FACULTY OF HEALTH AND APPLIED SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES

QUALIFICATION: BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (MAJOR AND MINOR)

QUALIFICATION CODE: 07BOSC LEVEL: 6
COURSE CODE: PSF602S COURSE NAME: PLANT STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTION
SESSION: NOVEMBER 2018 PAPER: THEORY

DURATION: 3 HOURS MARKS: 100

FIRST OPPORTUNITY EXAMINATION MEMO PAPER

EXAMINER(S) DR JEYA KENNEDY

MODERATOR: DR JONATHAN MUTAU KAMWI

INSTRUCTIONS
1. The number of marks is given in brackets () at the end of each
question or part question.

THIS MEMO PAPER CONSISTS OF 10 PAGES

(Including this front page)

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QUESTION 1:
Multiple choices
[5]

1.1 Identify the correct pairing of a plant tissue and its function. (1)
a) epidermis: rigid support
b) xylem: sugar transport
c) parenchyma: photosynthesis
d) periderm: control of gas exchange

1.2 Modified leaves that enable a stem to climb are called ______________,
whereas modified leaves that cover the winter buds of a dormant woody plant
are called ____________. (1)
a) spines; bud scales
b) bud scales; tendrils
c) tendrils; bud scales
d) tendrils; spines

1.3 Cork cambium and the tissues it produces are collectively called; (1)
a) periderm
b) lenticels
c) cortex
d) wood

1.4 The waterproof region around the radial and transverse walls of endodermal
cells is the; (1)
a) casparian strip
b) pericycle
c) apoplast
d) symplast

1.5 The nutritive tissue in the seeds of flowering plants that is formed from the union
of a sperm cell and two polar nuclei is called the; (1)
a) plumule
b) endosperm
c) cotyledon
d) hypocotyl

QUESTION 2:
Fill in the blanks [5]

2.1 When guard cells deflate due to loss of water, the stomata are ________. (1)
Flaccid

2.2 __________ roots grow downward, while __________ branch sideways. (1)
Tap root and lateral root

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2.3 __________ plants lose their leaves in the fall and grow new ones in the spring. (1)
Deciduous

2.4 Certain plants adapted to flooded soil produce aerial “breathing” roots known as
_______________. (1)
Pneumatophores

2.5 A long-day plant will flower when ___________________ are shorter than a
specific number of hours. (1)
Night

QUESTION 3:
Define the following terms
[5]

3.1 Perennials
(1)
Herbaceous and woody plants that have the potential to live for more than two
years.

3.2 Stele (1)

Found in root composed of Pericycle, phloem, xylem

3.3 Perianth
(1)
Calyx and corolla

3.4 Apomixis (1)

Apomixis is the production of seeds and fruits without sexual reproduction.

3.5 Critical night length

(1)
Critical night length is the requirement many plants have for a specific amount of
darkness or night length.

QUESTION 4:
Distinguish between the pairs of the following terms. [10]

4.1 Herbaceous plants; woody plant

(2)
Herbaceous plants are nonwoody plants whose aerial parts (stems and leaves) die
back to the ground at the end of the growing season. The aerial parts of woody
plants (trees and shrubs) persist. Botanically speaking, woody plants produce hard,

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 lignified secondary tissues (i.e., cell walls contain lignin), and herbaceous plants do
not.

4.2 Hardwood; softwood

(2)
The wood of pine and other conifers typically lacks fibers (with their thick secondary
cell walls) and vessel elements; the conducting cells in gymnosperms are tracheids.
These cell differences generally make conifer wood softer than the wood of
flowering plants, although there is a substantial variation from one species to
another.
4.3 Complete; incomplete flower
(2)
All the four part is present, if any one or two lacks called incomplete

4.4 Aggregate; simple fruits

(2)
Simple from single ovary from single flower, aggregate from number of ovaries from
single flower.

4.5 Thigmonastic movement; nyctinastic movement (2)

A thigmonastic movement is a type of nastic movement that occurs in response to
touching a plant, for example, a Venus’ flytrap closes its leaves when touched. A
nyctinastic movement is one that occurs in response to the daily cycle of light and
dark, for example, the prayer plant’s leaves are vertical at night and horizontal
during the day.

QUESTION 5:
One sentences answers
[5]

5.1 Which macronutrient element is need for structural role as a component of the
middle lamella? (1)
Calcium

5.2 What is the usual function of the trichomes on a leaf? (1)

Epidermal hairs usually protect the leaf from insects and intense light.

5.3 Why would an agricultural practice that eliminated transpiration water loss be
disadvantageous for plants? (1)
It would block the transport of mineral nutrients from the roots to the rest of the
plant.

5.4 Arrange the following steps in the correct order in the phytochrome signal
transduction pathway: (1) red light; (2) light- responsive gene is switched on
(or off); (3) movement of Pfr to nucleus; (4) conversion of Pr to Pfr; (5) formation
of Pfr-PIF3 complex that is bound to promoter region. (1)

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 1-4-3-5-2

5.5 What structures associated with gas exchange are found throughout mature
stem internodes and what is the function of it? (1)
Lenticels, gas exchange

QUESTION 6:
Short questions [10]

6.1 What are some characteristics of animal-dispersed seeds and fruits? (2)
Animal dispersed fruits and seeds tend to be edible, or they have barbs or other
structures that attach them to the bodies of animals.
6.2 What is wood and inner bark of the stem made of? (2)
Secondary xylem (wood), secondary phloem (inner bark)

6.3 Define determinate flower with example. (2)

Inflorescences having the oldest flowers at the top are called determinate.
Number of flowers cannot increase after the first flower opens.
E.g., cymes

6.4 Describe the pathway of sugar translocation in plants. (2)

Dissolved sugar is translocated upward or downward in phloem, from a source (an
area of excess sugar, usually a leaf) to a sink (an area of storage or of sugar use, such
as roots, apical meristems, fruits, and seeds).

6.5 How do phtochrome molecules help the plant recognize dawn each day? (2)
Phtochrome molecules are mainly in the Pr from during the night. The sudden
conversion of Pr to Pfr due to the absorption of the red wavelengths of sunlight,
signals dawn.

QUESTION 7:
Longer questions [25]

7.1 Why soil pH is useful for plant growth? (4)

At a low pH, for example, aluminium and manganese in soil water are more soluble
and are sometimes absorbed by the roots in toxic concentrations.
At a higher pH, certain mineral salts essential for plant growth, such as calcium,
phosphate, become less soluble and thus less available to plants.
Soil pH also affects the leaching of minerals. An acidic soil has less ability to bind
positively charged ions to it because the soil particles also bind the abundant
protons.
As a result, certain mineral ions essential for plant growth, such as potassium (K+)
are leached more readily from acidic soil.
The optimum soil pH for most plant growth is 6.0 to 7.0 because most essential
minerals are available to plants in that pH range.

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7.2 Explain the structure and functions of the dermal tissue system? (5)
1. Epidermis is an outer protective covering tissue of plant roots, leaves, and stems
of nonwoody plants.
2. It contains closely packed epidermal cells.
3. Waxy cuticle covers the walls of epidermal cells, minimizing water loss and
protecting against bacteria.
4. In roots, certain epidermal cells are modified into root hairs that increase the
surface area of the root for absorption of water and minerals and help to anchor
plants in the soil.
5. Protective hairs called trichomes are produced by epidermal cells of stems,
leaves, and reproductive organs.
6. Trichomes may help protect a plant from herbivores by producing a toxic
substance.
7. On the lower epidermis of eudicot leaves, and both surfaces of monocot leaves,
special guard cells form microscopic pores (stomata) and regulate gas exchange and
water loss.

7.3 Describe at least five leaves that are modified to perform uncommon functions by
giving examples of several adaptations. (5)
Cactus spines are modified leaves that are hard and pointed, attached to a succulent
stem. Protect (cactus spines) and discourage animals from eating the succulent stem
tissue.
Vines are climbing plants whose stems cannot support their own weight, so they
often possess tendrils that help keep the vine attached to the structure on which it is
growing. The tendrils of many vines, such as peas, cucumbers, squash and sweet
peas are specialized leaves. However, some tendrils, such as those of Virginia
creeper, and grapes, are specialized stems.
The winter buds of a dormant woody plant are covered by bud scales, modified
leaves that protect the delicate meristematic tissue of the bud from injury, freezing,
or drying out
Some leaves associated with flower clusters (inflorescences) are modified as bracts.
In flowering Bougainvillea, the flowers are clustered in the center of each
inflorescence, and what appears to be four white or pink petals are actually bracts.
Similarly, the red “petals” of poinsettia are not petals at all but bracts
Onion bulbs have leaves surrounding a short stem. These leaves store food (onion)
and water
Many plants adapted to arid conditions, such as medicinal aloes and string-of beads,
have succulent leaves for water storage. These leaves are usually green and function
in photosynthesis.
Vegetative reproduction asexual reproduction - tiny new plantlets on edge of leaves
e.g. Kalanchoe panamensis. They form detachable plantlets in notches along their
margins, which give s rise to individual plantlets at each notch in the leaf. When
these plantlets reach a certain size, they drop to the ground, root and grow

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 Carnivorous plants are plants that capture insects.They grow in poor soil that is
deficient in certain essential minerals, particularly nitrogen. These plants meet some
of their mineral requirements by digesting insects and other small animals.
The leaves of carnivorous plants are adapted to attract, capture and digest their
animal prey.
In carnivorous plants (Venus Fly Trap), the leaves trap insects for food so the plant
can get enough nitrogen (grow in N2 poor soil). Have hinged leaves that snap shut.

7.4 Describe the different kind of soil texture and its functions. (5)
The texture, or structural characteristic, of a soil is determined by the percentages of
the different-sized inorganic mineral particles—sand, silt, and clay—in it.
Sand particles are largest: 0.05–2.0 mm in diameter. Sandy soils lose water too
readily; clay packs tightly to hold water. Sand particles can be seen individually with
the naked eye. Sandy soils are well aerated and have good drainage but will not
hold water or nutrients very well.
Silt particles are medium sized: 0.002–0.05 mm in diameter. Silt particles can be seen
by using a microscope. Silt contain less silica than sand and has better nutrient
holding characteristics than sand
Clay particles are smallest: below 0.002 mm in diameter. Clay particle have the
greatest surface area of all soil. Clay particles can only be seen by using a
microscope. Clay particles (or colloids) are important because they can hold
nutrients on their surface in a form which is readily available to plants. They can also
hold water better than sand. On the negative side, clay soils tend to become
waterlogged in the rainy season, causing poor aeration and subsequently, poor root
development. Clay is sticky when wet and may form very hard clods when dry.
Loam (a mixture of the three mineral particles) retains water and nutrients; roots
take up oxygen in the air spaces. It is an ideal agricultural soil. It contains
approximately 40% each of sand and silt and about 20% of clay

7.5 Explain the types of indehiscent fruits with example. (6)

Indehiscent fruits. These fruits do not split open when mature.
(1) Achene, a one-seeded fruit with the seed attached to the fruit at one point only,
sunflower
(2) Caryopsis or grain, a one-seeded fruit in which the seed is firmly attached to the
fruit at all possible points. Corn, rice, wheat and barley are examples.
(3) Samara, a one- or two-seeded fruit with the pericarp bearing a wing like
outgrowth. A modified achene, Ash, Maple
(4) Nut, a hard, one-seeded fruit, generally formed from a compound ovary, with the
pericarp hard throughout. Oak (acorn), chestnut, hazelnuts, filbert, walnut and
hickory are examples.

QUESTION 8:
Essay question [35]

8.1 Describe the conditions required to break the seed dormancy and resume growth
that vary between different species. (10)

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 1. Temperature is another environmental factor that affects germination. Some
seeds, such as those of apples, require prolonged exposure to low temperatures
before their seeds break dormancy and germinate.
2. Some plants, especially those with tiny seeds, such as lettuce, require light for
germination. A light requirement ensures that a tiny seed germinates only if it is
close to the soil surface.
3. Seeds of some species like phlox. Nemophila and Silene remain dormant when
exposed to light. They germinate only in the dark. These are called negative
photoblastic seeds.
4. Many seeds are dormant because certain chemicals are present or absent or
because the seed coat restricts germination. For example, the seeds of many
desert plants (cacti) contain high concentrations of abscisic acid, which inhibits
germination under unfavourable conditions. Abscisic acid is washed out only
when rainfall is sufficient to support the plant’s growth after the seed
germinates.
5. Fleshy fruits contain inhibitors so that germination does not occur while the fruit
is still on the plant.
6. For some seeds to take up bacterial or fungi (orchids) action and even fire (e.g.
Pinus banksiana). Where natural fires are common, many seeds require intense
heat to break dormancy, taking advantage of new opportunities and open space.
7. Some seeds, such as certain legumes, have extremely hard, thick seed coats that
prevent water and oxygen from entering, thereby inducing dormancy.
Scarification, the process of scratching or scarring the seed coat (physically with a
knife or chemically with an acid) before sowing it, induces germination in these
plants.
8. Scarification in nature occurs, for example, when these seeds pass through the
digestive tracts of animals or when the seed coats are partially digested by soil
bacteria.
9. The seed is treated with hot water or concentrated sulphuric acid for very short
duration. It makes the seed coat soft and dormancy of seed is broken.
10. However. in nature seed remain buried in the soil. The action of soil micro-
organisms makes its hard wall soft. Therefore, the dormancy of seed is broken.
11. Use of hormone gibberellic acid: Such seeds contain an inhibitory hormone
namely abscisic acid. This hormone disappears during stratification. Now
gibberellic acid appears. It promotes growth in seed. Therefore, dormancy due to
chilling requirement is under the control of promoter and inhibitor hormones.
Thus, the chilling requirement can be replaced by applying gibberellic acid.
Therefore, such seeds can germinate in the presence of this hormone. They do
not require chilling temperatures.
12. Immature Embryo - The embryo is fully developer inside the seed in most of the
plants before shedding from the parent plant. But development of the embryo is
incomplete at dispersal in few cases like Fraxinus and Anemone. Such seeds
remain dormant and fail to germinate. Such seeds imbibe water and the
development of the embryo is completed in a few weeks. Then the embryo is
fully developed Now the seed can germinate under favourable conditions.

8.2 Explain in detail about the defence mechanism of plant to protect themselves

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 from herbivore.
(12)
1. Plants have physical defenses such as cuticle-covered epidermis and bark.
2. Plants produce secondary metabolites are defense mechanisms. Tannins, in or
on the leaf epidermis, are defensive compounds that interfere with the outer
proteins of bacteria and fungi. Tannins also deter predators because of the
astringent effect on the mouth and interference with digestion.
3. Alkaloids (e.g. morphine, nicotine, caffeine) are also secondary metabolites.
4. Coffee plant seedlings have a high concentration of caffeine, which can kill
insects and fungi by blocking DNA and RNA synthesis.
5. Cyanogenic glycosides break down to cyanide and inhibit cellular respiration.
6. Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) produces deadly cardiac and steroid glycosides,
which cause nausea, hallucinations, and death in animals that ingest them.
7. Plants also respond when they have been wounded or attacked. After a leaf has
been chewed or injured, the plant produces proteinase inhibitors, systemin,
which is a chemical that destroy the digestive enzymes of a predator feeding on
them.
8. Sometimes plants produce a specific gene product that binds to either a viral,
bacterial, or fungal gene product made within the cell, so the plant can
“recognize” a particular pathogen.
9. Following gene production, a transduction pathway ensues, and the final result is
a hypersensitive response (HR) that seals off the infected area and will also
initiate a wound response. As a result, a hypersensitive response occurs that
seals off the infected area, causing it to die. These necrotic lesions, or dead areas,
prevent or slow the spread of the initial infection bodies.
10. The plant also sends signals from the site of localized infection, leading to
systemic acquired resistance (SAR), a build-up of long-lasting, enhanced
resistance throughout the plant. The signal travels in the phloem. Systemic
acquired resistance is broad spectrum—that is, SAR is a heightened defence
against many types of pathogens, not just the one that caused the initial
infection.
11. Some plant defense mechanisms are indirect defense mechanisms. Since female
butterflies are less likely to lay their eggs on plants that already have butterfly
eggs, the leaves of some passion flowers (genus Passiflora) display physical
structures resembling the eggs, so the butterflies do not lay eggs on those plants.
12. Lima beans produce volatiles that attract carnivore mites only when they are
being damaged by a spider mite.
13. Corn and cotton plants release volatiles that attract wasps, which then inject
their eggs into caterpillars eating their leaves. When the eggs hatch, the wasp
larvae consume, and ultimately kill, the host insects.
14. Some plants have mutualistic relationships with other animals to protect them
from herbivores. A species of acacia, Pseudomyrmex ferruginea, has swollen
thorns with a hollow interior and ants will live and feed (without harming) off the
acacia. In turn, the ants protect the plant by attacking and stinging herbivores

8.3 Describe the structure and development of the male gametophyte in the
flowering plant (male gametes). Draw and label a diagram to illustrate this. (13)

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1. Microspores are produced in the anthers of flowers.
2. An anther has four pollen sacs; each contains many microsporocytes (diploid
pollen mother cells).
3. The wall of each pollen sac contains several layers of cells. One of the outer
layers is made up of cells with thickened walls and is called the fibrous layer; this
helps to liberate the pollen grains when they are ripe.
4. The innermost layer is called the tapetum. The cells in this layer help to provide
nutrients to the developing pollen grains.
5. Microsporocytes undergo meiotic cell division to produce four haploid
microspores.
6. As anther matures, 4 microspores of a tetrad separate from each other
7. Each of the haploid cells develops a tough protective wall around itself, becoming
a pollen grain.
8. The wall is made up of two layers, an outer very tough, waterproof exine and an
inner intine. In place, the exine is absent, leaving a thin area in the wall called a
pit.
9. The haploid nucleus then divides mitotically forming two cells, one is the tube
cell and other is a generative cell.
10. The tube cell will eventually form the pollen tube.
11. The generative cell will divide mitotically to form two sperm.
12. Once both events have occurred, the pollen grain is the mature male
gametophyte.

END OF EXAM

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