DRRR

Seismic Waves

- Are waves of energy caused by the sudden breaing of rock within the earth or an explosion. They are
energy that travels through the earth and is recorded on seismograph

Types of Waves

1. Body waves – traveling through the interior of the earth. These waves have higher frequency than surface
waves
 P waves
- primary wave or known as compressional waves
- fastest kind of seismic wave and can move through solid rocks and fluid
- it pushes and pulls the rock it moves through just like sound waves push and pull air
 S waves
- secondary wave
- second wave you feel in an earthquake
- slower than P wave and can only move through solid rocks

2. Surface waves - travelling only through the crust, lower frequency than body waves and easily distinguish
by seismograph responsible for the damage and destruction associated with earthquakes
 Love waves
- named after A.E.H. Love, a British mathematician who worked out mathematical model for this
kind of wave in 1911
- fastest surface waves, moves the ground side-to-side
- produce entirely horizontal motion
 Rayleigh Waves
- named for John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh, who mathematically predicted the existence of this
kind of wave in 1885
- moves the ground up and down, and side-to-side in the same direction that the wave is moving
- much larger than other waves

Magnitude vs. Intensity

Magnitude – measures the energy released from the source of the earthquake and is determined by
measurements of seismograph

Intensity – measures the strength of shaking produced by earthquake at a certain location

Richter Scale vs. Mercalli Scale

Richter Scale – measures the seismic waves, or the energy released, causing the earthquake and describes
magnitude and it is a logarithmic

Mercalli scale – bases the measurement on the observed effects of the earthquake and describes its intensity
and it is a linear measurement
Natural Hazards – naturally occurring physical phenomena caused either by rapid or slow onset events can be
geophysical (earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis and volcanic activity), hydrological (avalanches and floods),
climatological (extreme temperatures, drought, and wildfires), meteorological (cyclones and storm/wave
surges), biological (disease epidemics and insect/animal plagues)

Risk – situation involving exposure to danger

Vulnerability – the quality or state of being exposed to the possibility of being attacked or harmed, either
physically or emotionally

WHAT ARE EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS?

Ground Shaking

- A first main earthquake hazard

- Caused by the passage of seismic waves beneath structures

Ground Rupture

- The displacement of the ground to the violent shaking of surface

Vertical Displacement

- When one side of the ground goes up or down or both sides moved with one side going up and
the other going down

Horizontal Displacement

- When there is a lateral movement from side to side, one side goes to the left or right, or both
move sideways in different directions

Liquefaction

- The mixing of sand or soil and groundwater during the shaking of a moderate or strong
earthquake
- Buildings can even sink into the ground

Ground Subsidence

- Lowering the land surface due to liquefaction

What is a landslide?

- Movement of rock, debris or earth down a slope

- Also known as landslips, slumps or slope failure
- Can be triggered by human activity and natural causes
- They range from a single boulder in a rock fall or topple to tens of millions of cubic meters of material in
debris flow
Creep – is a slow or gradual movement of soil

Slump – is the downside flow age of soft and unconsolidated materials

Rocks and Debris Flow – is the slow rapid downslope movement of unconsolidated soil or rock debris

Rock Fall – is the free-falling movement of massive rock from a cliff or steep slopes

Debris Flow – is the rapid flowage of debris and other rock materials

Mudflow – is the mass movement characterized by a flowing mass of mud along the flank of a volcano

Mitigatory Measures

 Hazzard Mapping: locate areas prone to landslides – help planning development activities
 Proper Drainage and Drainage Correction: allowing excess water to move without hindrance – deep
drainage
 Engineering Structure: slope stabilization – geogids, nailing, anchors
 Insurance
 Proper Land Use of Measures
 Afforestation and Reforestation of the Areas
 Development Activities: only after detailed study of region, avoid constructions along natural drainage
 Creation of awareness among local people

Sink Holes – are geologic formations caused by exposure to water, erosion, and ground movement

Volcanic Eruption

Volcano – opening in the surface of earth which allows hot, molten rock, ash, and gases to escape from deep
below the surface

How Volcanoes are formed?

1. When plates collide, a volcano is formed

2. When plates spread apart, a volcano is formed
3. Volcanoes formed in the middle of a plate

Kinds of Volcanoes

1. Composite/Strato Volcanoes
- Formed by alternating layers of lava and rock fragments
- Erupt in any explosive way
2. Cinder Cone Volcanoes Parts of a Volcano
 - Made of lava fragments called cinders
- Low explosivity
3. Shield Volcano
- Biggest among volcanoes
- Made of many layers of runny lava flows
- Low explosivity

Categories of Volcanoes

1. Active Volcanoes
- Has erupted recently or about 10 000 years ag0
2. Inactive Volcanoes
- Also called as dormant
- It rarely has record of previous eruption

Pyroclastic flow – a dense collection of fragments and gases from a volcanic eruption that flows down the
slope of a volcano

Before Volcanic Eruption During Volcanic Eruption After Volcanic Eruption

1. Make evacuation plans
and develop community
plan in case family
members are separated
during the eruption
2. Prepare disaster and
emergency supplies or
kits
3. Evacuate once you are
told
1. Id indoor, close all
windows and doors
2. If outdoor, seek shelter
3. Avoid low lying areas
4. Wear long sleeve shirts
and long pants
5. Use goggles to protect
your eyes
6. Use dust masks
7. Stay out of volcano
areas
1. Help people requiring
special assistants like
infants, elderly, and
PWDs
2. Stay inside and listen
for volcano information
on your radio or
television
3. Minimize your
movements and keep
all windows and door
closed
4. Unless advised to
evacuate, stay indoors
and wear face mask to
protect your lungs;
wear glasses to protect
your eyes
5. When outdoors or
evacuating, cover your
mouth and nose; wear
goggles to protect your
eyes
6. Keep your skin covered
 with long pants, long-
sleeved shirt hat to
avoid irritation from ash
7. Avoid driving after
heavy ash fall. Driving
will stir up more ash
that can clog engines
8. If you have a respiratory
ailment, avoid contact
with any amount of ash.
Stay indoors until local
health officials advise it
is safe to go outside
9. Avoid areas where
there might be volcanic
ash fall. It can cause
respiratory ailments
10. Remove ash from roofs.
Volcanic ash is heavy
especially when wet
and can cause roofs to
collapse

Hydro-meteorological Hazard

A phenomenon of atmospheric, hydrological or oceanographic nature that may cause loss of life, injury
or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or
environmental damage

Hazards:

1. Tropical Cyclones
2. Thunder Storms
3. Tornado
4. Storm Surge
5. Flood
6. Drought

El Niño and La Niña – these events are a natural part of the global climate system. They occur when Pacific
Ocean and the atmosphere above it change from their neutral state for several seasons.

El Niño

- From Spanish as ‘’the boy child’’

- Originally used by Peruvian Fishermen to describe the appearance, around Christmas, of a warm ocean
current off the South American coast
- Commonly described as warming of the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean
El Niña

- Translates as ‘’girl-child’’ and is opposite ENSO phase to El Niño

What is ENSO?

- El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

- Phenomenon of the climate system resulting from the interaction between the ocean and atmosphere
in the central and eastern equatorial pacific.

What is a Tropical Cyclone?

- Low pressure area that is warmer on the inside than on the outside. Can be dozens to hundreds of miles
wide and last for days
- Warm core
- No fronts
- Forms over subtropical or warm tropical oceans
- Organized thunderstorm activity
- Closed surface wind circulation around a well-defined center
- Classified by maximum sustained wind speed
 Tropical Depression: <39mph
 Tropical Storm: <39-70mph
 Hurricane/Typhoon: <74mph or greater

Parts of Tropical Cyclones

Eye – weather has no rain but sunny sky

Inner Bands – rain is harder and the wind is weaker

Outer Bands – rain is weaker and the wind is stronger

Edge – both winds and rain has same power

Floods and Types

 Fluvial Floods (river floods)

 Pluvial Floods flash floods and surface water)
 Coastal Flood (storm surge)

Before a Flood
1. Learn whether your
home, school or place
of work is at risk of
flooding
2. Find alternate routes to
Flood Safety
During a Flood After a Flood
5. Never dive or walk into 9. Avoid damage areas
flood waters and flood waters
6. If told to evacuate, do 10. Heed road closed and
so immediately other cautionary signs
7. Get to higher grounds 11. Wait for ‘’all clear’’ to
 important locations
3. Make a family
communications plan
4. If evacuation orders are
issued in advance,
follow them
8. Get information from
local television/radio or
your mobile device
enter a flood damaged
structure
12. Contact your loved ones
via text or social media
to keep phone lines
clear

Storm Surge – high winds push sea water towards the coast

What to do before storm surge What to do after storm surge

1. Check your house and land for any
potential dangers related to flooding
2. Learn how to turn off the gas and
electricity in your house
3. If you live in an area that is subject to
flooding, do not store your important
documents in the basement
4. Ensure that your family has an
emergency kit and plan
5. Ensure your emergency kit is portable, in
a backpack or suitcase with wheels
6. Check supplies
7. You may have to evacuate. Keep your
emergency kit close at hand
8. Make sure the basement windows are
closed
9. Fuel your car. If evacuation becomes
necessary, it will hard to stop for gas
1. Continue listening to a weather radio
2. Help injured or trapped persons. Give
first aid where appropriate
3. help a neighbor who may require special
assistance, infants, elderly, and PWDs
4. Use the telephone only for emergency
calls
5. Stay out of the building if waters remain
around it
6. When we re-entering buildings or homes,
use extreme caution
7. Open the windows and doors to help dry
the building
8. Shovel mud while it is still moist to give
walls and floors an opportunity to dry
9. Check food supplies

Thunderstorms

- Storm resulting from strong rising air currents accompanied by rain, thunder, and lightning
- The typical thunderstorm is 15 miles in diameter and last an average of 30 minutes. Nearly 1800
thunderstorms are occurring at any moment around the world
- 16 million a year

Thunderstorm stages

 Towering Cumulus Stage

 Mature Stage
 Dissipating Stage

In case of Thunderstorms
If indoors: If outdoors:
1. Stay away from water, plumbing, doors 1. Seek shelter inside, preferably inside a
and windows building with lightning rod
2. Do not use landline telephones 2. If not, stay inside a car
 3. Turn off, unplug and stay away from
appliances, computers, power tools, TVs
4. Consider purchasing a heavy-duty surge
protector
5. Bring pets inside – especially dogs
chained to trees
3. Do not stay under trees
4. If hiking above tree line, descend
immediately
5. It is not safe to be in a tent, small picnic
shelters, near heavy machinery

Tornado – a narrow, violent rotating column of air that extends from base of a thunderstorm to the ground

Danger signs of a tornado

1. Dark, often greenish clouds – a phenomenon caused by hail

2. Funnel Cloud – a visible rotating extension of the cloud base
3. Wall Cloud – an isolated lowering of the base of a thunderstorm
4. Large Hail roaring noise cloud of debris

What to do during a Tornado?

1. Go to windowless interior room

2. Get in basement if at possible
3. Protect head and neck
4. If caught outside, get in ditch or drainage area
5. Be very aware of flying debris

Climate Change

Weather – the atmosphere at a given time and place (wind, moisture, storms, snow, temperature, barometric
pressure)

Climate – various atmospheric conditions in a region over a long period of time (rainfall, temperature, wind,
humidity, and other meteorological)

Climate Change – significant and important in temperature, rainfall, moisture, wind velocity

Natural Greenhouse Effect

– more heat escapes into space

– less re-emitted heat

Human Enhanced Greenhouse Effect

– less heat escapes into space

– more re-emitted heat

Mitigation

 Climate Change (IPCC)

- A human intervention to reduce the resources or enhance the sinks of greenhouse effects
  Disaster Reduction (UNISDR)
- The lessening or limitation of the adverse impacts of hazards and related disasters

Adaptation

 Climate Change (IPCC)

- The process of adjustment to actual or expected climate and its effects
 Disaster Reduction (UNISDR)
- The adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or
their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities

Differences Differences
Similarities
ADAPTATION MITIGATION
1. Change in land use, 1. Seal buildings
1. Energy conservation
relocation 2. Green infrastructure
and efficiency
2. Emergency & business 3. Water and energy
2. Renewable energy
continuity planning conservation
3. Sustainable
3. Upgrades or hardening 4. Smart growth
transportation,
of building and
improved fuel efficiency
infrastructure
4. Capture and use of
4. Residential programs
landfill digester gas
promoting adaptation
5. Carbon sinks
5. Health programs

CHEMISTRY
Solubility
- amount of solute that can be dissolved in a given solvent
Unsaturated
- When it doesn’t reach the maximum amount of solute that your solvent can dissolve at a certain
temperature
Saturated
- When it reached the maximum amount of solute
Supersaturated
- Unstable
- When it reaches more than the maximum
2 FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY
Temperature
- The average kinetic energy of all the atoms or molecules of that substance
- In everyday terms, temperature is a measure of the “hotness’’ or “coldness” of a substance
- A quantitative measure of how hot or cold something is
Pressure
- The solubility of gasses has direct relationship with pressure
Polarity or Intermolecular Forces
- We have this rule stating “like dissolves like” which simply means that a solute will be best
dissolved in a solvent with the same chemical structure
- The polarity of a certain solute may also affect the ability of the solvent to dissolve such
substances
 Dipole-Dipole Interaction - If both solvent and solute is polar, then they are most soluble
 Van der Waals Dispersion or London Dispersion Forces - If both solvent and solute are non-
polar, then they are also most likely soluble
 Less Soluble - If the solvent is moderately polar while solute is either polar or non-polar
 Insoluble - if the solvent is non-polar while the solute is polar or other way around
Molecular Size
- The simplest factor affecting solubility
- If the molecules of the solutes are larger, its molecular weight and size will also be larger making
it more difficult for solvent to dissolve it. Thus, larger molecules mean less soluble.
- Otherwise, if the molecules of the solutes are smaller, thus, a smaller molecular weight and size,
the solvent can dissolve it more quickly. Therefore, smaller molecules means more soluble.
Temperature Scales
- A way to measure temperature relative to a starting point (0 or zero) and a unit of measurement
Common temperature scales:
1. Kelvin
- Named after the Belfast-bom and University of Glasgow based engineer and physicist William
Thompson, 1st Baron Kelvin (1824-1907)
- A temperature scale having an absolute zero below which temperatures do not exist
- One of the seven base units in the International System of Units (SI)

2. Celsius
- Named after Anders Celsius
- Where 0℃ is the freezing point of water
- Originally known as centigrade scale

3. Fahrenheit
- Proposed in 1724 by the physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
- Used by non-scientist
In general, a rise in temperature causes a rise in a substance’s solubility.
Solubility of Solids – Direct Relationship
- When temperature decreases, solubility also decreases
- When temperature increases, solubility also increases
Solubility of Gases – Inverse Relationship
- When temperature decreases, solubility increases
- When temperature increases, solubility decreases

Temperature
Aquatic organisms that live in the deeper parts of bodies of water have adaptations to counter this
effect. Ex. Deep sea Hatch fish
Counterillumination
- An adaptation that allows it to escape becoming the food of other creatures
- Predators find it difficult to detect its silhouette due to light-based camouflage technique (at
depths ranging from 50 to 1500m)
Thermal Stratification
- A condition wherein the solubility of a gas in water usually decreases with increasing
temperature. Under normal conditions, the different layers that make up natural bodies of water
have little tendency to mix
- Wherein warm and less dense water flow over cold, denser water. As such, the warmer, upper
layer tends to blocks off the amount of oxygen that could penetrate the colder and denser stratum.

The solubility of solids and liquids is affected by temperature. The rate of dissolution increases as
the temperature increase.
Dissolution – the process by which solid, liquid or gas forms a solution in a solvent

Factors affecting Solubility: Temperature

Gas in Liquid
- solubility increases with a decrease in temperature, and decreases with an increase in temperature
Solid in Liquid
Endothermic reactions – solubility increases with an increase in temperature
Exothermic reactions – solubility decreases with an increase in temperature
Endothermic vs. Exothermic Reactions
Endothermic reaction – any chemical reaction that absorbs heat from the environment.
Exothermic reaction – chemical reaction that releases heat.

Henry’s Law: Pressure

Henry’s Law
- Is a gas law which states that the amount of gas that is dissolved in a liquid is directly
proportional to the partial pressure of that gas above the liquid when the temperature is kept
constant
 - Formulated in early 19th century by English chemist William Henry
Henry’s law constant
- The constant proportionally for this relationship
- Denoted by Kh
Henry’s law formula
P = kH*C
P – denotes partial pressure of the gas in the atmosphere above the liquid
C – denotes the concentration of the dissolved gas
kH – is the henry’s law constant of the gas
Factors Affecting the Henry’s Law Constant
The value of the Henry’s law constant of a gas is dependent on the following factors:

 The nature of the gas

 The nature of the solvent
 Temperature & pressure
Limitations of Henry’s Law
- Only applicable when molecules of the system are in a state of equilibrium (equal)
- Henry’s law does not hold true when gases are placed under extremely high pressure
- Not applicable when the gas and the solution participate in chemical reactions with each other