Paper 2 Q4e June 2008

110 111
 Metals 16

16 Metals
16.2 Alloys
Often, pure metals are not up to the job! They may be too soft, or easily corroded by air
The big picture and water. We may be able to solve the problem by making an alloy
• Metals are all different, but do share a number of properties we nd useful.
An alloy is a mixture where at least one other substance is added to a metal, to improve on
• Often we add other substances to them to make them more useful – for example,
its properties. The other substance is often – but not always – another metal.
to make them harder and stronger.
• If a metal is very reactive, it means it has a very strong drive to exist as positive ions. Look at these diagrams:
So its compounds are stable, and hard to break down.
• We can carry out experiments to rank metals in order of reactivity. Pure metal Alloy
• Most metals occur as compounds in their ores, and we have to extract them.
The method depends on their reactivity.
force

16.1 Properties of metals atom of metal A atoms of metal: A B

If you apply force to metal A, the layers of atoms can Here, some metal B is mixed with A. B has larger
• All metals are good conductors of electricity and heat. slide over each other easily. So the pure metal may be atoms, which stop the layers sliding over each other
• Metals share many of these physical properties: too weak for your needs. so easily. So the alloy is stronger.

shiny
Examples of alloys
Alloys are designed to meet different needs. Modern alloys may contain small amounts of
strong: it takes a lot of heavy (they have several substances, as in the aluminium example below.
force to break them up high density)

Alloy Made from Special properties Used for …

Metals are
usually … stainless steel 70% iron does not rust car parts, kitchen sinks, cutlery,
20% chromium tanks and pipes in factories,
sonorous: they make 10% nickel surgical instruments
ductile: they can
a ringing sound mild steel 99.7% iron hard and strong ships, car bodies, machinery,
be drawn into wires
when struck 0.3% carbon beams to strengthen buildings

malleable: they can be aluminium alloy 90.25% aluminium light but very strong aircraft
bent into shape 7075 TF 6% zinc
2.5% magnesium
But there are many exceptions. For example mercury is a liquid at room temperature, 1.25% copper
aluminium is a light metal, and sodium is very soft.
brass 70% copper harder than copper; does musical instruments, ornaments,
• Most metals undergo these two chemical reactions: 30% zinc not corrode door knobs and other ttings

bronze 95% copper harder than brass, does not statues, ornaments, church bells
5% tin corrode, chimes when struck
salts + react with acids Metals react with oxygen oxides
hydrogen to give usually … to give

Quick check for 16.2 (Answers on page 168)

1 Pure iron would not be suitable for making car parts. Why not?
• When metals react, they lose electrons and form positive ions
2 How can the properties of a metal be improved on?
3 a What is brass?
Quick check for 16.1 (Answers on page 168) b Its properties are different from those of pure copper. Give examples.
1 What does this term mean? a malleable b sonorous c ductile 4 Using a diagram, show why an alloy is usually stronger than the pure metal.
2 Give two ways in which most metals are similar in their chemical reactions.
3 Name the compound formed, and give the symbol for its metal ion, when:
a calcium reacts with oxygen b aluminium reacts with hydrochloric acid

112 113
IGCSE Revision guide: Chemistry Metals 16

Equations for some of the reactions

16.3 The reactivity series for metals These are the equations for the numbered reactions in the last table above:

1 2CuO (s) + C (s) → 2Cu (s) + CO2 (g)

Comparing reactivity
Metals differ in how reactive they are. We can carry out experiments to put them in order 2 ZnO (s) + C (s) → Zn (s) + CO (g)
of reactivity. These are suitable reactions: Each time, carbon brings about reduction, and is itself oxidised.
• reactions of the metals with water or steam, and with dilute hydrochloric acid It can be oxidised to either carbon dioxide (CO2) or carbon monoxide (CO).
• reactions of the metal oxides with carbon (to try to reduce them).
Putting it all together: the reactivity series
Reactions of the metals Combining the results of those experiments gives the reactivity series:
The more vigorous a reaction, the more reactive the metal is. Look at the order:
The reactivity series
Order of Metal Reaction with water Reaction with
reactivity or steam hydrochloric acid potassium, K most reactive
sodium, Na
most reactive potassium very violent with cold water too dangerous to try
calcium, Ca
sodium violent with cold water 1 too dangerous to try magnesium, Mg carbon can’t reduce the oxides
aluminium, Al of metals above this line
calcium less violent with cold water very vigorous
carbon
magnesium very slow with cold water vigorous zinc, Zn
vigorous with steam 2 iron, Fe metals above this line displace
lead, Pb hydrogen from acids
zinc quite slow with steam moderate 3
hydrogen
iron slow with steam slow
copper, Cu
least reactive copper no reaction no reaction silver, Ag
gold, Au least reactive

Equations for some of the reactions

These are the equations for the numbered reactions in the table above: Note that:
1 2Na (s) + 2H2O (l ) → 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g) • The most reactive metals in the series belong to Groups I and II of the Periodic Table.
• The less reactive metals, from zinc downwards, are transition metals (except for lead).
2 Mg (s) + H2O (g) → MgO (s) + H2 (g) • We could add more metals to the series (for example tin, chromium, nickel) by carrying
3 Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g) out experiments with those metals too.

The reactivity of aluminium

Extended
Note that:
• if the metals react with cold water, they form hydroxides Notice that aluminium is quite high in the reactivity series. But in everyday use, it appears
• those that react with steam form oxides unreactive. (For example we use it in window frames.)
• and when a metal reacts with cold water, steam, or acid, hydrogen always forms.
In fact aluminium reacts quickly with oxygen, forming a thin layer of aluminium oxide on its
surface. But this layer then sticks to the surface and stops further oxygen getting through.
Reactions of the metal oxides
Carbon will remove oxygen from an oxide only if the metal is less reactive than carbon.
Loss of oxygen is reduction. So carbon acts as a reducing agent. Look at the results: Quick check for 16.3 (Answers on page 168)
1 Which gas is released when a metal reacts with water?
Order of Metal Reaction of metal oxide on heating 2 a Describe what you would observe when magnesium reacts with cold water.
reactivity with carbon b Write the equation for this reaction.
most reactive potassium no reaction c What would happen if you replaced the water by steam?
3 No experiments were carried out for the reactions of potassium and sodium
sodium no reaction with hydrochloric acid. Why not?
calcium no reaction 4 Carbon is not a metal. But it is included in the reactivity series above. Explain why.
5 List the transition metals in the series above, and comment on their reactivity
magnesium no reaction compared with Group I metals.
zinc reduction to zinc takes place, but only 6 What is unusual about the reactivity of aluminium?
at a very high temperature 2

iron reduction to iron

least reactive copper easy reduction to copper 1

114 115
IGCSE Revision guide: Chemistry Metals 16

Extended
16.4 More about the reactivity series Quick check for 16.4 (Answers on page 168)
1 Iron powder is added to blue copper(II) sulfate solution. The solution goes
Remember
green. Explain why, and give the word equation.
The reactivity series and competition reactions
Extended

2 a Write the equation for the reaction between magnesium and lead(II) oxide.
If metal X pushes metal Y
The reactivity series shows metals in order of their reactivity. But what this really means is: out of compounds, and takes
b Now write the two half equations for the reaction. (See pages 79 and 80.)
it shows metals in order of their tendency to form positive ions. its place, then metal X
c Add the balanced half equations, to give the ionic equation for the reaction.
is more reactive than
We can show this by reacting a metal with the compound of another metal. The two metals 3 Write an equation for the thermal decomposition of: metal Y.
then compete to be ions, and the more reactive one ‘wins’. Compare these reactions: a potassium nitrate b iron(III) hydroxide c calcium carbonate.

Competing for oxygen Competing to form ions in solution

Reaction When iron is heated with copper(II) oxide, an
exothermic reaction takes place. Iron(II) oxide forms,
and bronze-coloured copper appears.
Explanation Iron has taken the oxygen from the copper, because
iron has a stronger tendency than copper to exist as
positive ions.
When an iron nail is stood in blue copper(II) sulfate
solution, a coating of copper forms on the nail, and 16.5 Extraction of metals
the solution turns green.
A rock that contains enough metal to make it worth mining is called an ore.
Iron ions have replaced the copper ions in solution, Only the most unreactive metals, such as gold and silver, occur as elements in their ores.
because iron has a stronger tendency than copper
The rest are found as compounds, from which the metals have to be extracted.
to exist as positive ions.

Equation Fe (s) + CuO (s) → FeO (s) + Cu (s) Fe (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → FeSO4 (aq) + Cu (s) Methods of extraction
• The more reactive a metal, the better it is at ‘hanging on’ to the elements in its compounds.
The two half Fe → Fe2+ + 2e (shows electron loss) Fe → Fe2+ + 2e
• So the more reactive the metal, the more difcult it is to extract.
equations
Cu2+ + 2e → Cu (shows electron gain) Cu2+ + 2e → Cu • So the method of extraction is linked to the metal’s position in the reactivity series
The ionic Fe + Cu2+ → Fe2+ + Cu Fe + Cu2+ → Fe2+ + Cu
Metal Method of extraction from ore
equation (add the half equations, and cancel the electrons)
potassium
Conclusion In each case, iron has given up electrons to form positive ions.
The more reactive metal forms positive ions more readily. sodium electrolysis – the most powerful
method of extraction; but it uses
calcium
a lot of electricity so it is the
The reactivity series and the stability of compounds
magnesium most expensive method too
The more reactive a metal, the better it is at ‘hanging on’ to other elements in its more
compounds. So the more energy is needed to break the compounds down. aluminium more more
more powerful
difcult expensive
Compare what happens when compounds of sodium and copper are heated: carbon reactive extraction
to extract process
method
Compounds Effect of heat on the sodium compounds Effect of heat on the copper compounds zinc heat with a reducing agent:
carbon or carbon monoxide
carbonate No reaction; the white solid remains The green compound breaks down easily, giving black iron
unchanged. copper(II) oxide:
lead
heat
CuCO3 (s) CuO (s) + CO2 (g)
silver occur naturally as elements, so
hydroxide No reaction; the white solid remains The pale blue compound breaks down easily, giving no chemical change needed
gold
unchanged. black copper(II) oxide:
heat
Cu(OH)2 (s) CuO (s) + H2O (l ) Extraction is reduction
nitrate Partial decomposition occurs. Oxygen is given The bright blue compound breaks down easily, giving The chemical change to obtain a metal from its ore is always a reduction reaction.
off, and a nitrite forms: black copper(II) oxide. A brown gas also forms. It is For example aluminium is obtained by extracting it from aluminium oxide, which is made
2NaNO3 (s)
heat
2NaNO2 (s) + O2 (g) nitrogen dioxide, NO2: from its ore bauxite. The extraction is carried out using electrolysis:
sodium nitrite heat
2Cu(NO3)2 (s) 2CuO (s) + 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) electricity
2Al2O3 (l) 4Al (l) + 3O2 (g) (reduction is loss of oxygen)
So the compounds of the less reactive metal break down more easily. Make the link to …
The half equation is:
Al 3+ + 3e → Al (reduction is gain of electrons) the extraction of aluminium,
The general rules for thermal decomposition on page 53.
Either way, it is clear that the aluminium is reduced.
The breaking down of a compound by heat is called thermal decomposition
• The lower a metal is in the reactivity series, the more readily its compounds decompose
when heated Quick check for 16.5 (Answers on page 168)
• Carbonates except sodium and potassium decompose to the oxide and carbon dioxide. 1 Most metals are found as compounds in their ores. Explain why.
• Hydroxides except sodium and potassium decompose to the oxide and water. 2 Why is aluminium extracted by electrolysis?
• Nitrates except sodium and potassium decompose to the oxide, nitrogen dioxide and water.

116 117