As utit

Reference sectiion

A- Inorganic compounds and elements

1 Appearance

Coloured crystalline substances are usually hydrated salts of transition metals.

The colour of the solid substance
may provide evidence for its identity.

Sbleatransi.
blue
copper()
pale green iron()
green copper(1), chromium(), nickel (|)
purple manganate(VI) Mn04
brown iron(111)
-

pink manganese(11)
yellow chromate(VI) CrO
orange dichromate(VI) Cr2072
group I,II,and III compounds are white in colour
The colourS of transition metal ions in dilute, aqueoussolution are shown in the table
below.

Roble denny
blue copper(1)
green iron(), chromium(1), nickel(1I)
brown/ yellow iron(l1)
pale pink manganese(|)
yellow chromate(VI)
orange dichromate(VI)
purple manganate(VIl)
colourless zinc(!1)
color less T I metalr
grop

User guide (internal Asaessment of Pioctical Skills) - Edexcel ASIA GCE in Chemistry (8CH01/9CHO1)
- Issue 1 - November 7007 O Edexcel Limit ed 2007

()
 Addition of sodium hydroxide solution
When dilute, aqueous sodium hydroxide is added to an
aqueous solution of a metal ion
precipitate of the insoluble hydroxide may be formed e.g. a
Cr(OH)3.
Some precipitates will dissolve in excess sodium
complex ion e.g. [Cr(OH)6]*. hydroxide to give a solution containing a

When carrying out these tests students should be told to add aqueous sodium
drop-by-drop, until there is no further change. hydroxide,

Metal ion solution Observation on adding Observation on

chromium(II), [Cr(H20)]3*
manganese(11), [Mn(H20)6]2*
iron(1I), [Fe(H20)6]2
iron(TI1), [Fe(H20)6]3*
cobait(11), [Co(H20)»
nickel(I1), [Ni(H20).12*
copper(1I), [Cu(H20)6]
zinc(T1), [Zn(H20)6]2*
Group cations
Mg2(ag), Ca2*(aq), Ba2* (aq)
Group cations:
Na (ag), K*(aq)
aqueous
ous NaOH
Naon adding excess
aqueous Na
green precipitate precipitate dissolves to
give a dark green solution
pale brown precipitate,
turning darker brown on precipitate is insoluble
exposure to air
green precipitate, turning
brown on exposure to air precipitate is insoluble
red-brown precipitate precipitate is insoluble
blue precipitate, turning pink
on standing precipitate is insoluble
green precipitate
precipitate is insoluble
blue precipitate
precipitate is insoluble
white precipitate precipitate dissolves to
give a colourless solution
white precipitate
precipitate is insoluble
no precipitate

NH no
ppt, but ammonia
evolved en w armiH9
which turns red /itmus
Paper biue

Pearson Edexcel International

Advanced Level Chemistry. Practical Guide July 2018
 Addition of ammonia solution
when dilute, aqueous ammonia is added to an aqueous solution of a transition metal ion a
precipitate of the insoluble hydroxide is formed. e.g. Cu(OH)z.
Some precipitates will dissolve in excess ammonia to give a solution containing a complex ion
e.g.[Cu(NHs).(H20):]2
When carrying out these tests students should be told to add aqueous ammonia, drop-by-
drop,until there is no further
change.

Metal ion solution Observation on adding Observation on adding

aqueous NH3 excess aqueous NH3
chromium (II), precipitate dissolves to a
[Cr(H20) ]3* green precipitate give a green solution

of-white precipitate, turning

manganese(II), [Mn(H20)]2* brown on exposure to air
precipitate is insoluble

green precipitate turning

iron(I1), [Fe(H:0)]* brown on exposure to air
precipitate is insoluble

iron(TI), [Fe(H:0) ]3* red-brown precipitate precipitate is insoluble

precipitate dissolves to a
cobalt(11), [Co(H20)6]2* blue precipitate
brown solution
precipitate dissolves to give
nickel(11), [NI(H:0)612* green precipitate a blue solution
precipitate dissolves to a
copper(T), [Cu(H20)s]2* blue precipitate deep blue solution

precipitate dissolves to give

zinc(11), {Zn(H20)s]P* white precipitate
a colourless solution

Flame tests

T o carry out a flame test, a clean nichrome wire is used to mix a sample of a solid with
one drop of concentrated hydrochloric acid. The wire is held in progressively hotter
parts of a non-luminous Bunsen flame.

yellow sodium ion

lilac potassium ion

yellow-red calcium ion

red lithium or strontium ion

pale green barium ion

Further tests would be needed to distinguish these ions.

Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Level Chemistry. Practical Guide July 2018

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TESTS FOR ANIONNS

Anion Tests Results and lonic Equations

Addition of BaC1, (aq) or White precipitate formed which does not

SO,2
Ba(NO) (aq) to its solution. dissolve in dil. HCl or HNO3.
Ba(aq)+SO,(aqg) BaSO«($)

Co,
Addition of dil. HCl on the CO, evolved
solid or its solution 2H(aq)+ Co,(aa) -co;()+ H,O)

HCO
Additien of dil. HC1 on the CO, evolved
solid or its solution
H'laq)+ HCo, (aq) Co,()+H,0)
s O SO2 qas is evolvcd by
Addition of dil. HCI
or its solution
on the solid
chasg t colen f dichvomde
tre Orakqe to 9rcen
Additic a NAnO NH3 9a is evslved
NO and Al foil and which ckanges red 1tae
warm
Paper to blue.

4)
Silver nitrate solution
Aqueous silver nitrate is used to test for the presence of halide ions in solution.
Anions such as carbonate that would form
precipitates with silver nitrate are removed by
adding dilute nitric acid before the silver nitrate.
The
identity of the halide may be confirmed by adding aqueous ammonia to the silver
halide.
Slver helides which diss elve in amwonia form Complet ion Cag(w)]' [ealorlesr)
Anion Precipitate Addition of aqueous ammonía
Colour Formula Dilute Concentrated
chloride, C White AgCl soluble
bromide, Br Cream AgBr insoluble soluble
iodide, I pale yellow Agl insoluble insoluble

Barium chloride solution

Aqueousbarium chloride forms precipitates with a number of anions but is usually used as the
test for the sulfate(VI), S042 anion.

When dilute hydrochloric acid is added to the anion solution before the addition of aqueous
barium chloride then only the sulfate(VI) anion will form a precipitate.

Anion Precipitate Addition of dilute

Colour ormula hydrochloricacid
sulfate(VI), sO42- white BaSO4 precipitate is insoluble

sulfate(I), so2white BaSOs precipitate dissolves

carbonate, COs2 white BaCOs precipitate dissolves

Concentrated sulfuric acid

When a few drops of concentrated sulfuric acid are added to a solid halide the observed
products may be used to identify the halide ion.
The test must be carried out on a small scale and in a fume cupboard.
The gaseous products in brackets will not be observed since they are colourless.

No attempt should ever be made to smell the products of these reactions.

Solid fhalide
halide Observationswith concentratedObseved reaction
sulfuricacid products
chloride, C steamy fumes HCI

bromide, Br steamy fumes, brown vapour HBr, Bra, (sO:)

steamy fumes, purple vapour, black
iodide, I solid, yellow solid HI, I2, S, (H2S)

Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Level Chemistry. Practical Gulde July 2018

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 Displacement of halide ions

When aqueous chlorine is added to a solution of a bromide or an iodide then bromine or iodine

is displaced.
When aqueous bromine is added to a solution of an iodide then iodine is displaced.

The formation of aqueous solutions of bromine or iodine may be used as a test for the bromide
and iodide ions.
If an organic solvent such as hexane is added to the reaction mixture the bromine or iodine
dissolves in the organic layer.

HalideObservationson addition of aqueous halogen

utionGhlorine clu(aq) BromineBra(ag) Todineag)
No reaction
No reaction No reaction
C(aq) Pale yellow-green or
Pale red-brown solution Brown solution
colourless solution
Red-brown solution
No reaction. No reaction
Br(aq) Yellow-orange organic Pale red-brown solution Brown solution
layer
Brown solution Brown solution.
No reaction
I(ag) Black solid Black solid
Brown solution
Purple organic layer Purple organic layer

Heat

Gases or vapours may be given off on heating a solid inorganic compound.

Gas orvapour given off on heating Possible compound

Group 2 carbonates OR
carbon dioxide Li salts
lithium carbonate
decenpese as
oxygen Group 1 nitrates (except lithium nitrate)
roup Ca)
Group 2 nitrates OR
oxygen and nitrogen dioxide
lithium nitrate

- beih carbonades and kydroged carbonates produce Co by addinq acid

- Te ds hinquish befwecen hem add anq sofuble group ta) chlaride.
-wllh carhonutes uhile Ppt is formed.
-
with kydreqen carbonates -no ppt
ir formed (if hesoludiou is
beiled, ppt will appcar:)

Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Level Chemistry. Practical Gulde July 2018

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 4
Recognition and identification of common gases

oxygen colourless gas which relights a glowing splint

carbon dioxide Colourless gas which gives a white precipitate with
limewater (calcium hydroxide solution)
ammonia
Colourless gas which turns moist red litmus paper blue and
forms white smoke with hydrogen chloride
(WH9C)
nitrogen dioxide brown gas'
hydrogen colourless gas which ignites with a 'pop'
hydrogen chloride steamy fumes on exposure to moist air, acidic and forms
white smoke with ammonia
chlorine pale green gas which bleaches moist litmus paper
bromine brown gas
iodine
purple vapour
water vapour tuns blue coball chloride
paper pink
SO: turns acidilied potassium dichromate grren
Bromine dissolves organic solvents to form a brown solution whereas nitrogcn
dioxide is insoluble.
eyuat ien for testiug C0z wit lime water
5 Action of dilute acids Cetg) Ca o H) (a1)> Ca Cos (s)

When dilute sulfuric or

hydrochloric acid is added to a substance a gas may be evolved
orthere may be a colour change in the solution.

carbon dioxide evolved carbonate

bydrogen evolved a metal

yellow solution turns orange chromate(VI) to dichromate(VI)

splfur dioxide evolved and pale yellow thiosulfate
precipitate formed

CrOy an he conver ted to Cr, 07 and vice versa by changing PH

yellow orang

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rrmle (lntenal Asessment ot Prsctal taills) Tdescel AS/A GCE in Chemistry (8CHO1/9CH01)
Ie Nvenber 007 OIdecell irmted 20007
Organic analysis test for the
on reactions
that may be used to
and 20 include sections
Topics 10, 15, 18, 19
of organic functional groupps
presence
test tube scale
be carried out on a
Most of these reactions may
of an exercise to analyse
organic unknowns5
Students may be set these tests as part
information from Topics 10
and 15
The exercise may include spectroscopic the 2013
e x a m papers in
A useful s o u r c e of these exercises are
the WCH03 and WCH06
Specification.
Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Level Chemistry
in the tests.
for the observations made
The tables that follow provide a reference

Ignition
provide evidence for
Igniting an organic compound on a crucible lid in a fume cupboard may
the identity of the compound.

Observations Possibleidentity
arene, unsaturated aliphatic
burns with smoky flame e.g. cyclohexene

saturated low molar mass compound

burns with a clean flame
e.g. ethanol

no residue most lower molar mass compounds

Appearance
unlikely that
white solids. It is
colourless liquids or

Simple organic compounds are usually for identification.

appearance alone
will provide firm evidence

Solubility
e tden
Solution denii
simple alcohols, simple above 7 amines
dissolve in water
carboxylic acids,
propanone, simple
below carboxylic
aldehydes, simple
amines and their salts acids,
phenols

dissolve in dilute acid amines

but may not dissolve in
water

dissolve in aqueous carboxylic acids, phenols

alkali butmay not
dissolve in water
ia
*amines are basic like ammon ia
, the y are more basic than awmen .

x alcokels areneutral to itmus Paper,

Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Level Chemistry. Practical Guide July 2018

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 Chemical tests

Test Observations Inference

yellow solution is decolourised alkene

shake with bromine water

if white precipitate is also
phenol
formed

warm with aqueous, acidified primary or secondary alcohol,

orange to green solution
potassium dichromate(VI) aldehyde

white precipitate chloroalkane

warm with ethanol and bromoalkane
cream precipitate
aqueous silver nitrate
iodoalkane
yellow precipitate

OH group in alcohols and

steamy fumes that turn damnp
phosphorus(V) chloride blue litmus paper red carboxylic acids

C=0 group in aldehydes and

2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazine yellow or orange precipitate
solution ketones

heat with Fehling's solution or

red precipitate aldehyde
Benedict's solution

warm with Tollens' reagent silver mirror aldehyde

(ammoniacal silver nitrate)
methyl ketone or ethanal

pale yellow precipitate methyl secondary alcohol or

iodine in alkaline solution
ethanol

warm with ethanol and a few

dropsof concentrated sulfuric

ester smell e.g. glue-like carboxylic acid
acid and pour reaction
mixture into aqueous sodium
carbonate

So dium orpotas bny Carb exylie a cid

e Pfer vesCence
carbonafe or hydogct
Carh onate solutio

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Practical Guide July 2018
Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Level Chemistry.
 AS unit 3
Catalytic cracking
aluminium oxide
8ranules 150 x 25 mm
side-arm test tube

Uz g1rup 7

ceramic fibre clamp

soaked in here
paraffin

100x 16 mm
test tube

Bunsen
heat
valve halide and
- phosphoric

acid
halides
water
Apparatusor making the hydrogen

Appara tus for the catalytic cracking ofan alkane

el imiaiu

Reaction with alcoholic alkali +haloqenoal kane

Rcl
KoH
alcelic

heat
alkeue

Bunsen valve

1 The dehydration of propan-1-ol

aluminium oxide
granules UL alCoho'

)
Bunsen g u d (4» So.. H,Pog
heat
valve
ceramic fibre
Soaked in
ffeuru
propan-1-ol
water-
uppr o
Fig. A. Gas collection apparatus

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 moistened filter
solid
paper
remains
here

porcus

plate

SUCtion

make sure the tap

filtrate collects
is closed when
here
in
you put liçuid
Fig. B. Buchnerflask preparedfor
the tunnel use

separa ting
funnel
Using a

Distillation
Heating under reflux

Thermometer
Water out

Water out

Condenser

Water in

Round-bottomed
lask

eat Water in Open

beaker
Round-bottomed
flask
/ doit use coice
flask for Jitilatio
Theat
ora aniC

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DISTILLATION WITH ADDITION FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION

alcohol

oxidising
mixture distillate
aldehyde

mixture

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