Chapter Three Instrumentation Full

Electrical Measurement and
Instrumentation
By: Eskeziyaw Alemneh

ealemneh2008@gmail.com
Gondar University
Institute of Thechnology
Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering
July 14, 2022
Sensors and Transducers Classification Transducers primary sensors Active sensors Analog sensor
Overview of Presentation
1 Sensors and Transducers
2 Classification Transducers
3 primary sensors
4 Active sensors
5 Analog sensors
(UOG) Electrical Measurement and Instrumentation July 14, 2022 1/99

Sensors and Transducers Sensors and Transducers Classification Transducers primary sensors Active sensors Analog sensor
Sensors and Transducers

Sensors
q Elements which generate variation of electrical
quantities (EQ) in response to variation of
non-electrical quantities (NEQ),sometimes called
transducers
• e.g of physical quantity: Temperature, displacement,
humidity, fluid flow, speed, pressure,. . .

Sensor Cont...
q The advantages of converting physical quantities

into electrical quantities are :
(i).Electrical output can be amplified and attenuated
to any desired level.
(ii). Very small power is required for controlling the
electrical system
(iii). The electrical output can be easily used,
transmitted and processed for the purpose of
measurement.
(iv). Mechanical effects such as friction is reduced
to the minimum possibility etc....
Transducer
Transducer
q Transducer consisting of two important and closely
related parts:
(1). Sensing or Detector Element.
part of a transducer which responds to a physical
phenomenon or a change in a physical phenomenon.
(2). Transduction element
Transforms the output of a sensing element to an
electrical output. The transduction element, acts as
a secondary transducer

Classification Transducers Sensors and Transducers Classification Transducers primary sensors Active sensors Analog sensor
Transducer
Classification of Transducers
q Transducers can be divided on the basis of:
• Method of applications
• Method of energy conversion used
• Electrical principle
• Nature of output signals etc...
q In general, the classification of sensors is given by:
• Primary and secondary sensors
• Active and passive sensors
• Analog and Digital sensors

primary sensors Sensors and Transducers Classification Transducers primary sensors Active sensors Analog sensor
Primary and Secondary Sensors

Primary Sensors
q The input NEQ is directly sensed by the sensor.
• e.g thermocouple. The thermocouple’s hot junction
senses the radiant heat energy and directly converts it
into electrical output which is a voltage.
Secondary Sensors
q The output of the primary sensor is fed to another
(secondary) sensor that converts the NEQ to EQ

Primary and Secondary Sensors
• Classification is based on the method of application.

Active and Passive Sensor
q Classification based on the basis of energy
conversion

Active and Passive Sensors
q Active Sensor
(i). Generates voltage/current in response to NEQ
variation
(ii). Are also called self-generating sensors
(iii). The output of active sensors is in µV or mV
• Examples:
Thermocouples: A change in temperature produces output voltage
Photovoltaic cell: Change solar energy into voltage

Active sensors Sensors and Transducers Classification Transducers primary sensors Active sensors Analog sensor
Active and Passive Sensors

Passive sensors
q known as externally powered transducers
q Sensors that does not generate voltage or current,
but produce element variation in R, L, or C
q Need an additional circuit to produce voltage or
current variation

Active sensors Sensors and Transducers Classification Transducers primary sensors Active sensors Analog sensor
Passive Sensors
q Examples
Thermistor: Change in temperature leads to change
in resistance
Photo resistor: Change in light leads to change in
resistance
Straingauge: Change in length or position into
change in resistance)
LVDT, Mic

Analog sensors Sensors and Transducers Classification Transducers primary sensors Active sensors Analog sensor
Analog and Digital Sensors
q Classification based on the nature of the output

signal
Analog sensor
(i). Gives an output that varies continuously as the
input changes
(ii). Output can have infinite number of values
within the sensor’s range (Varies with function of
time)
• Strain guadge,Thermocouple,Thermistor, LVDT
etc..,

Analog and Digital Sensors

Digital sensor
q Has an output that varies in discrete steps or pulses
or sampled form and have a finite number of values
E.g. Revolution counter:
A cam, attached to a revolving body whose motion
is being measured, opens and closes a switch

Sensor classification Cont...

q Sensors also be classified according to application
Example
• Measurement of displacement, motion,
temperature, intensity sensors

PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
Resistive Sensors
q A device that converts a mechanical change such as
displacement into an electrical signal
q The resistance of a metal conductor is expressed by:
ρL
R= (1)
A
• If you double the material’s length, resistance doubles.
• But, Changes in composition and temperature do not
change the resistivity of a material in such a simple way.

Passive Transducers Cont...

1.0 Potentiometer
q Converts linear (translatory) or angular (rotary)
displacement into a change of resistance in the
resistive element provided with a movable contact
called wiper.
q The potentiometer are used for voltage division.


q If the distribution of the resistance with respect to

translational movement is linear, the resistance per
R
unit length is xtp

q Example

q Advantages and Disadvantages of Potentiometer

q Resistance potentiometers have the following major
advantages :
(i) They are inexpensive.
(ii). are simple to operate
(iii). are very useful for measurement of large
amplitudes of displacement etc...
q The disadvantages are :
(i). They require a large force to move the sliding
contacts (wipers).

q Example: A linear resistance potentiometer is 50

mm long and is uniformly wound with a wire
having a resistance 10,000 Ω. Under normal
conditions, the slider is at the centre of the
potentiometer.
Find the linear displacement when the resistance of
the potentiometer as measured by a Wheatstone
bridge for two cases is :
(i) 3850 Ω, and (ii) 7560 Ω.
Are the two displacements in the same direction ?

q Solution.
The resistance of potentiometer at the normal
position= l0,000/2= 5000 Ω.
(i) Resistance of potentiometer wire per unit
length= 10,000/50=200 Ω/mm.
(ii) Change in resistance of potentiometer from its
normal position =5000-3850= 1150Ω.
200 = 5·75mm.
Displacement= 1150
(iii) Change in resistance of potentiometer from its
normal position=7560-5,000 =2,560Ω.
200 =12.55mm
Displacemcnt= 2560
q Since one of the displacements represents a

decrease and the other represents an increase in
resistance of the potentiometer as compared with
the resistance of the potentiometer at its normal
position, the two displacements are in the opposite
direction.


2. Strain Gauges
q Is a secondary transducer that senses tensile or
compressive strain in a particular direction at a
point on the surface of a body or structure
• Used to measure force, pressure, displacement
q The resistance of an unstrained conductor is given
as:
ρL
R= (2)
A



q The strain is usually expressed in terms of

microstrain. 1 microstrain =1 micro m/m.
q If the change in the value of resistivity of a material
when strained is neglected, the gauge factor is ;
Gf = 1 + 2v
q Example. A resistance wire strain gauge uses a soft
iron wire of small diameter. The gauge factor is 4.2.
Neglecting the piezoresistive effects, calculate the
Poisson’s ratio.


Solution.
The gauge factor is given by Gf = 1 + 2v + ∆ρ/ρ
If piezoresistive effect is neglected, the gauge factor is given by :
G −1
Gf = 1 + 2v ∴ Poisson’s ratio v = f2 = 4.2−12 = 1.6.
Types of Strain Gauges
q There are three types of strain gauges :
(i). Wire wound strain gauges
(ii). Foil type strain gauges,
(iii). Semiconductor strain gauges


3. Thermistors
q Thermistors is a contraction of term ”Thermal
Resistors”.
q It is a semi-conductors device which have negative
temperature coefficient (their resistance decreases
as their temperature increase.)
q The resistance of a thermistor at room temperature
may decrease as much as 5% for each 1◦ C rise in
temperature





Temperature Characteristics of Thermistors
q Relationship between the resistance of a thermistor
and absolute temperature of thermistor is:
" !#
1 1
RT1 = RT2 exp · β −
T1 T2
where RT1 = resistance of the thermistor at absolute
temperature T1 ; K,
RT2 = resistance of the thermistor at absolute temperature
T2 ; K, and β = a constant, typically 3500 to 4500 K.


q The resistance temperature characteristics of a
typical thermistor show that a thermistor has a very
high negative temperature co-efficient of resistance,
making it an ideal temperature transducer.

q For a limited range of temperature, the linear

aproximation to the resistance of a thermistor
variation is given by:
h i
Rθ = Rθ0 1 + αθ0 ∆θ
where Rθ = approximate resistance at temperature θ◦ Ω;
Rθ0 = approximate resistince at temperature θ0 ◦ ; Ω
∆θ = θ − θ0 = change in temperature ; ◦ C,
αθ0 = resistance temperature co-efficient at temperature θ0 ◦ ; ◦ C.
q Logarithmic approximation also be usd for

resistance-temperature relationship for a thermistor

q The relationship is : RT = aR0 eb/T

where RT = resistance at ice point ; Ω, R0 =
resistance at temperature T; K, and a, b are
constants.
q High sensitivity to temperature changes make the
thermistors extremely useful for precision
temperature measurements, control and
compensation.


Applications of Thermistors
q The major application of thermistors is in the field
of measurement of temperature.
(ii) Temperature compensation in complex
electronic equipment, magnetic amplifier and
instrumentation equipment.(affected by temperature
changes.)
(iii) Measurement of power at high frequencies
(iv). Measurement of thermal conductivity
(v). Measurement of level, flow and pressure of
liquids
q Example A thermistor has a resistance of 3980Ω at

the ice point (0◦ C) and 794 Ω at 50◦ C. The
resistance-temperature relationship is given by
RT = aR0 eb/T
Calculate the copstants a and b.
Calculate the range of resistance to be measured in
case the temperature varies from 40◦ C to 100◦ C?

q Solution:
The resistance at ice point R0 = 3980Ω.
q Absolute temperature at ice point = 273 K.
∴ 3980 = a × 3980 × eb/273 or 1 = aeb/273
Resistance at 50◦ C is RT == 794Ω.
q Absolute temperature corresponding to 50◦ C is
T = 273 + 50◦ = 323 K.
Hence,
794 = a × 3980eb/323 = 3980aeb/323
Solving (i) and (ii), we have a = 30 × 10−6 and b = 2845.

q Absolute temperature at 40◦ C = 273 + 40 = 313 K

Resistance at
40◦ C = 30 × 10−6 × 3980 × e2845/313 = 1060Ω.
Absolute temperature at 100◦ C = 273 + 100 = 373 K
Resistance at
100◦ C = 30 × 10−6 × 3980e2845/315 = 245Ω.
q Thus the range of resistance is 1060Ω to 245Ω.



Capacitive Transducers
q The principle operation is based upon the familiar
equation for capacitance of a parallel plate
capacitor.



Variation of Dielectric Constant

q Initial capacitance of transducer

C = 0 wld1 + 0 r wld2 = 0 wd [l1 + r l2 ]
Let the dielectric be moved through a distance x in
the direction indicated. The capacitance changes
from C to C + ∆C.

q
w w w
∴ C + ∆C = 0 (l1 − x) + 0 r (l2 + x) = 0 [l1 − x +
d d d
w wx
= 0 [l1 + + l2 + x (r − 1)] = C + 0 (r −
d d
Cbange in capacitance ∆C = 0 wx
d (r − 1)
Hence the change in capacitance is proportional to
displacement.


Variation in Distance Between Plates
q capacitance, varies inversely as the distance d,
between the plates the response of this transducer is
not linear. This transducer is used for measurement
of extremely small displacements.

q Sensitivity
∂C A
=− 2
S=
∂d d
The sensitivity of this type of transducer is not
constant but varies over the range of the transducer.
exhibits non-linear characteristics.


Variation in Area of Plates
q Capacitance is directly proportional to the area of
the plates.
q For a parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance is :
A lw
= C=F (3)
d d
q Sensitivity S = ∂C
∂l = d F/m w/h is constant
w
q Sensitivity for a fractional change in capacitance:

∂c 1
= (4)
C∂l l
q This type of a capacitive sensor is suitable for

measurement of linear displacements ranging from
1 to 10 cm. The accuracy is as high as 0.005%.
q For a cylinderical capacitor the capacitance is :
2π ∈ l
C= (5)
logθ (D2 /D1 )
D2= inner diameter of outer cylindrical electrode
D1=outer diameter of inner cylindrical electrode

q Sensitivity will be:

∂C 2π
S= = (6)
∂l log (D2 /D1 )
q The sensitivity is constant and the relationship
between capacitance and displacement is always
linear.



q Example: A capacitive transducer- uses two quartz

diaphragms of area 750 mm2 separated by a
distance of 3.5 mm. A pressure of 900kN/m2 when
applied to the top diaphragm produces a deflection
of 0.6 mm. The capacitance is 370pF when no
pressure is applied to the diaphragms. Find the
value of capacitance after the application of a
pressure of 900kN/m2 .

q Solution. Suppose C1 and C2 are respectively the

values of capacitance before and after application of
pressure. Let d1 and d2 be the values of distance
between the diaphragms for the corresponding
pressure conditions.
C1 = A/d1 and C2 = A/d2
C2 d1 d1
= ∴ C2 = C1 × .
C1 d2 d2
d1 = 3.5 mm and d2 = 3.5 − 0.6 = 2.9 mm. ∴
Value of capacitance after application of pressure
C2 = 370 × 3.5
2.9
= 306.6pF.


Inductive Sensors
q The variable inductance type of transducers work,
based on one of the following three principles :
(i). Variation of self-inductance
(ii). Variation of mutual inductance e.g.,LVDT
(iii). Production of eddy current.


Variation of Self Inductance
q The self inductance of a coil is given by:
N2
L= (7)
R
where N=number of turns, and R=reluctance of the
magnetic circuit
q The reluctance of the magnetic circuit is:
l
R= (8)
µA

q Inductance will be:

N 2 µA
L=
= N 2 µG (9)
l
q where µ =effective permeability of the medium in
and around the coil.
G= Al =geometric form factor,A=area of magnetic
path,l=length of magnetic path
q The variation in inductance is caused by change in
number of turns, variation in geometric
configuration or by change in permeability of
magnetic material or magnetic circuit.
q When a current i is passed through an inductive

sensor with resistance R and number of turn N, the
flux generated is:
Ni
Φ= (10)
R
q Differentiating the expression for Φ with respect to
time, we get,
dΦ N di Ni dR
= − (11)
dt R dt R2 dt

q if the current varies very rapidly then he

relationship reduces to :
dΦ N di
= (12)
dt R dt
q The emf induced is:
dΦ N 2 di
e=N = (13)
dt R dt
q Also self inductance:
di N2
L = e/ = (14)
dt R

q The output from an inductive transducer can be had
in the form of either a change in voltage or a change
in inductance.


Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)



Working principles of (LVDT)

q There are three possible cases we have to consider


Advantage of (LVDT)


Active Transducers

Active Transducers Cont...
Thermoelectric transducers


Thermocouple
q Thermoelectric transducers provide electrical signal
in response to change in temperature
q When two metals having different work functions
are placed together a voltage is generated at the
junction which is nearly proportional to the
temperature. This principle is used to convert heat
energy to electrical energy at the junction of two
conductors

q Contains a pair of dissimilar metal wires joined

together at one end (sensing or hot junction) and
terminated at the other end (reference or cold
junction)
q When a temperature difference exists b/n the
sensing junction and the reference, an emf is
produced
enduced emf = E = α(T1 −T2 )+β(T12 −T22 )+... (15)
q let ∆t=difference of temperatures of hot and cold

junctions =T1 − T2
E = a(∆t) + b(∆t)2 (16)
q Thus Emf of a thermocouple is approximately a

parabolic function of the temperature difference
between the junctions.
• The-approximate values of constants a and b are :
a=40 to 50 µV or more per o C difference of temperature,
b=few tenths or hundredths of a microvolt





Photoelectric transducers

Photoelectric Transducers

q The mobility of electron produces one of the three

effects.
(i). The resistance of the material changes
(ii). The output current of the semiconductor
changes
(iii). The output voltage of the semiconductor
changes





4.0 Photodiode


Active Transducers
Tachometric Generators

Active Transducers

Active Transducers
Figure 1: DC Tachometer Generator

Active Transducers

Active Transducers
Figure 2: AC Tachometer Generator

Active Transducers
Piezoelectric Transducers

Active Transducers

Active Transducers

Active Transducers

Active Transducers

Active Transducers
Hall Effect Transducer

Active Transducers

Active Transducers

Active Transducers
q The output voltage is given by:

KH IB
EH = (17)
t
where KH =hall effect coefficent A−wbm
V−M
−2
t=thickness of strip in m
The I is the current in ampere and the B is the flux
densities in wb/m2 .


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Electrical Measurement and

By: Eskeziyaw Alemneh

1 Sensors and Transducers

(UOG) Electrical Measurement and Instrumentation July 14, 2022 1/99

Sensors and Transducers

(UOG) Electrical Measurement and Instrumentation July 14, 2022 2/99

q The advantages of converting physical quantities

(UOG) Electrical Measurement and Instrumentation July 14, 2022 4/99

(UOG) Electrical Measurement and Instrumentation July 14, 2022 5/99

Primary and Secondary Sensors

(UOG) Electrical Measurement and Instrumentation July 14, 2022 6/99

Primary and Secondary Sensors

• Classification is based on the method of application.

(UOG) Electrical Measurement and Instrumentation July 14, 2022 7/99

Active and Passive Sensors

(UOG) Electrical Measurement and Instrumentation July 14, 2022 8/99

Active and Passive Sensors

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Analog and Digital Sensors

q Classification based on the nature of the output

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Analog and Digital Sensors

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Sensor classification Cont...

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Passive Transducers Cont...

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Passive Transducers Cont...

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Passive Transducers Cont...

q If the distribution of the resistance with respect to

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Passive Transducers Cont...

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Passive Transducers Cont...

q Advantages and Disadvantages of Potentiometer

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Passive Transducers Cont...

q Example: A linear resistance potentiometer is 50

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Passive Transducers Cont...

Passive Transducers Cont...

q Since one of the displacements represents a

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Passive Transducers Cont...

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Passive Transducers Cont...

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Passive Transducers Cont...

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Passive Transducers Cont...

q The strain is usually expressed in terms of

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Passive Transducers Cont...

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Passive Transducers Cont...

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Passive Transducers Cont...

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Passive Transducers Cont...

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