Influence of Addition of Polycarboxylate-Based

Superplasticizer on Properties of High

Performance Concrete
Hui Zhao, F.ASCE 1; Wei Sun, M.ASCE 2; Xiaoming Wu, F.ASCE 3; and Bo Gao, F.ASCE 4
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by ASIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY on 08/22/22. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

Abstract: Nowadays, polycarboxylate-based (PCA) superplasticizer (SP) has become the basic ingredient to prepare high-performance
concrete (HPC). PCA SP with carboxylic sulfonic groups and long poly (ethylene oxide) side chain was prepared. The behaviors and econo-
mies of PCA SP-blended concrete were investigated. Inclusion of PCA SP improves the initial fluidity and fluidity preservation of concrete.
Utilizing PCA SP increased the air content and bleeding water rate and prolonged the setting times of concrete, which have a negative effect
on the early-age properties of concrete. At the early curing age (7 days), concrete mixtures with 0.20% and 0.24% PCA SP have the slightly
lower mechanical properties and higher water porosity than control concrete. Beyond a certain amount of PCA SP (0.24%), a large reduction
in the mechanical properties and a rapid increase in the water porosity can be found in concrete. The introduction of PCA SP to concrete
lowers the resistance of concrete against chloride ion penetration and increases the total material costs. The prolonged curing period is an
effective method to improve the long-term properties of PCA SP series concrete. Based on the consideration from the early-age properties and
the economies of concrete, at the given fluidity, an optimum amount of PCA SP must be chosen in the production of concrete. DOI: 10.1061/
(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0003025. © 2020 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Polycarboxylate-based; Superplasticizer; Addition; Concrete; Strength; Durability.

Introduction
In the last 3 decades, high-performance concrete (HPC) has been
widely applied in civil engineering structures, i.e., large-scale
buildings, high-speed roads, cross-ocean bridges, dams, and marine
structures (Aïtcin 2000). Superplasticizers (SPs) are an indispen-
sable component in the production of concrete and exhibit good
dispersing ability for the cement particles. The addition of SPs
to concrete can significantly improve the fluidity properties of con-
crete. Concrete materials with high strength and more durability
can be achieved at a low water-binder (W/B) ratio (Collepardi
and Valente 2006).
Nowadays, the conventional SPs used in concrete include
modified lignosulphonate (MLS) SP, sulfonated naphthalene-
formaldehyde (SNF) SP, sulfonated melamine-formaldehyde (SMF)
SP, and sulfonated acetone-formaldehyde (SAF) SP (Sakai et al.
2006). In the 1980s, a new generation of polycarboxylate-based
(PCA) polymers was developed as SP in Japan.
In general, the molecules of PCA series SPs are composed of a
carboxylic group (−COOH), sulfonic group (−SO3 ), or ether group,
polyanionic (mainly methacrylate) linear backbone chains, and a
1
Professor, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southeast
Univ., Nanjing 210096, China (corresponding author). Email: njzhaohui@
163.com
2
Professor, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southeast
Univ., Nanjing 210096, China. Email: sunwei@seu.edu.cn
3
Master, Jiangsu Transportation Research Institute, 223 Shiximen St.,
Nanjing 211112, China. Email: tm0345@tom.com
4
Master, Jiangsu Transportation Research Institute, 223 Shiximen St.,
Nanjing 211112, China. Email: tm0345@sohu.com
Note. This manuscript was submitted on July 20, 2017; approved on
July 15, 2019; published online on January 9, 2020. Discussion period open
until June 9, 2020; separate discussions must be submitted for individual
papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering,
© ASCE, ISSN 0899-1561.
long side chain with poly (ethylene oxide) (PEO). In comparison
with sulfonate-based SPs, one of the most interesting aspects of
PCA SP is the diversity of its molecular structure. Moreover, in
the process of preparing PCA SP, toxic petrochemical products,
i.e., naphthalene, melamine, and formaldehyde, are rarely used as
raw materials until now; this is beneficial to the environmental pro-
tection and public health (Yang et al. 2019). Also, PCA SP exhibits
higher dispersing ability for cement particles and better dispersion
stability in concrete than conventional sulfonate-based SPs (Lim
et al. 1999). Therefore, the application of PCA SP in concrete ma-
terials has become quite popular in many countries around the world.
Previous research has shown (Yamada et al. 2001) that the mol-
ecule of PCA SP adsorbs on the cement particle surface, and the
electrostatic repulsion force between the cement particles and steric
hindrance on the cement particle surface play an important role in
the dispersion properties of PCA SP for the cement particle. The
results of the combined action cause the reduction in the interpar-
ticle friction between the cement particles, the agglomerated
cement was dissociated into the single cement particle, and free
water trapped on the flocculated cement was released (Ran et al.
2010). It is confirmed that some factors, i.e., the functional group,
length of the side chain, molecular structure, and dosage of PCA
SP, may affect the application properties of PCA SP in concrete.
Qiu et al. (2011) reported that molecules of PCA SP with
−COOH and −SO3 groups adsorbed on the cement particle surface
produce a large electrostatic repulsive force between the cement
particles. At a constant W/B ratio, the inclusion of PCA SP with
−COOH and −SO3 groups increases the initial fluidity of concrete,
which is beneficial to prepare concrete with high mechanical and
durability properties at a low W/B ratio. At the proper monomer
ratio and molecular weight, a −SO3 group in the molecule of
PCA SP exhibits a better dispersing ability for the cement particle
than a −COOH group (Ye et al. 2006; Peng et al. 2011). Moreover,
molecules of PCA SP with a long side chain are favorable for a high
absorption on the surface of the cement particle, which provides a

© ASCE 04020009-1 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2020, 32(3): 04020009

 large steric hindrance on the cement particle surface (Ran et al. It provides a valuable guidance for more reasonable application of
2009). Concrete mixtures made with PCA SP with a long side chain PCA SP in the production of concrete.
show higher mechanical and durability properties than that of PCA
SP with a short side chain (Yamada et al. 2000). Also, the behaviors
of PCA SP in concrete depend on the molecular structure between Experimental Program
the backbone chain and the side chain. When PCA SP with modi-
fying the linkage structure between the backbone side and side Materials
chain was employed in concrete, the fresh mixed concrete had
better fluidity preservation and long setting times (Felekoglu and Cement
Sarikahya 2008; Nawa 2006). The main binder material used in this study is ordinary portland
In addition, the dosage of PCA SP in concrete is closely related
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by ASIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY on 08/22/22. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

cement (OPC) of ASTM Type I [ASTM C150 (ASTM 2007)].

to the properties of concrete. The presence of PCA SP at a small
amount in concrete causes a low initial fluidity and poor fluidity
preservation (Winnefeld et al. 2007), whereas an overdosage of
PCA SP incorporated into concrete mixture can lead to the segre-
gation of concrete and the uneconomical use of PCA SP. More im-
portant is that the excessive PCA SP introduced to concrete delays
the setting times of concrete and slows down the cement hydration
reaction rate (Kismi et al. 2012; Morin et al. 2001), which may
affect the early-age mechanical behaviors and durability properties
of concrete (Ma et al. 2014).
Up to now, a number of the extensive studies about the behav-
iors of PCA SP in concrete had been reported (Wiliński et al. 2016).
However, these studies are mainly focused on the relation between
the synthetic parameters of PCA SP and the application properties
in concrete. The fresh properties and long-term mechanical proper-
ties of concrete mixtures containing PCA SP at different dosages
are the major concern. The negative influence of excessive PCA SP
on the early-age properties of concrete has not been explored thor-
oughly. The economies of PCA SP blended concrete are less doc-
umented. Therefore, more studies need to be carried out on these
aspects.
In this study, PCA SP with −COOH and −SO3 groups and a
long PEO side chain was synthesized. PCA SP at different dosages
ranging from 0% to 0.32% was introduced to concrete mixture. The
initial fluidity, fluidity preservation, air content, bleeding water
rate, and setting times were tested to determine the fresh properties
of concrete. Moreover, the effect of PCA SP on the mechanical
properties of concrete, i.e., compressive strength, flexural strength,
and ultrasonic pulse, was evaluated. Also, the water porosity and
resistance of concrete against chloride ion penetration were exam-
ined to discuss the durability properties of PCA SP-blended con-
crete. Besides, the economies of PCA SP series concrete were
investigated by the total material costs. Based on the aforemen-
tioned test results, the behaviors of PCA SP in concrete were fully
understood and presented. The negative influence of the excessive
PCA SP on the properties of concrete at the early age was revealed.
The chemical compositions determined according to BS EN
197-1 (BSI 2000a) and the physical properties of OPC are pre-
sented in Tables 1 and 2.
Fly Ash
Class-F fly ash (FA) according to ASTM C618 (ASTM 2005)
was used as supplementary binder materials. FA is the by-product
of an electric power plant, which was obtained from China. The
chemical compositions and physical properties of FA are given
in Tables 1 and 2.
Aggregates
Natural crushed stone with a continuous size of 5–25 mm was used
as coarse aggregate. Natural river sand fine aggregate (maximum
size of 5 mm) was obtained from China. The particle-size distribu-
tions and the physical properties of fine aggregate and coarse
aggregate are given in Fig. 1 and Table 3.
Polycarboxylate-Based Superplasticizer
In this work, PCA SP with −COOH, −SO3 groups, and a long PEO
side chain was employed. PCA SP was prepared through free-
radical polymerization reactions among methacrylic acid (MAA),
2-acrylamido-2-methylpropane sulfonic acid (AMPS), ammonium
persulfate (APS), and methyl poly (ethylene oxide) methacrylate
(MPEOM) at the chain transfer agent of sodium methallyl sulfonate
(SMS). The molar ratios of MAA:AMPS:MPEOM were constant at
3:1:1. The content of SMS is 10% of the total weights of the re-
action monomer (MAA + AMPS + MPEOM). The weight ratio of
the APS solution (20%) to SMS is 1:1.
First, MAA, AMPS, MPEOM, and SMS were dissolved into
water, and the temperature of the solution was maintained at 80°C.
Then, the APS solution was dripped into a reaction flask for 3 h.
After that, the mixture solution was stirred, and the reaction con-
tinued at 80°C for 4–6 h. Finally, the solution was cooled and neu-
tralized with 30% sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to adjust the pH value
of the solution to 6.5–7.0. According to this process, PCA SP with
the solid content of 27% can be obtained. The chemical structure of

Table 1. Chemical composition of OPC and FA

Sample SiO2 Al2 O3 CaO Fe2 O3 MgO SO3 K2 O Na2 Oeq
Cement (OPC) 19.61 7.33 63.15 3.32 2.54 2.13 0.39 0.13
Fly ash (FA) 56.79 28.21 <3 5.31 5.21 0.68 1.34 0.45
Note: Na2 Oeq ¼ Na2 O þ 0.658K2 O.

Table 2. Physical properties of OPC and FA

Compressive strength (MPa) Flexural strength (MPa)
Sample Specific gravity (g=cm3 ) Blaine fineness (cm2 =g) 3 days 7 days 28 days 3 days 7 days 28 days
Cement (OPC) 3.16 3,519 30.0 45.6 60.2 5.8 7.4 8.3
Fly ash (FA) 2.31 3,960 — — — — — —

© ASCE 04020009-2 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2020, 32(3): 04020009

 Fig. 2. Chemical structure of a molecule of PCA SP.
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by ASIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY on 08/22/22. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

Table 4. Molecular and physical properties of PCA SP

Property
Molecular Mn (Da)a 23,298
Fig. 1. Particle-size distributions of fine aggregate and coarse Mw (Da)b 42,278
aggregate. PDIc 1.81
−SO3 group/each molecule 9
−COOH group/each molecule 65
Physical Appearance Light brown
Alkali content (%) 4.48
Table 3. Physical properties of fine and coarse aggregates Chloride content (%) 0.01
Physical property Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate Note: Da = Dalton.
a
Fineness modulus 2.46 — Average values of the number-average molecular weight (Mn) of PCA SP
Density at absolutely dry condition 2,580 1,635 in three samples.
b
(OD) (kg=m3 ) Average values of the weight-average molecular weight (Mw) of PCA SP
Density at saturated surface dry 2,620 1,680 in three samples.
condition (SSD) (kg=m3 )
c
Average values of the average polydispersity index (PDI) (PDI ¼
Water absorption (%) 0.80 1.2 Mw=Mn) of PCA SP in three samples.
Void content (%) 34.95 41.09
Crushing value (%) 13.57 16.63
Wet/dry strength variation (%) 28.41 30.57
(relative humidity of 90  5% and temperature of 20°C) for 3,
7, 28, and 90 days.

the molecule of PCA SP is given in Fig. 2. The molecular properties
and the physical properties of PCA SP are presented in Table 4.
Mixture Proportions
In this study, a total of five concrete samples were prepared, includ-
ing one control concrete (without PCA SP) and four concrete mix-
tures with 0.20%, 0.24%, 0.28%, and 0.32% PCA SP. All concrete
mixtures were designed with constant W/B materials ratio of 0.35.
The total contents of the binder materials were kept at 460 kg=m3 ,
in which FA replaces 20% of OPC. The amounts of the total
aggregates were fixed at 1,780 kg=m3 . The weight ratio of fine ag-
gregate to the total aggregates is 0.39. The mix proportions of all
concrete mixtures are presented in Table 5.
Sample Preparation and Curing Conditions
First, the solid components of concrete mixture were batched and
mixed for 1 min. Then, PCA SP was premixed with water into the
liquid solution. After that, the solution of PCA SP was introduced
to the solid mixture and mixed for 5 min. Before casting, the prop-
erties of the fresh mixed concrete, i.e., initial fluidity, fluidity pres-
ervation, air content, bleeding water rate, and setting times, were
tested. Then, the fresh mixed concrete was poured into the molds
and compacted in two layers. Finally, the compacted concrete sam-
ples were placed in a room with a temperature of 23°C for 24 h
according to GOST 10180 (GOST 1990). After 1 day, concrete
samples were demolded and cured at the standard environment
Test Methods
Initial Fluidity
The initial fluidity of concrete was examined by the slump
flow test according to BS EN 12350-8 (BSI 2010). First, the fresh
concrete was poured into the standard slump. Then, the slump cone
was quickly lifted up. The average values of four perpendicularly
crossing spread diameter of the fresh mixed concrete were
recorded.
Fluidity Preservation
The fluidity preservation was measured by the slump flow varia-
tions of concrete until 2 h after the preparation of the fresh concrete.
The slump flow test was performed at a regular time interval
(30, 60, 90, and 120 min). Before each measurement, concrete mix-
ture was mixed for about 20 s.
Air Content
The air content of concrete was tested by the water column method
according to BS EN 12350-7 (BSI 2000b).
Bleeding Water Rate
The bleeding water test of concrete was conducted in accordance
with the BS EN 480-4 method (BSI 2005). First, the fresh concrete
was poured into the cylindrical vessel in three layers. After 1 h, the
weight of water appeared on the surface of concrete was reported
every 10 min during the first 40 min, then at 30-min intervals until
the completion of the bleeding water. The bleeding water rate
(BWR) of concrete can be obtained by following equation Eq. (1)

© ASCE 04020009-3 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2020, 32(3): 04020009

 Table 5. Mix proportions of concrete
Binder materials (kg=m3 ) Aggregates (kg=m3 )
Mix Cement (OPC) Fly ash (FA) Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate Type of SPs Dosage (%) Water (kg=m3 )
Control 368 92 693.81 1,085.2 — 0 161
0.20% PCA SP 368 92 693.81 1,085.2 PCA SP 0.20 161
0.24% PCA SP 368 92 693.81 1,085.2 PCA SP 0.24 161
0.28% PCA SP 368 92 693.81 1,085.2 PCA SP 0.28 161
0.32% PCA SP 368 92 693.81 1,085.2 PCA SP 0.32 161
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by ASIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY on 08/22/22. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

mw for 3 h. Finally, the sample was left to soak at pressure of atmos-

BWR ¼ × 100 ð1Þ
W × ms
where BWR = bleeding water rate (%); mw = accumulated weight
of the bleeding water (g); ms = total weight of the fresh concrete
(g); and W = weight proportion of water in the fresh concrete (%).
Setting Times
The penetration resistance method based on BS EN 480-2 (BSI
2006) was introduced to test the setting times of concrete using
a Vicat apparatus at a temperature of 20°C  2°C.
Compressive Strength
The compressive strength of concrete was assessed according to the
BS EN 12390-3 (BSI 2000d) method. At curing periods of 3, 7, 28,
and 90 days, the compressive strength of concrete was measured
using three cube-shaped concrete samples of 100 × 100 ×
100 mm at the external load of 3,000 kN.
Flexural Strength
After three prismatic concrete samples of 100 × 100 × 400 mm
were stored in water for 3, 7, 28, and 90 days. The flexural strength
of three points was estimated based on the BS EN 12390-5 (BSI
2000c) method at the constant rate of 0.04 N=mm2 · s.
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) test was performed complying
with ASTM C597 (ASTM 2002) on three 100 × 100 × 100-mm
cube concrete samples water-cured for 3, 7, 28, and 90 days. In
the test, the ultrasonic waves that traveled through concrete were
received. Then, the ultrasonic pulses were converted into electrical
energy using a second transducer located at the distance (L) from
the transmitting transducer. The transit time (T) of the ultrasonic
pulses was reported. UPV value can be calculated according to
the following Eq. (2):
L
UPV ¼ ð2Þ
T
where UPV = ultrasonic pulse velocity (m=s); L = distance between
transducer faces and transducer centers (m); and T = transit time of
the ultrasonic pulses (s).
Water Porosity
The water porosity of concrete was determined by the
vacuum saturation method using three cylindrical samples of Φ50 ×
100 mm. After 3, 7, 28, and 90 days of standard water-curing,
the water porosity test of concrete was carried out. During the test,
the cylindrical samples were cut from the middle to obtain two con-
crete samples of 40  2-mm-thick slices. The cylindrical sample of
Φ50 × 40 mm was allowed to dry at a temperature of 100°C  5°C
until a constant weight. Then, concrete sample was placed in the
vacuum desiccators and pumped into a vacuum for 3 h. Next, drain
sufficient water was introduced to the desiccators and covered the
specimen. The sample was kept at vacuum pressure of 1 Pa (1 bar)
pheric level for 12 h. Eq. (3) was used to determine the water poros-
ity of concrete sample
ðW sat − W dry Þ
P¼ × 100 ð3Þ
ðW sat − W wat Þ
where P = water porosity (%); W sat = weight of the saturated sam-
ple in air (kg); W dry = weight of the oven-dried sample at 100°C 
5°C (kg); and W wat = weight of the saturated sample in water (kg).
Chloride Ion Penetration
The resistance of concrete against chloride ion penetration was
evaluated by the rapid chloride ion migration (RCM) method in
conformance with NT Build 492 (NT Build 1999). After the cyl-
inder concrete of Φ100 × 200 mm was cured for 21 days, it was cut
into two halves. Three concrete samples of Φ100 × 50 mm were
stored in water for another 7 days. In a given test period, concrete
samples vacuum-saturated for 24 h were transferred to the test cells.
One side of the cells was filled with 0.3 M NaOH solution, and the
other side of the cells was exposed to 10% NaCl solution. The elec-
trical potential of 30 V was applied to the sample and maintained
for 24 or 48 h. At the end of the test, the sample was split into two
halves, and silver nitrate (AgNO3 ) solution of 0.1 N was sprayed on
concrete surface. The chloride ion migration coefficient (DRCM0 ) of
concrete was calculated according to Eq. (4)
pffiffiffiffiffi
Thðxd − a xd Þ
DRCM0 ¼ 2.872 × 10−6
t
pffiffiffiffiffiffi
a ¼ 3.338 × 10−3 Th ð4Þ
where DRCM0 = chloride ion migration coefficient (m2 =s); T =
average values of the initial temperature and final temperature
in the analyst solution (K); h = thickness of the specimen (m);
X d = average values of the penetration depth of chloride ion (m);
t = test duration (s); and a = Faraday constant.
Results and Discussion
Initial Fluidity and Fluidity Preservation
Fig. 3 illustrates that the initial slump flow values of the 0%, 0.20%,
0.24%, 0.28%, and 0.32% PCA SP blended concrete are 90, 120,
160, 200, and 210 mm. The introduction of 0.20%, 0.24%,
and 0.28% PCA SP to concrete mixture can rapidly enhance the
initial fluidity of concrete. The dosage of PCA SP reaches the
saturation point (0.28%), and the initial fluidity of concrete in-
creases very slowly. Guan et al. (2010) indicated that the dispersing
ability of PCA SP for the cement particle originates from the
electrostatic repulsion force between the cement particles. If exces-
sive PCA SP (higher than 0.28%) was incorporated into concrete,
the cement particle surface was fully covered with the molecules

© ASCE 04020009-4 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2020, 32(3): 04020009

Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by ASIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY on 08/22/22. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
Fig. 3. Change in the slump flow of concrete incorporating PCA SP at
different dosages with elapsed time.
of PCA SP, which cannot increase the electrostatic repulsion force
between the cement particles.
The slump flow loss rates (after 2 h) of concrete containing PCA
SP at different dosages are presented in Fig. 4. A small amount of
PCA SP (0.20%) was added into concrete, and the slump flow loss
rate of concrete (after 2 h) changes from 86.11% in concrete with-
out PCA SP to 58.33%. With the change in the amount of PCA SP
from 0.20% to 0.24%, concrete mixture containing 0.24% PCA SP
has the slump flow loss rate (after 2 h) of 20.31%. When the content
of PCA SP in concrete exceeds 0.24%, after 2 h, a notable low
slump flow loss rate (10.00% and 9.52%) can be observed in
the 0.28% and 0.32% PCA SP blended concrete.
The presence of PCA SP in concrete improves the fluidity pres-
ervation of concrete. It is because that the electrostatic repulsion
force between the cement particles and the steric hindrance on
the surface of the cement particle are responsible for the dispersion
stability of PCA SP in concrete, the utilization of more PCA SP in
concrete compensates for the lost of the electrostatic repulsion force
between the cement particles with elapsed time (Peng et al. 2005).
Fig. 4. Slump flow loss rates of concrete (after 2 h) with PCA SP at
different dosages.
© ASCE 04020009-5
J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2020, 32(3): 04020009
Fig. 5. Air contents of concrete with PCA SP at different dosages.
Also, the adsorption of PCA SP less affects the steric hindrance on
the surface of the cement particle (Li et al. 2017).
Air Content
The air-content test results of concrete mixtures prepared with PCA
SP at different dosages are presented in Fig. 5. It can be seen that
the air-content values of the PCA SP series concrete depend on the
dosage of PCA SP. In case of concrete without PCA SP, the air
content is 1.19%. After the addition of 0.20% or 0.24% PCA
SP into concrete, the air-content values of concrete increase to
1.52% and 1.74%, respectively. When the amount of PCA SP in
concrete is more than 0.24%, a notably high air content for
2.03% can be found in concrete with 0.28% PCA SP, which
had surpassed the limit value of 2%, required by British Standards
BS EN 934-2 (BSI 2009).
The addition of the excessive PCA SP into concrete causes more
air bubbles to appear in the fresh concrete. Concrete mixture with
0.32% PCA SP has the largest air content (2.34%) in all the PCA
SP blended concretes. The high air content of the PCA SP blended
concrete can be attributed to this fact that the use of PCA SP
in concrete increases the moisture of the cement particles and
the whole mineral framework, allowing the air bubbles in the
concrete to move freely (Szwabowski and Łazniewska-Piekarczyk
2009).
Bleeding Water Rate
The bleeding water of concrete is the phenomenon involving the
loss of mixing water from the fresh concrete surface. For the
concrete mixtures with PCA SP, serious bleeding water on the sur-
face of concrete may affect the uniformity and density of concrete,
which lowers the long-term mechanical properties and durability
properties of concrete (Kato 2013). In this study, the bleeding water
rates of the PCA SP series concrete were tested, and the results are
shown in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6 shows that the bleeding water rates of concrete samples
with 0%, 0.20%, 0.24%, 0.28%, and 0.32% PCA SP are 1.18%,
2.56%, 3.57%, 5.78%, and 8.79%. The inclusion of 0.20% and
0.24% PCA SP in concrete results in a 116.94% and 202.54%
higher bleeding water rate than the control concrete. When the con-
tent of PCA SP in concrete is greater than 0.24%, the bleeding
water rates of the 0.28% and 0.32% PCA SP blended concrete
J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by ASIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY on 08/22/22. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
Fig. 6. Bleeding water rates of concrete with PCA SP at different
dosages.
had an rapid increase, and the bleeding water rate of concrete mix-
ture containing 0.32% PCA SP had exceeded 7%. The study of
Yang et al. (2016) also proved that the utilization of PCA SP in
concrete substantial increases the bleeding water of concrete. Ji
et al. (2012) mentioned that the molecule of PCA SP adsorbs
on the cement particle surface by a “loop and tail” adsorption con-
figuration to form a multipoint adsorption, which can not effec-
tively encase the molecule of water, meaning that free water can
easily appear on the surface of concrete.
Setting Times
Fig. 7 shows that the initial and final setting times of the PCA
SP-based concrete are in the ranges of 456–604 min and 556–
687 min. Both the initial setting time and final setting time of the
concrete with PCA SP were retarded, and the retardation of the set-
ting times of concrete depends on the amount of PCA SP in con-
crete. When PCA SP of 0.20% and 0.24% were used in concrete,
the initial setting times of concrete were prolonged by 69 and
175 min compared with the initial setting time of the reference con-
crete. The final setting times of concrete increased from a time of
485 min for concrete without PCA SP to 556 and 645 min at
Fig. 7. Setting times of concrete with PCA SP at different dosages: (a) initial setting times; and (b) final setting times.
© ASCE 04020009-6
J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2020, 32(3): 04020009
dosages of 0.20% and 0.24%. Beyond a certain amount of PCA
SP (0.24%), the setting times of concrete were delayed for only
few minutes (24–42 min). This indicates that −SO3 H group in
the molecule of PCA SP reacts with free Ca2þ in the solution
of concrete to form an unstable complex and a stable water film
on the cement particle surface, which retard the early cement hy-
dration rate (Knapen and Gemert 2009).
Compressive Strength
As indicated in Fig. 8 and Table 6, the compressive strength values
of the control concrete and the PCA SP series concrete water-curing
for 3, 7, 28, and 90 days are in the ranges of 31.8–19.8 MPa, 48.7–
38.7 MPa, 55.9–49.8 MPa, and 60.4–57.5 MPa. At all the test peri-
ods, the utilization of PCA SP in concrete lowers the compressive
strength of concrete. At the curing period of 7 days, the compres-
sive strength of concrete mixtures with 0.20% and 0.24% PCA SP
exhibit a reduction of 4.72% and 6.16%, in comparison with the
reference concrete, and the reduction rates of the compressive
strength are within the acceptable range of 10%. When the amount
of PCA SP in concrete exceeds 0.24%, a large reduction in the com-
pressive strength (14.78% and 20.53%) can be found in the 0.28%
and 0.32% PCA SP blended concrete.
The prolonged curing period accelerates the compressive
strength development of the PCA SP series concrete. Concrete
mixtures made by PCA SP curing for 90 days have a slight lower
compressive strength than the corresponding reference concrete.
The findings of Huang et al. (2016) revealed that the inclusion
of PCA SP retards the cement hydration at the early curing stage,
and the inhibitory result of PCA SP on the cement hydration is less
evident at the later curing stage (90 days). The long-term structure
of concrete with PCA SP is more compact.
Flexural Strength
Fig. 9 and Table 7 indicate that the flexural strength of all concrete
mixtures grow at curing periods of 3, 7, 28, and 90 days. Compared
with the reference concrete, regardless of the content of PCA
SP in concrete, the presence of PCA SP in concrete reduces
the flexural strength of concrete. At the curing early stage
(7 days), concrete samples with PCA SP of 0.20%–0.32% exhibit
flexural strength in the range of 5.71–5.14 MPa, which are 3.71%–
13.32% lower than the reference concrete. With the progress of
the curing period, the flexural strength of the 0%, 0.20%,
J. Mater. Civ. Eng.
 Table 7. Flexural strength of concrete with PCA SP at different dosages
Flexural strength (MPa)
Mix 3 days 7 days 28 days 90 days
Control 4.47 (0.5) 5.93 (0.9) 7.98 (0.4) 9.04 (1.0)
0.20% PCA SP 4.25 (0.4) 5.71 (0.8) 7.75 (0.3) 9.02 (0.6)
0.24% PCA SP 4.11 (0.6) 5.59 (0.7) 7.63 (0.4) 8.98 (0.5)
0.28% PCA SP 3.85 (0.9) 5.28 (0.8) 7.37 (0.4) 8.95 (0.7)
0.32% PCA SP 3.68 (0.4) 5.14 (0.6) 7.29 (0.8) 8.85 (0.3)
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by ASIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY on 08/22/22. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

Fig. 8. Compressive strength development of concrete with PCA SP at

different dosages.

Table 6. Compressive strength of concrete with PCA SP at different

dosages
Compressive strength (MPa)
Mix 3 days 7 days 28 days 90 days
Control 31.8 (1.1) 48.7 (0.9) 55.9 (0.8) 60.4 (1.9)
0.20% PCA SP 27.8 (1.4) 46.4 (1.6) 54.1 (0.5) 59.9 (1.2)
0.24% PCA SP 26.7 (0.9) 45.7 (2.7) 53.5 (1.9) 59.2 (2.5) Fig. 10. Ultrasonic pulse velocity development of concrete with PCA
0.28% PCA SP 22.2 (0.8) 41.5 (1.3) 51.3 (0.6) 58.6 (1.7) SP at different dosages.
0.32% PCA SP 19.8 (1.5) 38.7 (0.9) 49.8 (2.6) 57.5 (1.9)

early curing stage, and the prolonged curing period was beneficial
to improve the long-term flexural strength of the PCA SP series
concrete.

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

Fig. 9. Flexural strength development of concrete with PCA SP at dif-
ferent dosages.
0.24%, 0.28%, and 0.32% PCA SP blended concrete samples
water-cured for 90 days experience a significant increase of
52.44%, 57.97%, 60.65%, 69.51%, and 72.18%, compared with
the 7-day flexural strength of the corresponding concrete.
The PCA SP series concretes have a faster increase rate in the
flexural strength than concrete without PCA SP. The differences in
the 90-day flexural strength between the control concrete and
the PCA SP series concrete are not significant. The negative
influence of PCA SP on the flexural strength mainly impacts the
Fig. 10 and Table 8 present the UPV development of the PCA SP
series concrete as a function of curing time. From the test results of
UPV obtained, it can be seen that at all curing periods, the intro-
duction of PCA SP to concrete reduces UPV value of concrete.
After concrete mixtures with 0.20%, 0.24%, 0.28%, and 0.32%
PCA SP were immersed in water for 7 days, UPV values of
concrete are 5,688, 5,589, 5,485, and 5,452 m=s, which are
97.78%, 96.08%, 94.29%, and 93.73% of the UPV value of the
reference concrete (5,817 m=s).
Moreover, with increases in the curing period from 7 to 90 days,
UPV values of the control concrete and the PCA SP series concrete
were compared with each other. The comparison results indicated
that UPV values of the PCA SP series concrete exhibit a more
rapid increase than the reference concrete. The 90-day UPV values
of the PCA SP blended concrete are identical with the UPV of the
90-day control concrete. It is accepted that at the early curing
period, due to the air-entraining and retardation functioning of
PCA SP, the void pores of concrete sample can not completely
be filled by cement hydration products. Prolonging the curing time
causes more cement hydration products to fill in the voids of con-
crete (Łazniewska-Piekarczyk 2012).
Water Porosity
It can be clearly found from Fig. 11 and Table 9 that at curing peri-
ods of 3, 7, 28, and 90 days, the addition of PCA SP into concrete

© ASCE 04020009-7 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2020, 32(3): 04020009

 Table 8. Ultrasonic pulse velocity of concrete with PCA SP at different Table 9. Water porosities of concrete with PCA SP at different dosages
dosages
Water porosity (%)
Ultrasonic pulse velocity (m=s)
Mix 3 days 7 days 28 days 90 days
Mix 3-days 7-days 28-days 90-days
Control 14.58 (1.23) 13.62 (0.96) 12.89 (0.54) 12.41 (0.87)
Control 3,945 (110) 5,817 (85) 5,963 (142) 6,014 (189) 0.20% 14.74 (0.67) 13.75 (0.43) 12.97 (0.55) 12.44 (1.02)
0.20% 3,713 (74) 5,688 (56) 5,860 (113) 5,948 (137) PCA SP
PCA SP 0.24% 15.33 (0.49) 14.17 (0.22) 13.09 (0.49) 12.46 (0.96)
0.24% 3,526 (68) 5,589 (105) 5,795 (87) 5,889 (145) PCA SP
PCA SP 0.28% 15.49 (0.93) 14.32 (0.55) 13.24 (0.72) 12.47 (1.23)
0.28% 3,308 (119) 5,485 (58) 5,714 (74) 5,825 (132) PCA SP
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by ASIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY on 08/22/22. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

PCA SP 0.32% 15.86 (0.87) 14.58 (1.16) 13.30 (0.31) 12.48 (0.75)
0.32% 3,119 (55) 5,452 (78) 5,668 (97) 5,800 (54) PCA SP
PCA SP

Fig. 12. Chloride ion migration coefficient of concrete with PCA SP at

different dosages.
Fig. 11. Water porosity development of concrete with PCA SP at dif-
ferent dosages.

Table 10. Chloride ion migration coefficient of concrete with PCA SP at

different dosages
causes greater water porosity than the reference concrete; the
more PCA SP incorporated into concrete, the higher water porosity Mix Chloride ion migration coefficient (10−12 m2 =s)
of concrete. The 0.20%, 0.24%, 0.28%, and 0.32% PCA SP Control 4.18 (0.14)
blended concrete mixtures were cured in water for 7 days, and 0.20% PCA SP 4.47 (0.06)
the water porosities of concrete samples are in the ranges of 0.24% PCA SP 4.86 (0.18)
13.75%–14.58%, which are larger than the reference concrete 0.28% PCA SP 5.09 (0.68)
0.32% PCA SP 5.54 (0.42)
(13.62%). At the late curing period (90 days), the PCA SP series
concrete has water porosities of 12.44%, 12.46%, 12.47%, and
12.48%, respectively, compared with 12.41% for the reference con-
crete. The prolonged curing time has a more positive contribution Cost Analysis
on the water porosity development of the PCA SP series concrete
compared with the reference concrete. It is because the long curing The total material costs to produce the PCA SP based concrete are
period accelerates the cement hydration products filling the void an important indicator to evaluate the applicability of PCA SP in
pores of concrete prepared with PCA SP. concrete. In this study, the unit costs of raw materials (except for the
costs of the transportation, handling, and placement) were obtained
from the purchase price of raw materials in southeast coast of
Chloride Ion Penetration
China. The total material costs associated with the production of
Fig. 12 and Table 10 indicate that for concrete samples with the individual concrete mixture per cubic meter were calculated,
PCA SP of 0.20%, 0.24%, 0.28%, and 0.32% water-cured and the results are provided in Table 11.
for 28 days, the chloride ion migration coefficient of concrete It is observed from Table 10 that in regard to the control concrete
mixtures are 4.49 × 10−12 , 4.89 × 10−12 , 5.09 × 10−12 , and 5.54 × and concrete with PCA SP of 0.20%, 0.24%, 0.28%, and 0.32%,
10−12 m2 =s. The PCA SP series concrete have a higher chloride the total material costs of concrete per cubic meter are 384.302
ion migration coefficient than the control concrete (4.18 × and 397.531, 400.178, 402.823, and 405.469 RMB. The PCA
10−12 m2 =s). Utilizing PCA SP in concrete increases the probabil- SP series concrete have 3.44%–5.51% higher total material costs
ity of chloride ions penetrating inside concrete (Khatib and than the control concrete. Excessive use of PCA SP in concrete
Mangat 2002). leads to the increase in the cost efficiency; it is uneconomical.

© ASCE 04020009-8 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2020, 32(3): 04020009

 Table 11. Total material costs of concrete with PCA SP at different dosages (per m3 )
Raw material cost (RMB=m3 )
Raw material Cost (RMB=kg) Control 0.20% PCA SP 0.24% PCA SP 0.28% PCA SP 0.32% PCA SP
OPC 0.484 178.112 178.112 178.112 178.112 178.112
FA 0.376 34.592 34.592 34.592 34.592 34.592
RS 0.112 77.707 77.707 77.707 77.707 77.707
CA 0.086 93.327 93.327 93.327 93.327 93.327
PCA SP 14.38 0 13.229 15.876 18.521 21.167
W 0.0035 0.5635 0.5635 0.5635 0.5635 0.5635
Total material costs — 384.302 397.531 400.178 402.823 405.469
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by ASIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY on 08/22/22. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

Note: OPC = ordinary portland cement; FA = fly ash; RS = river sand; CA = coarse aggregate; PCA SP = polycarboxylate-based superplasticizer;
and W = water.

Conclusions
Over the last 3 decades, the application of PCA SP in the produc-
tion of the HPC has become more and more popular. In this
study, PCA SP with −COOH, −SO3 groups, and a long PEO side
chain was synthesized. The behaviors of PCA SP at different
dosages in concrete were measured. The economies of the PCA
SP series concrete were analyzed. The following test results were
obtained:
• The inclusion of PCA SP effectively improves the initial fluidity
and fluidity preservation of concrete.
• Utilizing PCA SP in concrete also increase the air content and
bleeding water rate and prolongs the setting times of concrete,
which exhibit a negative influence on the early-age properties of
the hardened concrete.
• At the early curing stage (7 days), a small amount of PCA SP
(0.20% and 0.24%) were incorporated into concrete, after which
the compressive strength, flexural strength, ultrasonic pulse ve-
locity, and water porosity of the PCA SP blended concrete had
reductions of 4.70%–6.16%, 3.71%–5.73%, and 2.22%–3.92%,
and an increase of 0.95%–4.04% in comparison with the refer-
ence concrete.
• Beyond a certain amount of PCA SP (0.24%), a large decrease
in the mechanical properties and high water porosity can be
achieved by introducing 0.28% or 0.32% PCA SP to concrete
mixture. The presence of PCA SP in concrete enhances the
probability of chloride ions to penetrate inside concrete. The
prolonged curing period has a positive effect in terms of improv-
ing the long-term properties of the PCA SP blended concrete.
The 90-day PCA SP series concrete had identical behavior with
the corresponding reference concrete.
• The application of PCA SP in concrete results in higher total
material costs than for concrete without PCA SP.
• Based on the considerations from the early-age behaviors and
the economies of concrete, at the given fluidity, the amount
of PCA SP in concrete needs to be controlled within the certain
range.
Data Availability Statement
Some or all data, models, or code generated or used during the
study are available from the corresponding author by request.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Western Traffic Science and
Technology Projects (Chinese No. 2006ZB01-2) for its financial
support. In this study, Jiangsu Boot New Materials Co, Ltd. pro-
vided PCA SP. The authors also express their gratitude.
References
Aïtcin, P. C. 2000. “Cements of yesterday and today: Concrete of tomor-
row.” Cem. Concr. Res. 30 (9): 1349–1359. https://doi.org/10.1016
/S0008-8846(00)00365-3.
ASTM. 2002. Standard test method for pulse velocity through concrete.
ASTM C597. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2005. Standard specification for coal fly ash and raw or
calcined natural pozzolan for use in concrete. ASTM C618. West
Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
ASTM. 2007. Standard specification for portland cement. ASTM C150.
West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
BSI (British Standards Institution). 2000a. Cement: Composition, specifi-
cations and conformity criteria for common cements. BS EN 197 Part 1.
London: BSI.
BSI (British Standards Institution). 2000b. Testing fresh concrete:
Air content-pressure methods. BS EN 12350 Part 7. London: BSI.
BSI (British Standards Institution). 2000c. Testing hardened concrete:
Flexural strength of test specimens. BS EN 12390 Part 5. London: BSI.
BSI (British Standards Institution). 2000d. Testing hardened concrete:
Method of determination of compressive strength of concrete cubes.
BS EN 12390 Part 3. London: BSI.
BSI (British Standards Institution). 2005. Admixtures for concrete, mortar
and grout: Test methods-determination of bleeding of concrete. BS EN
480 Part 4. London: BSI.
BSI (British Standards Institution). 2006. Admixtures for concrete, mortar
and grout: Test methods-determination of setting time. BS EN 480 Part
2. London: BSI.
BSI (British Standards Institution). 2009. Admixtures for concrete, mortar
and grout concrete admixtures: Definitions, requirements, conformity,
marking and labelling. BS EN 934 Part 2. London: BSI.
BSI (British Standards Institution). 2010. Testing fresh concrete: Self-
compacting concrete—Slump flow test. BS EN 12350 Part 8. London:
BSI.
Collepardi, M., and M. Valente. 2006. “Recent developments in superplas-
ticizers.” In Proc., 8th CANMET/ACI Int. Conf.: Superplasticizers and
other Chemical Admixtures in Concrete, 1–9. Detroit: American
Concrete Institute.
Felekoglu, B., and H. Sarikahya. 2008. “Effect of chemical structure of
polycarboxylate-based superplasticizers on workability retention of
self-compacting concrete.” Constr. Build. Mater. 22 (9): 1972–1980.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2007.07.005.
GOST (Gosudarstvennye Standarty State Standard). 1990. Concretes:
Methods for strength determination using reference specimens. GOST
10180. Moscow: GOST.
Guan, B. H., Q. Q. Ye, J. L. Zhang, W. B. Lou, and Z. B. Wu. 2010.
“Interaction between α-calcium sulfate hemihydrate and superplasti-
cizer from the point of adsorption characteristics hydration and

© ASCE 04020009-9 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2020, 32(3): 04020009

 hardening process.” Cem. Concr. Res. 40 (2): 253–259. https://doi.org
/10.1016/j.cemconres.2009.08.027.
Huang, H. J., C. X. Qian, F. Zhao, J. Qu, J. Q. Guo, and M. Danzinger.
2016. “Improvement on microstructure of concrete by polycarboxylate
superplasticizer (PCE) and its influence on durability of concrete.”
Constr. Build. Mater. 110 (May): 293–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j
.conbuildmat.2016.02.041.
Ji, D., Z. Y. Luo, M. He, Y. J. Shi, and X. L. Gu. 2012. “Effect of
both grafting and blending modifications on the performance of
lignosulphonate-modified sulphanilic acid-phenol-formaldehyde con-
densates.” Cem. Concr. Res. 42 (9): 1199–1206. https://doi.org/10
.1016/j.cemconres.2012.05.010.
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by ASIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY on 08/22/22. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
Kato, Y. 2013. “Characteristics of the surface air permeability test and the
evaluation of quality variation in cover concrete due to segregation of
concrete.” J. Adv. Concr. Technol. 11 (11): 322–332. https://doi.org/10
.3151/jact.11.322.
Khatib, J. M., and P. S. Mangat. 2002. “Influence of high-temperature and
low-humidity curing on chloride penetration in blended cement con-
crete.” Cem. Concr. Res. 32 (11): 1743–1753. https://doi.org/10.1016
/S0008-8846(02)00857-8.
Kismi, M., J. C. Saint-Arroman, and P. Mounanga. 2012. “Minimizing
water dosage of superplasticized mortars and concretes for a given con-
sistency.” Constr. Build. Mater. 28 (1): 747–758. https://doi.org/10
.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.10.056.
Knapen, E., and D. V. Gemert. 2009. “Cement hydration and microstruc-
ture formation in the presence of water-soluble polymers.” Cem. Concr.
Res. 39 (1): 6–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2008.10.003.
Łazniewska-Piekarczyk, B. 2012. “The influence of selected new genera-
tion admixtures on the workability, air-voids parameters and frost-
resistance of self compacting concrete.” Constr. Build. Mater. 31 (6):
310–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.12.107.
Li, P. P., Q. L. Yu, and H. J. H. Brouwers. 2017. “Effect of PCE-type super-
plasticizer on early-age behaviour of ultra-high performance concrete
(UHPC).” Constr. Build. Mater. 153 (6): 740–750. https://doi.org/10
.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.07.145.
Lim, G. G., S. S. Hong, D. S. Kim, B. J. Lee, and J. S. Rho. 1999. “Slump
loss control of cement paste by adding polycarboxylic type slump-
releasing dispersant.” Cem. Concr. Res. 29 (2): 223–229. https://doi
.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(98)00188-4.
Ma, B., M. Ma, X. D. Shen, X. R. Li, and X. D. Wu. 2014. “Compatibility
between a polycarboxylate superplasticizer and the belite-rich sulfoalu-
minate cement: Setting time and the hydration properties.” Constr.
Build. Mater. 51 (32): 47–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat
.2013.10.028.
Morin, V., F. C. Tenoudji, A. Feylessoufi, and P. Richard. 2001. “Super-
plasticizer effects on setting and structuration mechanisms of ultrahigh-
performance concrete.” Cem. Concr. Res. 31 (1): 63–71. https://doi.org
/10.1016/S0008-8846(00)00428-2.
Nawa, T. 2006. “Effect of chemical structure on steric stabilization of
polycarboxylate-based superplasticizer.” J. Adv. Concr. Technol.
4 (2): 225–232. https://doi.org/10.3151/jact.4.225.
NT Build (Nordtest Build). 1999. Concrete, mortar and cement based
repair materials: Chloride diffusion coefficient from migration cell ex-
periments. NT BUILD 492. Espoo, Finland: NT Build.
Peng, J. H., J. D. Qu, J. X. Zhang, M. F. Chen, and T. Wan. 2005.
“Adsorption characteristics of water-reducing agents on gypsum surface
© ASCE 04020009-10
J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2020, 32(3): 04020009
and its effect on the rheology of gypsum plaster.” Cem. Concr. Res.
35 (3): 527–531. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2004.04.016.
Peng, X. Y., C. H. Yi, Y. H. Deng, and X. Q. Qiu. 2011. “Synthesis and
evaluation of polycarboxylate-type superplasticizers with different car-
boxylic contents used in a cement system.” Int. J. Polym. Mater.
60 (12): 923–938. https://doi.org/10.1080/00914037.2010.551369.
Qiu, X. Q., X. Y. Peng, C. H. Yi, and Y. H. Deng. 2011. “Effect of side
chains and sulfonic groups on the performance of polycarboxylate-type
superplasticizers in concentrated cement suspensions.” J. Dispersion
Sci. Technol. 32 (2): 203–212. https://doi.org/10.1080/0193269100
3656888.
Ran, Q. P., P. Somasundaran, C. W. Miao, J. P. Liu, S. S. Wu, and J. Shen.
2009. “Effect of the length of the side chains of comb-like copolymer
dispersants on dispersion and rheological properties of concentrated ce-
ment suspensions.” J. Colloid Interface Sci. 336 (2): 624–633. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2009.04.057.
Ran, Q. P., P. Somasundaran, C. W. Miao, J. P. Liu, S. S. Wu, and J. Shen.
2010. “Adsorption mechanism of comb polymer dispersants at the
cement/water interface.” J. Dispersion Sci. Technol. 31 (6): 790–798.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01932690903333580.
Sakai, E., A. Ishida, and A. Ohta. 2006. “New trend in the development of
concrete admixtures in Japan.” J. Adv. Concr. Technol. 4 (2): 211–223.
https://doi.org/10.3151/jact.4.211.
Szwabowski, J., and B. Łazniewska-Piekarczyk. 2009. “Air-entrainment
problem in self- compacting concrete.” J. Civ. Eng. Manage. 15 (2):
137–147. https://doi.org/10.3846/1392-3730.2009.15.137-147.
Wiliński, D., P. Lukowski, and G. Rokicki. 2016. “Polymeric superplasti-
cizers based on polycarboxylates for ready-mixed concrete: Current
state of the art.” Polimery 61 (7–8): 474–481. https://doi.org/10
.14314/polimery.2016.474.
Winnefeld, F., S. Becker, J. Pakusch, and T. Gotz. 2007. “Effects of the
molecular architecture of comb-shaped superplasticizers on their perfor-
mance in cementitious systems.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 29 (4):
251–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2006.12.006.
Yamada, K., S. Ogawa, and S. Hanehara. 2001. “Controlling of the adsorp-
tion and dispersing force of polycarboxylate-type superplasticizer
by sulfate ion concentration in aqueous phase.” Cem. Concr. Res.
31 (3): 375–383. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(00)00503-2.
Yamada, K., T. Takahashi, S. Hanehara, and M. Matsuhisa. 2000. “Effects
of the chemical structure on the properties of polycarboxylate-type
superplasticizer.” Cem. Concr. Res. 30 (2): 197–207. https://doi.org/10
.1016/S0008-8846(99)00230-6.
Yang, Z., H. Zhao, and W. Sun. 2016. “Effect of the types of superplasti-
cizers on the fresh, mechanical, and durability properties of the high-
performance concrete.” J. Test. Eval. 44 (1): 699–709. https://doi.org/10
.1520/JTE20140442.
Yang, Z. Y., M. Yu, Y. M. Liu, X. L. Chen, and Y. S. Zhao. 2019. “Synthesis
and performance of an environmentally friendly polycarboxylate super-
plasticizer based on modified poly (aspartic acid).” Constr. Build.
Mater. 202 (3): 154–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018
.12.148.
Ye, Y.-S., H.-L. Huang, and K.-C. Hsu. 2006. “A water-soluble acrylate/
sulfonate copolymer. I. Its synthesis and dispersing ability on cement.”
J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 100 (3): 2490–2496. https://doi.org/10.1002/app
.23606.
J. Mater. Civ. Eng.