Torque and Drag Calculations

13. TORQUE AND DRAG SIMULATORS

INTRODUCTION

During the past decade a lot of work has been directed towards a better
understanding of the mechanical forces encountered during drilling operations.

An improved appreciation of these forces on the drillstring leads to a better

understanding of down hole conditions, and more effective drilling operations.

There are a great many ways in which a force can be applied to the drillstring. Listed
below are some of the main considerations. (See Fig. 13.1)

1. The Weight of the drillstring itself

2. The Buoyant effect of the mud

3. Applied weight on bit

4. Friction caused by pumping

5. Wall (Rock or Casing) contact with the drillstring

6. The ]et reaction at the bit

In a vertical or near vertical wellbore, prediction of these different forces acting on

the string is relatively straight forward. However, with today's increasing hole
angles, it becomes more difficult to provide a complete picture of the forces
throughout the drillstring.

Downhole tools, such as MWD, which monitor WOB and torque, have gone some
way to relieve the problems of predicting mechanical forces. But they alone cannot
provide a complete picture.

Most major oil companies today place more reliance on computers and historical
data to simulate and predict these forces, by mathematically modeling the physical
phenomena involved. These computer models generally go by the name of Torque
and Drag Simulators.

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Fig. 13.1

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FRICTlON FORCES
Of the many ways that torque and drag forces are applied to the drillstring, one
particular mechanism merits specific mention.

Frictional forces are generated as the drillstring is bent through a hole trajectory.
These forces, coupled with the friction properties present at the wellbore/ drill string
interface can radically alter the tension or compression present in the string. As a
result frictional forces are of paramount importance when mathematically modeling
torque and drag.

The friction forces present between the hole and the drillstring are products of the
Normal Reaction Force R, and the Coefficient of friction p. This coefficient is often
referred to as the Friction Factor. The basic equation for friction is summarized as:-

F=μ Where F = Frictional Force

R = Normal Reaction Force

μ = Coefficient of Friction or Friction Factor

Consider now the two components of this Frictional Force:

NORMAL REACTION FORGE

All torque and drag simulator programmes differ in the way that they model the
various downhole physical! phenomenon. As a result the calculated reaction force
will vary, depending on the programmes used. However, in general, the Normal
Reaction Force R, can be said to primarily depend on the weight of the string and
the curvature through which it is bent.

A simple illustration of the calculation of normal force can be seen in Fig. 13.2. Here
the net normal force is the vector sum of the normal components of string weight
W, and the two tensional force, F1 and F2.

Fig. 13.2
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Force balance on drillstring element illustrating sources of normal force.

R = {Ft x a sin Φ)2 + (Ft x a 0 + W sinΦ)2 }1/2

FRICTION FACTOR

Friction factor μ depends on the specific materials in contact and the lubricity of the
interface between these materials.

Providing the hole is in-gauge or over-gauge, the value of friction factor has been
found experimentally to be relatively independent of lithology.

ln the case of under-gauge hole the type of formation contact, e.g. salt or clay, is
important. However, friction factor is dependent on whether the hole is open or
cased and on the mud used (i.e. oil or water based). Values for friction factors of
between 0.15 and 0.3 are generally applicable. With the lower value being in the
presence of oil based fluids.

Additionally, the friction factor being used is independent of the operation. The
same factors are used for drilling as for tripping.

However, it is interesting to note that whilst rotary drilling the calculated hook load
is independent of friction factor applied. This is because the string motion is
primarily rotary with little axial movement. As friction acts to resist movement, in
this case friction is almost entirely Torsional Drag.

This means that WOB measure on the rig floor whilst rotary drilling is correct, even
in highly deviated wells. On the other hand, if rotation is stopped, during a kick-off

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for example, then the movement of the string becomes completely axial as does the
drag force. ln this case surface measurement of WOB is invalid,

In general, Simulators will consider the drillstring as being made up of a number of

segments, where each segment is a joint of pipe or a drill collar. Tension,
compression and torsion are then transmitted though the connections, The basic
frictional equation is then applied to each segment, with an assumed friction factor.
Calculations start at the bit and work toward the surface, with the resultant frictional
forces for each segment being calculated and applied to the next segment. This
continues until the entire string has been analyzed and a surface load obtained.

As stated, it is normally the case that an assumed friction factor is input to the
simulator to allow the programme to calculate drag. The' friction factor to be used
should be validated by using real drilling data, such as observed hook load and
torque. Here, field readings of torque and drag are input to the computer and a
reverse calculation made to give friction factor. By using a range of like wells and
situations, friction factors can be line tuned for open or cased hole and water or oil
based fluid.

This validation exercise to obtain friction factor is largely dependent on the quality
of field observations. Inaccurate readings for hookload and torque will result in
inaccurate coefficients of friction. Hookload recorders such as Martin Decker
gauges and dead-man sensors, must be accurately calibrated. Frictional losses in
the traveling equipment and drilling line must be considered, and rotary torque must
be accurately recorded using reliable torque meters. Obtaining accurate field data
cannot be overstressed. It is difficult to achieve, but essential if reliable values for
friction factor are to be obtained.

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