MODULE 1:​ ​Organic and Inorganic Compounds

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to  any  of  the  life  forms  on  earth  or  any 
result  of  human  experiments  which  are 
conducted in laboratories. 

The  difference  between  organic  and 

inorganic  compounds  does  not  end  with 
the  presence  or  the  absence  of  carbon 
  atoms  in  them.  These  have 
Organic  and  inorganic  compounds  form  characteristics  of  both  the  types  of 
one  of  the  primary  basis  for  chemistry.  compounds  which  are  said  to  be 
The  study  of  organic  compounds  is  different. 
termed  as  organic  chemistry  and  the  1. IGNITION TEST : 
study  of  inorganic  compounds  is 
inorganic  chemistry.  These  are  said  to  be  A. Flammability of  
one  of  the  large  class  of  members.  The  H​2​O​: No Flame 
primary  difference  that  lies  between 
these  organic  compounds  and  inorganic  Ethyl Alcohol​: Flammable 
compounds  is  that  organic  compounds  Hexane​: Most Flammable 
always  have  a  carbon  atom  while most of 
the  inorganic  compounds  do  not  contain     
the  carbon  atom  in  them.  Almost  all  the 
 
organic  compounds  contain 
carbon-hydrogen  or  a simple C-H bond in  B. Charring 
them. 
White  sugar  turned  blackish 
Organic  compounds  are  combustible,  brown 
compared  with  moat  inorganic 
 
compounds.  Some  have  no  sharp  melting 
points,  and  they  decompose  easily  at  2. SOLUBILITY TEST 
moderately  high  temperatures. 
Comparatively,  few  of  them  ionize  NAPHTHALENE​ IN WATER: 
because  of the nature of bonds (covalent)  naphthalene is insoluble in water 
that  hold  their  atoms  together  in  a  UREA ​IN WATER: soluble in water 
molecule.  Accordingly,  they  are  mostly 
non-electrolyte,  with  few  weak  3.ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY 
electrolytes.  They  are  practically  SALT: ​Conducts electricity 
insoluble  in  water  and  other  polar 
solvents.   SUGAR​: Does not conduct electricity 

 
Properties that Distinguish 
Organic from Inorganic 
 
Compounds 
 
The  most  common  fact  that 
differentiates  organic  compounds  from   
inorganic  compounds  is  that  the  organic 
compounds  mainly  result  from  activities   
of  a  living  being.  Whereas,  inorganic   
compounds  are  obtained  from  the   
natural  processes  which  are  not  related 
MODULE 2:   and  halogen  in  Organic  compounds.  In 
order  to  detect  them,  it  is  necessary  to 
Qualitative Analysis of Organic  convert  them  into  ionizable  inorganic 
Compounds  substances. 
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  1) Test for Nitrogen 

We  can  detect  cyanide  ion  and  hence, 

nitrogen  ion  in  the  sample  by  the 
Prussian blue test. 

a)  The  filtered  alkaline  solution  resulting 

from the action of water upon the sodium 
fusion  is  treated  with  iron  (II)  sulphate 
  and  thus,  forms  sodium 
hexacyanoferrate  (II).  FeSO​4  +  6NaCN 
The  qualitative  analysis  helps  the 
→  Na​4[​ Fe(CN)​6]​   +Na​2​SO​4 
scientists  know  the  composition  of 
=Sodium hexacyanoferrate (II) 
compounds. 
b)  Upon  boiling  the  alkaline  iron  (II)  salt 
Qualitative  analysis  is  the  analysis  of  the 
solution,  some  iron  (III)  ions  are 
species  present  in  a given compound. For 
produced by the action of air. 
example,  if  a  compound  is  taken,  the 
qualitative  analysis  would  be  more  c)  Now,  we  add  dilute  sulphuric  acid  to 
focused  on  finding  the  elements  and  the  dissolve the iron (II) and (III) hydroxides. 
ions present in the compound rather than 
study as to how much they are present.    -  The  hexacyanoferrate  (II)  reacts  with 
the  iron  (III)  salt,  producing  iron  (III) 
The  detection  of  various  elements  hexacyanoferrate (II), ​Prussian blue. 
present  in  an  organic  compound  is  called 
qualitative  analysis.  Carbon  is  always  -  A  Prussian  blue  precipitate  or 
present  and  hydrogen  are  present  in  colouration  indicates  that  nitrogen  is 
almost  all  the  organic  compounds.  Other  present. 
commonly  present  elements  in  organic  3Na​4​[Fe(CN)​6​]+2Fe​2​(SO​4)​ ​3​→Fe​4​[Fe(CN)
compounds  are  oxygen,  nitrogen,  6​]3
​ +
​ 6Na​2S
​ O​4 
halogens,  sulphur  and  sometimes  =Iron (III) hexacyanoferrate (II)  
phosphorus. 
 
Qualitative  Analysis  of  Organic 
2)Test  for  Halogens  (Nitrogen  and 
Compounds 
Sulphur Absent) 
The  most  commonly  occurring  elements 
in  organic  compounds  are  carbon,    a)  We  acidify  a  portion  of  the  fusion 
hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  sulphur  and  solution with dilute nitric acid. 
halogen  elements.  There  is  no  direct    b)  We,  then  add  an  excess  of  silver 
method  for  the  detection  of  oxygen.  For  nitrate  solution.  A  precipitate  indicates 
detecting  nitrogen, sulphur and halogens,  the presence of halogen. 
we  can  use  the  sodium  fusion  test 
(Lassaigne’s test).  AgNO​3 ​ + Na X → AgX + NaNO​3 

Sodium Fusion Test   

=Silver halide 
This  test  is  used  for  the  qualitative   
analysis  of  elements  nitrogen,  sulphur 
  c)  We  decant  the  mother  liquor  and   
treat  the  precipitate  with  dilute  aqueous 
ammonia solution.  5) Test for Sulfur 
  -  If  the  precipitate  is  white  and  readily  The  sodium  fusion  extract  is  acidified 
soluble  in  ammonia  solution,  chlorine  is  with  acetic  acid and lead acetate is added 
present.  to it. 

-  In  case,  it  is  pale  yellow  and  slightly    A  black  precipitate  of  lead  sulphide 
soluble, bromine is present.  indicates presence of sulphur. 

  -  If  it  is  yellow  and  insoluble,  then  iodine    Na​2​S  +  Pb(CH​3​COO)​2    →  PbS  +  2 
and  bromine  may  be  confirmed  by  some  NaCH​3​COO 
more tests. 
  
 
Detection of Elements (N, S, P, X) 
3)  Test  for  Halogens  (Nitrogen  - 
and/or Sulphur Present)  Detection of Carbon and Hydrogen 

Cyanide  and  sulphide  ions  both  interfere  - 

with  this  test  for  halide  by  forming  silver 
 
cyanide  and  silver  sulphide  precipitates. 
If  nitrogen  or  sulphur  is present, we must   
remove the interfering ions. 
 
  a)  To  remove  cyanide  and  sulphide 
 
ions,  we  have  to  acidify  the  fusion 
solution with dilute nitric acid.   
  b) Then, we have to evaporate it to half   
of  the  original  volume  to  expel  hydrogen 
cyanide  and/or  hydrogen  sulphide  which   
may be present.   
NaCN + HNO​3​→ HCN + NaNO​3   
=​Hydrogen cyanide   
Na​2​S + 2HNO​3​ → H​2S
​ + 2 NaNO​3   
= Hydrogen sulfide   
   
4) Test for Carbon and Hydrogen     

Carbon  and  hydrogen  ​are  detected  by   

heating  the  compound  with 
 
copper(II)oxide. 
 
Carbon  present  in  the  compound  is 
oxidized  to  carbon  dioxide  and  hydrogen   
to water. 
 
C​12  H​22  O​11  ​+  12  O​2  ​→    12 
CO​2​ + 11H​2​O   

 
MODULE 3:   crystals  to  re-form.  Recrystallization 
produces  a  more  pure  final  product.  For 
Recrystallization, Decolorization,  this  reason,  experimental  procedures 
that  produce  a  solid  product  by 
and Sublimation 
crystallization  normally  include  a  final 
________________________________________________  recrystallization  step  to  give  the  pure 
compound. 
If  you  recall  from  the  previous  lesson  on 
methods of separation and purification of   
organic  compounds,  several  steps  and 
techniques  are  done  with  the  mixtures  Decolorization 
depending  on  the  nature  of  the 
substances  being  mixed  before  these 
substances  are  separated  and  are 
purified.  It  requires  great  patience  and 
perseverance  to  come  up  with  the 
 
desired results. 
  The  term  decolorization  as  used  in  the 
In  this  lesson,  we  will  learn  about  other 
pharmaceutical  industry  is a misnomer. It 
methods  or  techniques  to  separate  and 
does  not  mean  to  literally  remove  color 
purify the mixtures. 
but  to  decolorize  in  the  pharmaceutical 
Recrystallization   industry  means  to  remove  impurities  of 
one  sort  or  another  using  decolorizing 
agents or adsorbents. 

Sublimation 

Recrystallization  is  not generally thought 

of  as  a  separation  technique  but  rather  a 
purification  technique  in  which  a  small   
amount  of  impurity  is  removed  from  a 
compound.  However,  if  the  solubility  The  direct  conversion  of  a  substance 
properties  of  two  compounds  are  from  solid to gas without passing through 
sufficiently  different,  recrystallization  the  liquid  state  is  sublimation.  The 
can  be  used  to  separate  them,  even  if  process  is  convenient  to  apply,  but  its 
they  are present in nearly equal amounts.  applicability  as  a  separation  process  is 
Recrystallization  works  best  when  most  limited.  It  can  be  applied  only  when  the 
impurities  have already been removed by  components  of  a  solid  mixture  differ 
another  method,  such  as  extraction  or  appreciably in their vapor pressures. 
column chromatography. 
 
Crystallization  ​refers  to  the formation of 
a  new,  insoluble  product  by  a  chemical 
 
reaction;  this  product  then  precipitates   
out  of  the  reaction  solution  as  an 
amorphous  solid  containing  many 
 
trapped impurities.   
Recrystallization  ​does  not  involve  a   
chemical  reaction;  the  crude  product  is 
simply  dissolved  into  solution,  and  then 
 
the  conditions  are  changed  to  allow   
MODULE 4:   into the condenser and allows the 
connection of a thermometer via the 
Distillation Process  thermometer adapter 
______________________________________________ 
The process of distillation can be used for  ​Water condenser​ – is the part 
the separation and/or purification of the  where vapor will be cooled by a constant 
components of an organic liquid mixture  flow of water 

with different boiling points. The types of 

​ dapter​ – connects the condenser 
A
distillation commonly employed are : 
to the receiving flask 
(A)​ simple distillation 
​ eceiving flask​ – collects the 
R
(B)​ fractional distillation  distilled liquid 
​(C)​ reduced-pressure distillation 
I​ ron clamp and stand​ – used to hold 
​(D)​ steam distillation
the apparatus in place 

  

In simple distillation, a large temperature 

difference (more than 20˚C) between the 
boiling points of the components is 
necessary to obtain efficient separation. 
The component, which is more volatile 
will distill over first in almost pure form 
   at a definite constant temperature, and 
the second component will distill over 
Simple Distillation  when the boiling point remains constant 
again for a long period of time. 
Below are the different parts of a simple 
distillation set-up and their functions:  If the components of a mixture have 
boiling points very close together (within 
a few degrees), it is difficult to separate 
them completely by simple distillation 
since they form a “constant boiling 
temperature” called an azeotropic 
mixture. 

An ​azeotropic mixture​ is a mixture of 

liquids of certain definite composition 
that distills at a constant temperature 
  without any change in composition. Ethyl 
alcohol is an azeotrope of boiling point 
Simple distillation set-up  78.1˚C. It is composed of 95.5% (by 
weight) of ethanol, (BP 78.4˚C) and 4.5% 
​ istilling flask​ – holds the distilling 
D water (BP 100˚C). 
mixture; preferably a round-bottom flask 
 
designed to withstand the required input 
of heat   

 
​ istilling head​ – a three-way 
D
connector directing the distilling vapor   
MODULE 5:   dissolves in water, then we can mix it 
with water and the separated layer will 
Extraction Process  be benzene. Solvent extraction is also 
______________________________________________ 
widely used in the petrochemical refining 
I. ​Read the linked article below titled 
industries. Extracted petroleum has lots 
“What is Solvent Extraction and Why is it 
of impurities and therefore it cannot be 
Important?” 
used for any purposes. Hence, this 
-​Solvent extraction is one of the most 
extraction is used to purify the product. 
common and important methods for 
Special solvent is introduced in the 
separation and purification of many 
petroleum which reacts with the 
elements. Find details about the methods 
impurities and either settles them down 
and significance of this type of 
or keep them floating. Then the 
extraction. 
impurities can be easily separated and 
pure petroleum is further packed for sale. 

Solvent Selection for Solvent Extraction 

In this process, it is very important to 

choose a perfect solvent for the 
compound to get better results. 
 
Following are some of the points which 
Solvent extraction is one of the most 
are important while selecting a perfect 
common and important methods for 
solvent for separation. 
separation and purification of many 
elements. Find details about the methods 
and significance of this type of  ■ The solvent should be able to 
extraction. 
dissolve at least one component to 

Solvent extraction has always proved  a large extent than the rest of the 
itself very helpful as a recovery method 
for many components. It is a method of  components in the mixture. 
separating compounds on the basis of 
■ The reaction taking place should 
their solubility in two different 
immiscible liquids like water and organic  be stable and irreversible. 
compounds. We can also say that it’s a 
method of separating a compound which  Reversible reactions can bring 
is soluble in an immiscible or a partially 
immiscible liquid which gives you a  back the dissolved components in 
desired compound either in the form of a 
their previous form and the 
solute or in a form of a residue. This 
forms different layers which facilitates  extraction will not be completed 
the separation of compounds. 
successfully. 

Solvent Extraction Examples  ■ The compound formed after the 

The simplest solvent extraction examples  reaction should be easily 

may be derived from water and organic 
compounds. For example: Benzene is non  separated from the extracted 
polar and is immiscible in water as the 
polarity of water is very high. So, if we  compound so that it can be 
want to separate benzene from a liquid  reused. 
which contains a component that 
 ■ The density of the compound  Centrifugal devices work at very 
high-speed. They are high-speed rotatory 
should be different from the  machines which rotate the solvent and 
due to the density and the centrifugal 
required component to help the 
force, the liquids are separated from each 
separation readily.  other. This method is usually used in the 
pharmaceutical industries. 
■ It should be inexpensive and 

cost-effective.  Aqueous Two Phase Extraction 

■ The solvent should not be toxic or  They are used for organic-water solvent 
system. They are excellent for the 
corrosive as it can harm the  extraction of enzymes and proteins. 

extraction instruments. 
Batch-wise Single Stage Extraction 
■ Other factors important during 
solvent selection are viscosity, boiling 
It is used in small-scale chemical 
point, flammability, etc.  industries. The extraction is carried out 
  in a simple separator funnel. 
Conditions for Extraction 
 
Multistage Counter-current Continuous 
Condition under which the reaction or 
Process 
the extraction process takes place also 
affects the separation. Temperature and  This process is helpful in processing 
pH play a very important role in  metals. It is used for the components 
separating components. So it is very  which need multistage extraction as in 
necessary to maintain the temperature  every single step they need materials to 
and pH of the compound during the  be separated. 
extraction process. Pressure does not 
affect the reaction much, as most of the 
solvent extractions are carried out under  Mixer Settlers 
the atmospheric pressure. Other factors  This method is used in the metal industry. 
may be precipitation of solids, vapor  The mixing is done at a very high-speed 
pressure, etc. Apart from these factors,  and a long residence time is given for the 
residence time is also important in the  components to settle down. 
reactions like metals separation or short 
life components like antibiotics. 
Extraction Without Chemical Change 

Various Methods of Solvent Extraction 

Centrifugal Extractions 

This is one of the simplest methods. It 

does not involve any chemical elements 
which can lead to chemical reactions. 
 
Two immiscible liquids are shaken with 
the mixture. The component dissolves 
with its relevant liquid and is extracted  analyze complex mixtures of 
easily.  hydrocarbons. 

Chromatography is a process for 

So now we can say that it is very useful 
separating components of a mixture. To 
for the separation and recovery of 
get the process started, the mixture is 
important metals and compounds and is 
dissolved in a substance called the 
an important part in the world of 
mobile phase, ​which carries it through a 
chemistry. Due to cost-effectiveness, it is 
second substance called the ​stationary 
widely used in various sectors. The most 
phase​. 
important aspect of this extraction is that 
it separates the required component  The different components of the mixture 
without changing its properties and  travel through the stationary phase at 
identity.  different speeds, causing them to 
separate from one another. The nature of 
II.​ Watch this video in YouTube about  the specific mobile and stationary phases 
the summarized two solvent chlorophyll  determines which sub​stances travel 
extraction procedure using malunggay  more quickly or slowly, and is how they 
leaves as your sample.  are separated. These different travel 
https://youtu.be/g8nDqUMl9Rw  times are termed ​retention time​. 
 
Paper Chromatography 
MODULE 6:  
Chromatography 
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Chromatography ​is a technique for 

separating the components or solutes of 
a mixture on the basis of the relative 
amounts of each solute distributed 
between a moving fluid stream, called the 
mobile phase, and a contiguous   
stationary phase. The mobile phase may 
be either a liquid or a gas, while the  In paper chromatography, the stationary 
stationary phase is either a solid or a  phase is a very uniform absorbent paper. 
liquid.  The mobile phase is a suitable liquid 
solvent or mixture of solvents. 
Chromatography has several 
applications in biological and chemical  Some compounds in a mixture travel 
fields. It is widely used in biochemical  almost as far as the solvent does and 
research for the separation and  some stay much closer to the baseline.  
identification of chemical compounds of   
biological origin. In the petroleum 
industry the technique is employed to 
The distance travelled relative to the   
solvent is called the Rf value with the 
Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) is a 
formula: 
very commonly used technique in 
Rf = ​distance travelled by  synthetic chemistry for identifying 
compound  compounds, determining their purity and 
following the progress of a reaction. It 
Distance travelled by 
also permits the optimization of the 
solvent 
solvent system for a given separation 
Cellulose fibers in paper interact with  problem. In comparison with column 
water molecules which is the most  chromatography, it only requires small 
important effect during paper  quantities of the compound (~ng) and is 
chromatography. Non polar molecules in  much faster as well. 
the mixture will have little attraction for 
The stationary phase is composed of a 
the water molecules attached to the 
special finely ground matrix (silica gel, 
cellulose , so will spend most of their time 
alumina, or similar material) is coated on 
dissolved in the moving solvent. 
a glass plate, a metal or a plastic film as a 
Therefore they will travel a long way up 
thin layer (~0.25 mm). In addition a 
the paper carried by the solvent showing 
binder like gypsum is mixed into the 
relatively high Rf values. 
stationary phase to make it stick better 
Polar molecules will have high attraction  to the slide. In many cases, a fluorescent 
for the water molecules and much less  powder is mixed into the stationary 
for the non polar solvents. Therefore  phase to simplify the visualization later 
they spend more time dissolved in the  on (e.g. bright green when you expose it 
stationary phase and less time in the  to 254 nm UV light). 
solvent so they travel slowly up the paper 
A TLC plate can be developed in a beaker 
showing lower Rf values. 
or closed jar as follows: 
Paper Chromatography is a type of 
a) Place a small amount of solvent (= 
partition chromatography because it is 
mobile phase) in the container. The 
using two immiscible solvents (polar and 
solvent level has to be below the starting 
nonpolar) where the compounds to be 
line of the TLC, otherwise the spots will 
separated divide itself between these 
dissolve away. 
two immiscible solvents. 
b) The lower edge of the plate is then 
In some cases, colorless spots of 
dipped in a solvent. The solvent (eluent) 
compounds may be made visible by 
travels up the matrix by capillarity, 
reacting them with a substance that 
moving the components of the samples 
produces a coloured product. 
at various rates because of their different 
Thin Layer Chromatography degrees of interaction with the matrix 
(=stationary phase) and solubility in the 
developing solvent. Non-polar solvents 
will force non-polar compounds to the 
top of the plate, because the compounds 
dissolve well and do not interact with the 
polar stationary phase. 

  c) Allow the solvent to travel up the plate 

until ~1 cm from the top. 

d) Take the plate out and mark the 

  solvent front ​immediately​. Do not allow 
the solvent to run over the edge of the  Column Chromatography 
plate. 

e) Next, let the solvent evaporate 

completely. 

f) The components, visible as separated 

spots, are identified by comparing the 
distances they have traveled with those 
of the known reference materials. 

g) Measure the distance of the start line 

 
to the solvent front (=d). 

h) Then measure the distance of center of 

the spot to the start line (=a). 

i) Divide the distance the solvent moved 

In chemistry, Column chromatography is 
by the distance the individual spot 
a technique which is used to separate a 
moved. 
single chemical compound from a 
j) The resulting ratio is called R​f​-value.  mixture dissolved in a fluid. It separates 
The value should be between 0.0 (spot  substances based on differential 
did not moved from starting line) and 1.0  adsorption of compounds to the 
(spot moved with solvent front) and is  adsorbent as the compounds move 
unitless.  through the column at different rates 
which allow them to get separated in 
fractions. This technique can be used on 
small scale as well as large scale to purify 
materials that can be used in future 
experiments. This method is a type of 
adsorption chromatography technique. 

When the mobile phase along with the 

mixture that needs to be separated is 
introduced from the top of the column, 
the movement of the individual 
components of the mixture is at different 
rates. The components with lower 
adsorption and affinity to stationary 
phase travel faster when compared to 
  the greater adsorption and affinity with 
The R​f​ (=retardation factor) depends on  the stationary phase. The components 
the following parameters:  that move fast are removed first whereas 
the components that move slow are 
● solvent system  eluted out last. 
● absorbent (grain size, water 
content, thickness)  The adsorption of solute molecules to the 
● amount of material spotted  column occurs in a reversible manner. 
● Temperature  It is a precursory technique used in the 
Due to the fact that all those variables  purification of compounds based on their 
are difficult to keep constant, a reference  hydrophobicity or polarity. In this 
compound is usually applied to the plate  chromatography process, the molecule 
as well.  mixture is separated depending on its 
differentials partitioning between a 
stationary phase and a mobile phase.The  stationary phase is a solvent 
polar compounds will strongly commune  held in the gap of a solvent. 
with the silica when compared to the  4. Ion exchange column 
non-polar compounds.  chromatography – A 
chromatography technique in 
The basic principle involved in column 
which the stationary phase is 
chromatography is to adsorb solutes of 
always ion exchange resin. 
the solution with the help of a stationary 
phase and further separating the mixture   
into discrete components. 
  
The separation is similar to that of TLC 
 
where the compound mixture is carried 
by a mobile phase via a stationary phase. 

The main advantage of this 

chromatography technique is that the 
stationary phase is less expensive and 
can be easily disposed of as it undergoes 
recycling. 

Column Chromatography Applications 

● Column Chromatography is 

used to isolate active 
ingredients. 
● It is very helpful in Separating 
compound mixtures. 
● It is used to determine drug 
estimation from drug 
formulations 
● It is used to remove impurities. 
● Used to isolation metabolites 
from biological fluids. 

Types of Column Chromatography: 

1. Adsorption column 
chromatography – Adsorption 
chromatography is a technique 
of separation, in which the 
components of the mixture are 
adsorbed on the surface of the 
adsorbent. 
2. Partition column 
chromatography – The 
stationary phase, as well as 
mobile phase, are liquid in 
partition chromatography. 
3. Gel column chromatography – 
In this method of 
chromatography, the 
separation takes place through 
a column packed with gel. The