The Galician-Portuguese Tradition and the Romance "Kharjas"

Author(s): MARTHA E. SCHAFFER

Source: Portuguese Studies, Vol. 3 (1987), pp. 1-20
Published by: Modern Humanities Research Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41104834
Accessed: 24-02-2016 14:28 UTC

REFERENCES
Linked references are available on JSTOR for this article:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/41104834?seq=1&cid=pdf-reference#references_tab_contents

You may need to log in to JSTOR to access the linked references.

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/
info/about/policies/terms.jsp

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content
in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship.
For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Modern Humanities Research Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Portuguese
Studies.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 150.131.192.151 on Wed, 24 Feb 2016 14:28:54 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Tradition
The Galician-Portuguese
and theRomanceKharjas
MARTHA E. SCHAFFER
The largecorpusofGalician-Portuguese lovepoetrycomposedbetweenthe
late twelfthand mid-fourteenth centuriesis dividedinto two types:the
cantigasde amor and the cantigasde amigo.1This poetrywas partof a
learned,written tradition whosepoetswerekings,priestsandnobles,as well
as jograis.AlthoughGalician-Portuguese love poetrystudiedin isolation
revealsimportant information abouttheIberiansocietywhichcreatedit,the
scope of studyhas traditionally beenbroadenedto includeProvençallove
poetry. In addition to a comparisonof artistry and technique,a complex
seriesof questionsregardingthe originand transmission of thesetwo
traditionshas dominatedscholars'efforts. The further consideration ofthe
Romancekharjasin thestudyofmedievallovepoetry,madeimperative by
SamuelStern'simportant articleof 1948, resolvedcertainissuesbutraised
manyothers.2 Furthermore, theperspective providedbythekharjasoffered
a newpointofdeparture forsubsequentinvestigations.
Sincethediscovery oftheRomancekharjas,severalscholarshavestudied
the specificconnectionsbetweenthe Galician-Portuguese love poetry(in
the de
particular cantigas amigo) and the There
kharjas.3 is no questionthat
one findsnumerousthematicand technicalparallelsin the two typesof
poem.Moststrikingly, inthekharjasandthecantigasde amigo,thespeaker
is a woman; in both,thewomanlamentssome aspectof herlove. These
womenoftenaddresstheirmothers, friends, and eventhelover,and
sisters,
inadditionmakereference to elements ofdomesticlife.
More important thanthediscovery and elucidationoftheparallelsis the
determination oftheirrelationships. In thepast,progresstowardsthisgoal
was inhibited to a largedegreebythemethodsappliedto solvetheproblem.
Although an examination oftheGalician-Portuguese cantigasde amigofor
vestigesof a formulaic system withpopularrootsdoesnotprovidedefinitive
and conclusiveanswersto all of thequestions,it does clarify certainofthe

1 The satiricand of love whichare foundin thecantigasd'escarnioe mal dizer

parodietreatments
are,forobviousreasons,excludedfromthepresentstudy.
2 S. M. Stern,'Les Versfinauxen
espagnoldans les muwassahshispano-hébraïques:une contribu-
tionà l'histoiredu muwassahet à l'étudedu vieux dialecteespagnol"mozarabe"', Al-Andalu¿,13
(1948), 299-^48.
3 One of thefirststudies
comparingthecantigasde amigo and theRomancekharjaswas Dámaso
Alonso,'Cancioncillas"de amigo" mozárabes(Primaveratempranade la líricaeuropea)", RFE, 33
(1949), 297-349; itappearedalmostimmediately afterStern'simportant1948 article.

This content downloaded from 150.131.192.151 on Wed, 24 Feb 2016 14:28:54 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
2 MARTHA E. SCHAFFER

relationshipsbetweenthe Galician-Portuguese lyricsand the Romance

kharjas.4
The cantigasde amorand de amigo,as statedabove,arelearnedformsof
love poetry.Both typeswereroutinelycomposedby the same poets and
enjoyedequal prestige as poeticforms;as a resulttheysharedmanyfeatures.
However,medievalIberianpoetsapparently feltorrecognized theneedfora
contrast intheelaborationofthelovethemes.The cantigade amigoand the
cantigade amorevolved,then,as parallelbutdistinctwritten forms.5For
the
example, cantigas de amor are generallysung from the male'spointof
view,and the cantigasde amigo fromthe woman's pointof view. The
cantigasde amorhave a formal,courtlyatmosphere, whilethecantigasde
amigo have a non-formal, even ruralsetting.The playsan impor-
intellect
tantpartin thecantigasde amor,whilethecantigasde amigo(at leastthe
ones)tendto focuson theconcrete.Thesedifferences
parallelistic becameto
someextentartificial andstylisticinthecourseoftheoneanda halfcenturies
duringwhichthecantigasenjoyedpopularity, butnotentirely so: thetwo
types of love poetrypreserved theirunique characteristics.The cantigade
in
amigo, spite ofitsmany with
similarities the de
cantiga amor, and inspite
of thecombinedinfluence of thelatterand theProvençallove lyricon it,
retainsan innocenceof structureand expression.6Withinthe learned
framework, popularelements wereintroduced whichhad an inherent poetic

4 Becauseoftheirgreatsimilaritytothecantigas deamigo,thecantigas deamorcanprovide data

relevant to thediscussionat hand.However,constraints of timeand spacehavedictatedthe
restrictionofthepresent investigation.Thebroaderrelationship woman's-
ofGalician-Portuguese
voicepoetry totheRomancekharjas, withthesamefemale perspective, isthefocusorthisstudy.The
moreintimate relationshipbetween thetwotypesofcantigaandtheprocessoflevelling whichtook
placebetween themwillbe,forthemoment, setaside,as willthesimilaritiesbetweenthecantigasde
amor,otherlearnedcourtly lovepoetry, andthekharjas. Seetheanalysis offormulaicsystems made
previously byJamesT. Monroe:'Formulaic DictionandtheCommonOriginsofRomanceLyric
Traditions',Hispanic Review, 43 (1975),
5 I hetermcantigade amigocommonly 341-50.
embraces womens lovepoems,andencompasses several
sub-groups: thesimplecantigade amigoorde queixume, thealva(inwhichthewomanwakesher
lover),thebailada (whichcontainsspecificmentionof danceand typically possessesa rigid
thepastorela(whoseprincipal
structure),
parallelistic figure thebarcarola(with
is a shepherdess),
concrete totheseawhichservetolocalizetheaction),andthecantigaderomaria
references (which
features theyoungwomanplanning or makinga pilgrimage). Although examplesof thesesub-
genresare less numerous, theyare nonetheless an important partof thistradition.Each has
distinctivefeatures
whichnormally do notcrossintootners. Theparticular themes andmotifs of
thesecantigasareofgreatinterest to thestudyofmedieval poetry and suchthemes also present
examples offormulaic expressions.(See,forexample, thebrilliant:studyofonesuchthemeandits
analoguesbyAlanDeyermond, 'PeroMeogo'sStagsandFountains: SymbolandAnecdote inthe
Traditional RevuePhilologique,
Lyric', 33 (1979-80),265-83.)Becauseofthenature ofthisstudy,
reference tothesethemes andformulaic expressions willbemadeonlyinthenotes.
0 lhe discussionor theextentand exactspheresor theinfluence or Provençalpoetryon me
Galician-Portuguese cantigascontinues. Amongrecent studiesisJean-Marie d'Heur,Troubadours
d'oc et troubadours galiciens-portugais:recherches surquelqueséchangesdansla littérature de
l'Europeau MoyenAge,CulturaMedievale Moderna,i (Paris,1973).

This content downloaded from 150.131.192.151 on Wed, 24 Feb 2016 14:28:54 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 THE GALICIAN-PORTUGUESE LYRIC AND THE KHARJAS 3
valueand whichstoodin relief.This combination ofpopularand learned,
theheterogeneous de
cantiga amigo, was well-respected and,exceptin the
finalphase of Galician-Portuguese courtpoetry,sharedthelimelight with
thecantigade amor.1
We can definethecantigade amigo,then,as a learnedlyricformwhich
employselements ofa popularlyricaltradition, morespecifically,a popular
traditionofwomen'spoetry.The similarity betweenthecantigasde amigo
andthekharjasinthisrespectshouldbe clean (Atthispointitshouldalso be
apparentthatcertaindistinctive featuresofthecantigasde amormaketheir
exclusionfromthepresentstudynecessary.) The cantigasde amigo,fortheir
part,are removed from thatpopular traditionand it is difficult
to tellhow
fartheyare removed,butan examinationof thecantigasforvestigesof a
formulaicsystem,and a comparisonof thoseelementswithsimilarphe-
nomenaintheRomancekharjassuggestpossiblesolutionstothequestionof
relationships.
The scrutiny of any poetryforformulasor formulaic patterns,devices,
systems, diction,or expressionsoftendependsforitssuccesson thedefini-
tionsestablishedat theoutset.Thereis a dangerin applyingsuchtermstoo
looselyor in usingthemtoo rigidly.8 Certainfeatures ofthisstudyobviate
theestablishment ofan elaborateterminology. A reviewoftheevolutionary
processofthecantigasde amigowillhelpto definethefewtermswhichwill
be used. The oral traditionof women's songs was well-knownand the
characterof thesesongswas appreciatedat all social levels.Certainof the
locutionswhichrelatedto themesofthelearnedlovelyricwereutilizedby
learnedpoetsas a vehicleforthetransmission ofpopularcharacteristics to
non-popular compositions. Theselocutions had
(formulas) an identity with
oralsongs,so thatwhenthelocutionsandtheirvariantswereextracted from
themand incorporated intolearnedpoems(and wereconsequently expan-
ded further) theassociationswiththeoral traditionwerealso transferred.
Fora giventheme,then,therewouldbe one or moreformulas whichwould
be furthermodified intoformulaic expressions,thecomplexofwhichcan be
referredto as a formulasystem.

7 Certain
poetswould,ofcourse,relymoreheavily onlearnedtechniquesofcomposition andless
on popularones.The backgrounds of thecantigapoetsvarywidely,as CarolinaMichaelisde
Vasconcellos was able to demonstrate in thebiographical notesto herimportanteditionofthe
Cancioneiro deAjuda(Halle,1904),VolumeI. Forthecantigadeamigo'slossofprestige atcourtin
thefinalphase,seeAlanDeyermond, 'TheLovePoetry ofKingDinis',inFlorilegium
Hispanicum:
Medievaland GoldenAge StudiesPresentedto DorothyClotelleClarke(Madison,1983),
pp.
8 I119-30 (p. 127).
do notintend thepreceding remarks to minimizeinanywaythevalueofthéinvestigation of
oral-formulaic composition. Nor am I attempting to repudiatemyresponsibilityto establish
appropriatecriteriaforthepresent I
study.believe, however,thatthis
projectdoesnotfallwithinthe
traditional
rangeofformula research,at leastas presenttrendsdehneit.Nevertheless,thereare
strongindications that an inquiryalong theselinesmayprovidetangibleevidenceof a specific
between
relationship thecantigas
deamigoandthekharjas.

This content downloaded from 150.131.192.151 on Wed, 24 Feb 2016 14:28:54 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
4 MARTHA E. SCHAFFER

Thereare otherproblemsinherentin thisparticularanalysis.Although

the numberof cantigasde amigo is large,the poems do not easilylend
themselvesto the traditionalmethodsof formularesearch.9They are
generallyonlytwo to threestrophesin length.The poet does not narrate,
ratherhe expressesin a simplermanneronlythemostessentialemotional
concepts.The repertoire ofthemesis limited(absenceofthelover,lovenot
reciprocated,fear and/or desireofdeathas a resultoflove,helplessness and
frustrationoflove) and thecastofcharacters who appearis also small(the
womaninlove,hermother, and femalefriends
sisters, whomsheaddresses,
and theloverhimself).The frequent use ofrefrainsand,lessfrequently but
of a
characteristically, parallelistic structure and devices suchas leixa-pren
limitthepossibilities of composition.10 Such factorsalso contributeto the
and specializationof the vocabulary.However,theseare not
restriction
insurmountable
necessarily obstaclesto ourinvestigation.
The populartraditionof women'spoetryis used verydifferently bythe
learnedArabpoetsofAndalusia.The Romancematerialis thekharjaitself.
Theseversesare isolatedat theendofthemuwassaha,in starkreliefto the
bodyofthepoem.Theyareina different language,havea differentspeaker,
and a decidedlydifferent tone.Althoughthesecharacteristics facilitate
the
identificationof thepopularpoetictraditionin Arabiclovepoetry,thereis
littlematerialto examine.Becausethecantigasde amigoprovidesubstantial
and relatively completeinformation about theiruse of thispopularoral
tradition,
they will serve as thebackgroundwithwhichparallelfeatures of
thekharjaswillbe compared.

Thereis a commonsequenceor progression ofthemeswithinthecantigas

de amigo,and consequently a morphology ofthecantigacan be established.
The speaker(thewomanin love) statestheproblemand givesitscause (her
loveris absent),makesa complaint(she is ill withlove),and thenoffersa
solution(reunionor death).11Of coursetherearevariations(ofeitherorder
9JoséJoaquimNunesincludes512 cantigasde amigoin hiscollection Cantigasde Amigodos
Trovadores Galego-Portugueses, 3 vols(Coimbra,1926).Compilation ofdataforthisprojectwas
accomplished manuallyusingNunes;itiseasilyavailableandinformation isconvenientlypresented.
Cantigas referredtointhisstudy arenumbered accordingtotheNunesedition. Disputeswhichhave
arisenconcerning theinclusion ofcertain cantigasdo not,I believe,
interferewiththepresentstudy.
10Refrains occurin399 ofthecantigas inNunes'scollection. Theyrangefrom onetofivelinesin
the
length, majority (248) having two lines.Of thecantigas witha in
refrain, only sixcasesdoes it
appearat thebeginning, as an estribilho. Only57 havean easilyidentifiable structure;
parallelistic
mostofthesearebailadas.Itis within thisstructurethatleixa-pren is found.Theconcatenation of
lines(ABrA'B'rBCrB'C'r,etc.)radically impedes thematicprogression. ofthe
Fora cleardescription
effectof a parallelistic
structure on thedevelopment of themein thecantigasde amigo,see the
analysisbyMargitFrenkAlatorre, 'Historiade una formapoéticapopular',inActosdel Tercer
Congreso Internacional
de Hispanistas (Mexico,1972),pp.373-77.
11Ortentheseelements arepresented inthehrststrophe andarerestated inthetonowing stanzas,
withmerely a changeintherhyme orperhaps withslightlydifferent Atothertimes,
expressions. the
themesor motifsare introduced in a moregradualmanner.Another technique,whichis less
frequent,istodiscusstheproblem andthecomplaint intheform ofa dialogue,withtwoviewsofthe
sametheme.

This content downloaded from 150.131.192.151 on Wed, 24 Feb 2016 14:28:54 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 THE GALICIAN-PORTUGUESE LYRIC AND THE KHAR] AS 5
or theme)on thissequence,butthevastmajority ofthecantigasfollowthis
pattern.
The mostcommonthemein thecantigasde amigois theabsenceof the
lover,theamigo.In general,thecantigabeginswithan expressionof this
theme,inthefirst or secondlineoftheopeningstrophe.The largestformula
system isolated(over80 examplesoftheformulaanditsvariants)dealswith
thisthemeandis basedon thecoreexpression o meuamigod'aqui.12In
foi-s9
manycases, the theme is as a
presented simpledeclaration:
foi-s' o meu amigo d'aqui (cccxlviii)
foi-s' um dia o meu amigo d'aqui (ccccxxiii)
foi-s' um dia meu amigo d'aqui (lxxxi)
foi-s' o meuamigo (ccxli, ccccxiv)
foi-s' agora o meuamigopor en (ccclxxiii)
foi-s' ora d'aqui (cccclxvii, cxciv)
foi-s' noutrodia d'aqui (ccxliv)
foi-s' d'aqui (ccvi)

On occasiontheverbtenseis different:
id' e meu amigo d'aqui (ccLXVii)
vai s' amiga, meuamigo d'aqui (ccxcvi)

In otherexamples,subordinating
conjunctionsare used to combinethese
formulaic withotherclauses:
expressions
Quando se foi meuamigo d'aqui (ceni, ccxciv)
Quando se foi meuamigo (ccxxxiv)
Quando se foi d'aqui (cclxxvii)
porque se foi d'aqui (ceexx)
ca se foi d'aqui (cccxxxv)
pois que s' agora foi d'aqui (ccclxvi)
ca se foi meuamigo (cccxlvi)
porque se foi meu amigo (cccclxii, cxxxi)
Thereareexamplesofvariantsofthisformulainwhichtheloveris directly
addressed:
des quando vos fostes d'aqui (ccccxxvii)
fostes-vos'vós meu amigo d'aqui (cccclviii)
fostes-vos'vós meu amigo d'aqui noutrodia (ccxlvii)
des que vos d'aqui fostes (ccccvin)

12It is notpractical
to includehereall of thevariants
oftheformulas found;onlvthosewhich
illustratethecommon methods ofexpansion ormodification
ofa givenformula
willbepresented.
Forthemostpart,theendofa linecoincides withtheendoftheformula orvariantgiven:thatis,
formulaic cited
expressions here arealmostalwaysline-final,
occupyingtherhyme position.

This content downloaded from 150.131.192.151 on Wed, 24 Feb 2016 14:28:54 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
6 MARTHAE. SCHAFFER
We findthe verbpartir'to leave' in place of ir-se'to go away' in a few
instances:

partius' agora d'aquan (ccclxxvi)

desquevosde mi partistes (lxii)
quevosvósde mi partistes (cccclii)

The sameformulashowsanothervariation,in whichthelover'sabsenceis

notyetfact.The womanaddressestheamigo:
ir-vosqueredesamigo (ccccLXXi,ccclxxix,cccxxv)
ir-vosqueredesamigo d'aqui (cclxxvi)
amigo,queredesvosir (cccxix)

employed(only12 examples).
Thisvariationis lessfrequently
Absence is in fact more commonlya complaintthan is anticipated
absence.However,in tenout ofthetwelvecantigasinwhichthisformulaic
lineofthepoemand is consequently
variantoccurs,itis thefirst important
as an indicationoftheme.
Anothercommonthemeis lovenotreciprocated. The coreexpressionnon
querfalarmigo is the of
point departure for variations.Oftenthe
several
amigo does notreturn thewoman's love:
solnon quis falarmigo (lx)
e non ja falar
quer comigo (ccxc)
non ven falarmigo (lxxiv)

At times,theamigo is simplyunableto speak to thewoman,usuallyas a

consequenceofhisabsence:
porque non pode falar
comigo (cxxvi)
e nunca falar
podecomigo (cxcvm)
u mi non pudesse falar (cxxvn)

becausehisamigadidnotspeakto
On otheroccasionstheloveris distressed
him:

porque non falamigo (lxxxviii)

desquando non faloucomigo (ccccLXXVii)

Anothervariantof thisbasic formulasubstitutesa moreconcreteimage:

insteadof mereconversationor verbalexchange,theissueis cohabitation.
As above,insomeinstancesthefeelingis notreciprocated:
non queredesviver migo (cxxxiv)

This content downloaded from 150.131.192.151 on Wed, 24 Feb 2016 14:28:54 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 THE GALICIAN-PORTUGUESE LYRIC AND THE KHARJAS J
In othercases,theamigohas no controloverthesituation:13
pois me vós ides con el-reimorar (cclxiii)
vai meu amigo con el-reimorar (cccxviii)

Our nextformulasystemdealswiththereunionofthelovers.Almostall
ofthereferences herearetothewomanherself,
andserveto demonstrate
the
variedrelationshipshehas withhermother.At timesshedemandsor begs
permission,'Let mego to see him':
madr'e senhor, leixade-m* ir veer (ccccxxi)
leixades-mi-oir veer (cccclxxx)

In otherinstancesthewomanin loveconfides
herdesireto hermother:
madre, queroj'eu veer (cclxxi)

Shelaments,to herfriend
or lover,thathermotherforbidsa meeting:
oje quer'eu o meu amigo veer (cxv)
por que vos non quis mia madre veer (lxxxvii)

Anotherformulaic systemis basedon theexpressions

quererbemlquerer
malandfazerbemlfazermal.Therehas beensomediscussionofthepossible
figurativemeaningsoftheseterms,butgenerally speaking,theyare under-
stoodto signify
'to love/tohate'and areusedfrequently
inrelativeclausesto
modify or otherwise referto theamigo.1*The womanspeaksoftheone she
loves:
oque eu quero ben (cxiv)
a que quero granben (ccli)
d'aquelque quero granben (xli)
pois que vos eu quero mui granben (co)
porque vos quer' eu mui granben (ccxi)
ca lhe quero eu granben (ccccliv)
ca lhe quer' eu ben (ccxl)
13Referenceto absencecausedbyserviceto thekingis also commonto expression of thefirst
formula:
Foi-s'o meuamigod'aqui
na oste,porel-reiservir. (ccxlii)
Foi-s'o meuamigoa casd'el-rei (cccxx)
Des quandos'elfoid'aquia el-rei (ccxcv)
Thekingfrequently appearsas a motivatingforceintheseparation oftheloversinthebarcarolas:
El-reidePortugale
barcasmandoulavrar
e lá iránasbarcassigo,
miafilha, o voss'amigo. (ccclxxxiv)
Meteel-reibarcasnorioforte;
quemamigoa queDeuslhoamostre:
ala vai,madre, ond'ei suidade. (ccclxxxvii)
14A.D. Deyermond, A Literary HistoryofSpain:TheMiddleAges(London,1971),p. 14.Seealso
therelevantentries
in CarolinaMichaelisde Vasconcellos, 'Glossáriodo Cancioneiro de Ajuda*,
RevistaLusitana,23 (1920). Of the68 examplesof thisformula and itsvariants foundin the
cantigasdeamigo,25 occurinrelative clauses(adjectival)
modifying theamigo.

This content downloaded from 150.131.192.151 on Wed, 24 Feb 2016 14:28:54 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
8 MARTHA E. SCHAFFER

refersto theamigowith
Oftenthemother,in dialoguewithherdaughter,
thisexpression:
filha oque queredes ben (ccclxxvi)
pois vós, filha queredesmuigranben (di)
ai, filha o que vos ben queria (ccxiii)

The woman frequently s love forher,usingthe core

singsof the amigo*
formula:
amigas, o que mi quer ben (cccxvi)
a quen mi quer ben (cccvi)
meu amigo, que mi ben quer (d)
o que mi granben quer (cclxxxiii)
que mi granben quer (cclxxviii)
o meu amigo, que mi granben quer (ccvii)
pois m' el tan granben quer (cxxx)
ca tan granben mi quer (cccxvii)

Althoughthemodificationsand expansionsof thisformulaare numerous,

a synonym
is mostoftenthatofan epithet,
itsfunction ofamigo.
the
Thereis anotherformulawhichis used to referto and characterize
as
amigo 'my lover, and
mylight, my sweetheart':
ai meu amigo e meu lum' e meu ben (ccxxxii, cccxv)
por meu amigo e meu lum' e meu ben (cxi, ccccxxxi)
falademig'ai meulum' e meu ben (ccliv)
o meu amigo e meu lum' e meu ben (cccclxi)
ai meu amigo e lum destesolhos (ccccxiv)
amigo e meuben (xxxiv)
ata que veo meu lum' e meu ben (cccxciii)

Thisformula, althoughitis usedwithextremeregularity, is verydifferentin

formand tonefromtheotherexpressions;itis also foundfrequently in the
cantigasde amor. The parallelconstructions {meuamigo- meu lum'-
meuben)intensify themeaningto a levelwhichis uncommoninthecantigas
deamigo.Itis noteworthy, however,thatthisformula occupiesan entireline
inmostcases,thusfulfilling a traditionally
importantfunction ofa formula.
The sorrowand griefof love are expressedin severalways.The pain to
which the woman refersis the simplepain of love itself,of love not
reciprocated,or itis theresultofseparation.One formulasystem dealswith
of the pain suffered
the effects by the amigo who is coitado, 'miserable;
distressed':
que é por mi mui coitado (du)
ca meu amigo é por mi coitado (cccclxxxv)
ele é por mi tan coitadod'amor (cclxxviii)
poisei é por mi mui coitado (cccclxxx)
quéé coitado por mi (xcviii)

This content downloaded from 150.131.192.151 on Wed, 24 Feb 2016 14:28:54 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 THE GALICIAN-PORTUGUESE LYRIC AND THE KHAR] AS 9
Variantsreferto thepainwhichthewomanendures:
eu sereiporel coitada (cccclxxx)
com' estoud'amor coitada (ce)
e fico mui poren
coitada (cccxxiv)
The formulais modified oftheverbviver'to live',which
bythesubstitution
emphasizestheeverlasting
effects continuation
oflove,implying intime:
■
pois eu vivo coitada (cclxix)
e porei vivo coitada (cccclxxxiii)
e por en vivo coitada (xlvii)
comooj' eu vivo coitada (cxxi)
ca viv' oj' eu tan coitada (cccclvii)
viv' eu coitada (ccccxlix)
viverei mui coitada (cxxxi)

The verbandarinthesense'to go on', 'to continueto be' is substituted:

e and' end' eu mui coitada (ccLXXii)
vejo e and' eu coitada (CLXv)
d' andar por mi coitado meu amigo (ccccxxxvii)
andar por mi mui coitado (cccclxxx)

Although theverbchoraris foundinvariantsofthisformulasystem,ithas a

muchmoreprominent rolein anotherexpressionof grief,'I cryfrommy
eyes':15
e chorarei dos olhos meus (cccLXVii)
choreimadre, dos olhos meus (clxxiii)
fezm' el chorarmadre, dos olhos meus (clxxxvii)
chorando dos olhos meus (cxlvi)
chorareimuito destes olhos meus (ccxxvi)
ca fuieu chorar destesmeus olhos (clxxii)

In these cases, the woman or the amigo cries. There are examplesof
pleonasm,however,inwhichtheeyesthemselves arethesubjectoftheverb,
forexample:
choraram estesmeus olhos (cccLXXix)

Whereasthelatterformulasand theirvariantsexpressthepains of love

somewhatpassively,anotherdeals withsuch a consequenceof love in a
morevigorous,aggressivemanner.Thisformulaoftenservesas an introduc-
tionto another,moreimportant
themewhichis thecauseofthecomplaint.
The womanlamentshermother'sover-pro tectiveness:
demiamadreeigram
queixume
por que nos anda guardando (ccLXXXViii)

15A
Spanishequivalentofthisformulais familiarto readersoftheCantarde Mío Cid: llorandode
los ojos.

This content downloaded from 150.131.192.151 on Wed, 24 Feb 2016 14:28:54 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
IO MARTHA E. SCHAFFER
The motheralso has occasionto protesttheloverelationship:
de vós e d'el, filhaei queixume(lviii)

The womansuspectsthatherloveris dissatisfied

withher:
Amigo,queixumeavedes
de mi,que non falovosco (cxiii)

Inonecantiga,shefearsthatherloverwillleavebecauseofhiscomplaining:
Se eu a meu amigo dissesse
quant'eu já por el quisera fazer
üa vez, quando m'el veo ver,
des que end'el verdadesoubesse,
non averiaqueixumede mi,
com'oj'el á, nens'iria d'aqui. (clix)

Anotherformulaicsystemdealswitha commonthemeoflovepoetry:death.
The basic notionis thatone or more aspectsof love cause death. The
formulaicexpressioncan be simple,'I dieoflove':
morrerei d'amores (ccclxxi)
opor que eu moiro d'amor (ccccxxix)
porque moiro d'amor (cxxxiii)
louçana d'amores moir'eu (ccccxc)

bythewoman'sexclamationtohermotheror to a
Italso appearsintensified
friend:
ai madre moiro d'amor (xvii)
madre moiro d'amor que mi deu meuamigo (xviii)
ca moir'eu,madre, por meu amigo (cccclxxxiv)
e or', amiga, moiro por saber (cem)

The mostimportant aspectofthisformulaand itsvariantsis theirrelatively

highfrequency of use withinthe refrain.Of the twenty-two examples,
twenty-seven per cent are foundin therefrain.In threeof thesecases,the
singlelineofformulaic expressionis theentirerefrain.16
Certainly conceptof deathas a consequenceof love is commonin
the
medievallove poetry;it is a naturalemotionalresponseto thefrustration
and anxietyoflove,to theintensityoffeeling.Indeed,thisphenomenon was
nottheinventionof a poet,ratherit is a spontaneoushumanreflex.One
mustremember, however,thatin thesecircumstances thissimple,sincere
humanresponsehas been stylizedby the poet's art and the audience's
associations.Theseformulaic variantsare notusedloosely;theyexpressin
veryspecificterms one ofthe majorthemesofthislovelyric.

16The below,pp. 11-12.

importanceof refrainpositionis discussedfurther

This content downloaded from 150.131.192.151 on Wed, 24 Feb 2016 14:28:54 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 THE GALICIAN-PORTUGUESE LYRIC AND THE KHARJAS II
The formulasque fareiand que será de mi, althoughtheyoccur less
frequently,are as significantas the declarationof death,moirod'amor.
Theyare entreaties,pleas, often and they
directedto no one in particular,
reflect
thelimitsof thefrustration and anguishof love: 'WhatshallI do?',
'Whatwillbecomeofme?'.
que farei (CCLX)
mas que farei (lxii)
mas que farei eui (lxv)
que lhis farei (ccclxxxv)
maiseu que farei (cclxxvi)
e que farei eu,louçãa (exil)
que lhe faria (ccclxiv)
que farei velida (ccccxiv)
que farei agor',amigo (lxi)
que será demi (liv)
e que será demi (ccxliii)
que será demi agora (n)
e de min que será (xxvii)
nonseide min que seja (xliv)
In mostcases theseformulasare used aftera themeor themeshave been
developed,to emphasizedespair and sorrow. The formulaque farei,
althoughit is used threetimesin refrains(whereasque será de mi is not
foundinthisposition),occurslessoftenin line-final
position.
Incontrasttothevariety offormulaswhichexpressthenegativeaspectsof
love,thereare onlya fewformulasystemswhichexpresslove themesin
positiveterms.One is basedon andarleda,'to go abouthappy,content':
desoi,mais andarei leda (lxiii)
e and'end'eumui leda (cccLVi)
eporaquest ando leda (cxvm)
muileda irei amigo (cccclix)
destavez leda serei (ccccxcix)
logoeu muileda serei (ccccxxvi)
perboa fé,
madre, leda and'eu (lxxvii)
Anotherformulasystem whichexpressesthejoysoflove,althoughsmall,is
noteworthy 17
becauseofitsexclusiveuse inrefrains:
amor ei (ccccxcvi)
ond'eu amores ei (ccxxxv)
ai madre, os seus amores ei (lxvi)
A systemsimilarinmeaningand function
refers to thewomanor theamigo
as
simply going aboutor beingnamorado 'in love':

17Fora discussionofthisexpression
(or formula)as itappearsinthevillancicoand othertraditional
formsofpoetry,see note 32 below.

This content downloaded from 150.131.192.151 on Wed, 24 Feb 2016 14:28:54 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
12 MARTHA E. SCHAFFER
e ando des i namorada (ccclxxiv)
el que andava namorado (ccxxxiv)
ca andava namorado (lxxiv)
e vou namorada (ccccxciv)
vou' m' eu namorada (cccxlix)

The use of formulaicexpressionsin therefrainpositionmayindicatea

close associationwithpopular traditions.In an oral tradition,a refrain
servesto refresh thelistener's memoryand perhapsto encourageparticipa-
tion; itcan separatesections ofa songand allowfora regularalternation of
parts. The linesrepeated in the refrainbecome etched in the mind of the
listenermuchmoreso thana lineor linesheardonlyonce. The linesof a
refrainin particularcan call to mindthe largerealityof thewhole from
whichit is extracted.In manytypesof oral poetry,particularly in songs
which accompany dances, the refrainofteninvolvesall participants,
whereasindividualstrophesare sung by a reducednumberof them.An
expressioncontainedin therefrain ofa popularsongis in a strongposition
to be recalledand adaptedto anothertypeof composition(or simplyto
anothersituation),sinceitssuggestive poweris great.It is notunlikely that
this expressionwould be used in the same positiononce it had been
removed,and would performthe same function, therebyreinforcing the
associationoftheoriginaland learned(ormerelysecondary)songs.
As in thecase of thefirstformulasystem(foi'so meuamigod'aqui and
variants),othersalso showcertaintechniquesofmodification whichreflect
what we mightcall learned processesof composition.Word order is
modified and elementswhichqualifybutdo notalterthesenseare
slightly
introduced; entreatiesor apostrophicaddressesareinserted.18 Nonetheless,
in all cases the core locutions(formulas)maintaintheirintegrity and
simplicity ofexpression:each servesto identifyone theme,one emotion.
An overwhelming majorityof the variantsor formulaicexpressions
occupytherhyme position.In manycasestheformulainitsmostbasicform
fillstheentireline.Oftenpronouns,adverbs,or supplications to one ofthe
woman's various confidantsare insertedmid-formula. In addition,the
formulais frequently alteredbysubordination withconjunctions. It is also
common,however,for the orderof certainkey words to be reversed,
particularly inthoseformulas whicharebasedon a verbaccompaniedbyan
adjective(pastparticipialor pure)or an adverb.19

18
Althoughthemother,friends,sisters,and amigo are stockcharactersin thecantigasde amigo,
and in spite of the fact that appeals directedspecificallyto these characters(or by themto the
woman) contributeto the sincere,emotional, and popular flavourof the cantigas, there are
numerousexampleswheretheseformsofaddressrepresent onlytheexigenciesofversecomposition,
and shouldnotnecessarilybe considereda reflection of a thematicformula.
19See above thevariationsof que e
por mi mutcoitado,que andalvwo mutcoitado,que anda mut
triste,quererbemetc.,pp. 8-9.

This content downloaded from 150.131.192.151 on Wed, 24 Feb 2016 14:28:54 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 THE GALICIAN-PORTUGUESE LYRIC AND THE KHARJAS 13
Thereis a smallgroupof formulaswhichappearfrequently but,unlike
thosementioned above,do notservetoidentify themeof
orsuggesta specific
love.20Rather,it seems that theyare used strictlyfor the purpose of
completinga linewhichdoes notcontribute
to thethematic development of
thecantiga.
One suchformulais benvo-lodigoand itsvariants:
benvo-lo digo (excviii,ccxn,ccxxxvm,xcv,etc.)
e benvo-lo digo (ccclxxii,ccclxxix,cccclxii, etc.)
benvos digo (lxxxiii,cclv, li, ccccxxxvii)
e benvos digo (ccccxl, dx,ccccxxxix,xc)
que benvos digü'eü (cccxvii)
ca benvos digu'eu (e)
ca vos digo (xiv)
ca vedesque vos digo (cccLXiii)
vede-loque vos digo (exc)
This formulaprovidesa rhymewithamigo and thusoffersan important
optionto the poet. Additionally, it servesto emphasizethe themebeing
expressed.
Similarin somerespectsis theshortinterjection perboa fé.Thisexpress-
ion occursat least fiftytimesin line-finalpositionrhyming almostexclu-
sivelywiththeverbformé. Becausethisformulais short,it can be fitted
easilyintoa line,and on at leastfifteenoccasionsitis usedto begina line.It
appearsmorethanfifty percentofthetimein a lineoftensyllables.21
Anotherof the formulasused to completea line does not introducea
theme,ratherit refersto a themealreadyexpressed:thelover'sabsenceor
thepainoflove.Bothaffirmative and negativevariantsareused('sinceI saw
him','sincehe saw me'):
des que o vir (ccxv, ccccxxix, lxxxix)
des que o non vir (ceexx, cccclxix, ccccxxiii)
des que o vi (ccxlvi)
des que me viu (xcm, ccccxlv)
20Amongtheseformulas certain whichservetointroduce
expressions ofthevarioussub-
cantigas
groupscanbeincluded.Forexamplethecantigas deromaria refer
frequently tothewomanfazendo
oraçon:
fui eu fremosa fazeroraçon (clxxiv)
u fora fazeroraçon (ccccxxx)
iré oj'eu fazeroraçon (cccclxxxiv)
candeasqueimariscommon
Similarly, inthesecantigas-.
iré alá mias candeasqueimar (cccclxxxiv)
u fora candeasqueimar (ccccxxx)
Thebarcarolasalsohaveuniqueexpressions:
e vej' euvir as barcas (cccxcvii)
e vej' eu as barcaspelomarviir (cccxcvii)
venha nas barcaspolorio (ccclxxxvi)
Althoughitis probablethattheseexpressionshavetheirorigininpopulartraditions,morethan
themes
representing ormotifs they tendtoidentify
thecantigawithitssub-group.
21Although theten-syllable
lineis commoninthecantigade amigo,itis,nonetheless,a longline
whichwouldfrequentlyaccommodate orrequireextrasyllables.

This content downloaded from 150.131.192.151 on Wed, 24 Feb 2016 14:28:54 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
14 MARTHA E. SCHAFFER

Certaincommonexpressionswhichsuggestreligiousinspiration are par

Deus, se Deus quiser,andse mevalhaDeus.22Although theseformulas were
all currentin Portuguese,theiruse here is not simplycolloquial.23As
explainedby the Lord and Parrytheory,a singerneed only repeatan
expressionhimselfin his own songs forit to become formulaicin the
technicalsense.24But, more importantly, in the case of the cantigasde
amigo,thepoetsrelyon theseexpressionsinparticular, to theexclusionof
otherstowhichtheyalso haverecourse, whenmetric requirements demand.
The cantigapoetsdid notlimitthemselves to a singlelinelength,and in the
compositionof linesrangingfromsix to twelvesyllablesshortformulas,
such as could stretcha line withoutforcingthematicdevelopment, were
usefultools.

The Romance kharjascontainmanythematicelementswhichcan be

comparedto thepopularfeatures ofthecantigasde amigo,as thelatterhave
beententatively and partiallyoutlinedabove. In somecases thereare also
parallels.A themeexpressedbymeansofthesameformulain
closelinguistic
boththekharjasand thecantigasde amigosupportstheargument infavour
of thecommonbackgroundof theexpressions.However,considering the
important differences
between the two of
types poetry (culturalorientation,
timeof composition, structure,technique,language,and literary function)
muchmoresupportis desirable.On the otherhand,the differences just
mentioned maketheparallelsand sharedfeatures morenoteworthy.
Itis difficult
to characterizelegitimately theuseofsupplication (ai,madre,
mìaamiga,etc.)as formulaic, yetit is a devicecommon enough thepoetic
in
types to warrant discussion; maynot,however, possibleto classifyits
it be
function precisely.
Returning fora momenttothecantigasde amigo,we findthatinstances of
thewomanaddressingherlover,mother,friend, or sisteroccurin at least
seventy-fiveper centof thecantigas,and in theseit is foundmostoftenin
apostrophe, inmid-line.The supplication maybe repeatedwithina cantiga,
eitherto thesameor to a differentperson.Mostoften,thewomanaddresses
a femalefriendor hersister(approximately 145 cantigas).It is also very
commonforthewomanto speakto theamigo(118 cantigas).The woman
appealsto hermotherlessoften(inapproximately 86 poems).Thereare 48

22Itisperhapsworthnoting formulas
herethattheseparticular arefoundinallcantigas
deamigo,
andnotto anygreater degreeinthecantigas
de amigoromaria, maycontain
which,bydefinition,
concretereferencestoreligion.
23We do ofcourseneedto bearin mindthatthereare commonto Romance
expressions
and thatthereis a dangerof confusing many
thesewithelementsof a commonoral lyric
languages,
tradition.
24AlbertB. Lord,TheSinger ofTales(M.A.dissertation,
Cambridge:publishedNewYork,i960;
reprinted1973),p. 43.

This content downloaded from 150.131.192.151 on Wed, 24 Feb 2016 14:28:54 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 THE GALICIAN-PORTUGUESE LYRIC AND THE KHARJAS 15

examplesofdialogue,mostoftenbetweenthewomanand hermother.It is
commonforthe entreatyto be intensified by the use of the interjectory
particleai, or thenamemaybe combinedwitha verb,suchas dizeror ir(in
approximately 65 cantigas).Inmostofthecantigaswiththistypeofaddress,
thepoetfirst introduces a traditionaltheme,andthenusesa personalappeal
to introduce a character, to heighten emption, or simplyto fillouta line.
The Romancekharjasuse addressand supplication also. In theseshorter
compositions, however, the function of suchexclamations and entreatiesis
intensifiedalmostto thepointwherethewoman'spleas can be considered
thematic. Approximately twothirdsofthekharjascontainaddress,a figure
slightlylower than the corresponding oneforthecantigasde amigo.Inmany
cases, the woman addresses her lover,callinghimhabtbt,sidt,evenfãtin
'seducer'.More oftenthemotheris addressed/The womanalso directsher
complaints to God: allãh, rãbb. As in thecantigas amigo,an interjection
de
may form part ofthe address: jã-stdt,
yã-mammã, yã-llãh.Alsosimilartothe
de
cantigas amigo is theform of address accompaniedbyan imperative:25
¡Fên'indï,habïbï! (xxxii)
¡Garë-më, yãmamma!(xxxiv)
The techniqueofsupplication or addressand themotivation foritsuse in
thekharjasare perhapsclearerthanthosewhichinfluenced theGalician-
Portuguese poets.The Romancekharjas,becauseoftheobviouslimitations
oftheirlength,mustincorporate elementswhichare easily,and inevitably,
associatedwiththepopulartraditiontheyattemptto mirror.It is, appa-
rently,
necessary tointroduce thosestockcharacters whichshowthewoman
in herday-to-day relationshipswith thoseshe loves.This is accomplished
withthevariousappealsto hermother, thelover,etc.Whereasa perusalof
the cantigasde amigo shows the clear predominanceof the themeof
separation,the examinationof the kharjasrevealsrepeatedentreaties. A
morphology of the kharja would have to include the woman speaking
to hermotheror herlover.It is notunlikely
directly thatthisis an essential
characteristic
ofthepopulartradition whichis easilyseeninthekharjasbut
whose purpose is obscuredin the cantigasde amigo by other,more
features
distinctive, whichsurfacethere.
The firstformulaofthecantigasde amigodiscussedabovedealswiththe
absenceofthelover(fois*o meuamigod'aqui). Oftenin thecantigasthis
formulais compoundedwithan additionalexpression:

25See
cantigas cclxvii, ccxlviii, cclxiv, xxxviii, ccclxvi, ccxvii, cccxlviii, ccclxxvi,
cccclxviii,cccclviii,cccclii.

This content downloaded from 150.131.192.151 on Wed, 24 Feb 2016 14:28:54 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
l6 MARTHAE. SCHAFFER
Foi-s'o namorado
madre,e nono vejo. (ccccxlix)
Foi'sedaquie nonfaloumigo (ccvi)
Foi-s'undia meuamigod'aqui
e nonmeviu (lxxxi)
In at least ten othercases the amigo leftwithoutseeingthewoman.26
One kharja provides a verysimilarexpression:
Yã mamma, me-w1-habïbe
bais'e no mástornarãde.
Gãrkéfaréyo, yãmamma:
¿noùnbezyèllo lésarãde? (xxia/b)
The woman complains to her motherthatherlover (me-w1-habïbe)is going
away. The ancillaryconsiderationin the kharja is thathe will not return.As
in the cantigas de amigo, the final meetingof the lovers before partingis
highlighted.The expressionsin thiskharja are nearlyidenticalto thoseof the
cantigas.21 Other kharjas express a similar theme, but in very different
terms:
No sê kêdóno mekyéred garíre
kelmã
no zey[kon]seno[ma]sütodormire,
mamma. (xv)
Bénidla pasqaH,ay,aún*sinelle,
lacrandoméwqorazün*porelle. (xii)
Gãrkómlebáredã l-gáibaH:¡Nõntanto!
¡Yä weliyosde1'äsiqa,sinontu! (li)
¡Amãnu. yã habïbï!
al-wahsmeno faras.
Ben.bêla mãbokëlla:
io se ketenoìras. (xxm)

26I
quote fromEmilio García Gómez, Las ¡archas romancesde la serieárabe en su marco,second
edition(Barcelona,1975), and thenumbersare thoseof his edition.I am aware of thespeculative
-
natureof manyof Garcia Gomez's readings,and of the difficulties pointedout especiallyby
RichardHitchcock- affecting thetranscription ofkharjasfoundin ArabicmuwassahasAuse these
readingsof thekharjasonlyforpurposesof illustration, and itwould be possibleto providesimilar
usingonlythekharjasin Hebrew script,and quotingfrommorecautiouseditors(S. M.
illustrations
Stern,Ï.M. Sola-Sole).
27One of theRomance kharjasfromtheHebrew muwassahasalso parallelstheexpressionof this
theme:
Báy-seméw qorazon de mïb.
¡Yã Rabb, si se më tõrnarãd!
¡Tan mal me doled li-1-habïb!
Enfermoyed: ¿kuándsanarád? (n. 9)

This content downloaded from 150.131.192.151 on Wed, 24 Feb 2016 14:28:54 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 THE GALICIAN-PORTUGUESE LYRIC AND THE KHARJAS ÏJ
Bokélla 'al-'iqdi,
dolze kom as-suhdi
ben,bézame
habïbï,yï eindï.
Adünam' amande
ke huyóme. (xxxv)
Sepas, yã méwamore:
kédo-me[yõ sin]dormire.
¡Imsiyã, msi,habïbï!
non seylebártü huyrè. (xxxvi)
¿Ke fareyó'o ke séradde mïbe?
¡habïbï,
non te tolgasde mïbe! (xxxviii)

One of thethemesof pain and suffering caused bylove is also foundin a

similarto thecantigas,butdoes notemploythe
It is conceptually
kharja.28
keywordcoitado:
me-w1-habïb
enfermo deméw' amar. (viu)
to quererbemas it is foundin thecantigasde amigois not
The reference
foundin the kharjas.29However,one kharjadoes containthiscore ex-
whichappearsas bonamar:
pression,
¡Ya qorazonï ke kéresbon' amar!
a liyorãr
laita [-nï'obiese] weliyosde mãr. (xxix)

28
Althoughthe formulaqueixumes ei is not expressed in the Romance kharjas, a Castilian
villancicoofferstheappropriatecombinationofelements,ifnota parallelformula:A quien contaré
yo mis quexas (165). Referencesto villancicos are based on Antonio Sánchez Romeralo, El
villancico:estudiossobre la líricapopular en los siglosXV and XVI (Madrid, 1969). The themeof
pain and sufferingin certainvillancicosis expressedbymeansofthesameformulaas in thecantigas
de amigo:
Mi maridoanda cuitado (190)
Tristede mi,cuitada (547)
29Severalvillancicoscontainthe
expressionbienquerer:
¡Mal haya la falda
del mi sombrero,
que me quita la vista
de quien bienquiero! ( 32 1)
¡Fuego de Dios en el bienquerer! (586)
El amorque me bienquiere
agora viene. (31)
Anotherexpressionwithquererrefersto theamigo,buthereitis más querer:
Amigoel que yo más quería
venidal alba ael día. (21)
hállemeen los brazos
del que más quería, (67)

This content downloaded from 150.131.192.151 on Wed, 24 Feb 2016 14:28:54 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
l8 MARTHA E. SCHAFFER

The sufferings of love whichlead to death and desperationare well-

represented in the Romancekharjas.30Thereare entreatiesmade to the
mother, to Allah,and combinations ofexpressions whichareequivalentto
que fareiand que seráde mi.Reference is madeto deathas a resultoflove:
¿Borketu[më]qéres, matare?
yã-llãh (v)
Lesssimilarto thecantigasis thisexpression:
Lãkinna,si bõno 'es amadõrê,
fa-mã
nõn. méwmorire,
obridará-se-lê,
ya-'mma (xxxiii)

The desperationimpliedbythecantigade amigoformulasque fareiand

inthekharjas:
que seráde mihas manycorrespondences
Gãr ké faréyo,yã mamma: (xxi a/b)
¿Ké farey,yã 'ummï? (vi)
Mammà, gar ke faráy. (xxxi)

30One
kharjafroma Hebrew muwassaha shows thistheme:
Gãr ké faréyo.
Est' al-habïbespero:
pôr êí morreyo. (n. 15)
In an Old Frenchpastourelle(referencesto theeditionbyKarl Bartsche,AltfranzösischeRomanzen
undPastourellen(Leipzig,1870) ; romannumeralsdesignatesectionsofthebook) we find,similarto
theGalician-Portuguesedyamoresmoir'eu:
d'amor morrai (46 m)
Somewhatparallelto Galician-Portuguese morrereid*amoresis Old French:
je moraides jolis malz (34 1)
Two otherkharjasfromHebrew muwassahas do not referspecifically to death,but ratherto the
impossibilityoflife:
Garid bos, ay yermanëllas,
kóm kontenër-hé méw male.
Sïn al-habïbnon bibreyo:
¿ad ob l'iréy demandare? (n.4)
¡Yã Rabb ! ¿Kómo bibreyo
kon éste'al-jallãq?
j Yã man qabl anyussalim
yuhaddidbi-1-nrãq! (n.6)

This content downloaded from 150.131.192.151 on Wed, 24 Feb 2016 14:28:54 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 THE GALICIAN-PORTUGUESE LYRIC AND THE KHARJAS 19
Bi-llãh,¿kéfarey? (xxvii)
¿Ké fareyó'o kë séradde mïbe? (xxxviii)31

Withthisexpression, thewomanofthecantigasmostfrequently addresses

herlover,butat timeshermother.Additionally, thelamentis oftenuttered
to no one in particular.In thekharja,themotheris mostoftenaddressed;
exclamations also introduceAllah.
Many aspects or themes of in thecantigasde amigoare
love mentioned
notexpressedin theextantkharjas.Thereare in thecantigas,forexample,
expressionssuchas amoresei,32a formulaimportant foritsexclusiveusein

31SeealsotheRomancekharjafrom a Hebrewmuwassaha:
;Ké fare,mammah?
Me-u1-habïb est'ad yana. (n.14)
andtheOld French:
dex, que ferai? (391)
qu'en ferai? (53-b1)
sire dex, ke ferai? (35 m)
ethuche ke ferai? (12 11)
savesvous ke je ferai? (671)
etdisoit, deus, ke ferai? (10 11)
ai milasse, que ferai? (35 m)
lass, ke ferai? (711)
We findisolatedparallelexpressions whichhavebeenincorporated intomedievalItalianlove
poetry,forexampleinRinaldod'Aquino's'Lamento perla partenza whichhasmany
delcrociato',
elementsincommon withtheGalician-Portuguese barcarolas:
comodeg'io fare
Inthesonnet byRusticodiFilippo,'Ineluttabile dominio diamore':
Amor,merzè, ch'iononso ch'iomifaccio.
thedialogued
Similarly, 'Dolceconinzamento' ofGiacomoda Lentini contains:
orio chedeggiofare?
Inmedieval Catalanwefind, intheanonymous 'No puedormir soleta,no,therefrain:
Que emfare,lassa?
PereSerafi,
in'Si emlievidebonmari',givestherefrain:
Ai,llaseta,quèfare
niquédiré?
32Thisexpressionisextremely common inthevillancicos:
Dicena miquelosamoreshe. (126)
Mal airadosvienen
misamorese. (463)
Orillicasdelrio,misamorese (302)
Que nomelosamenadie
a losmisamorese; (336)
- Pastorcico amigo,
quehabedes,que?
- A la fé,señora,
vuestros amoreshe. (2.65)
Fora thorough discussion oftheorieswhichattempt toaccountfortheseemingly bizarre
amorese,
see AntonioSánchezRomeralo,'mis amorese',in Studiahispánicain honoremR. Lapesa,11
(Madrid,1974),pp.577-91.

This content downloaded from 150.131.192.151 on Wed, 24 Feb 2016 14:28:54 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
2O MARTHA E. SCHAFFER

refrains,and leda and'eu. Obviously,certainotherformulasdescribed

ofthe
abovewouldnothavea place in thereducedand conciseexpressions
kharjas,suchas thoseformulaswhichareusedto filloutlines.33

It is hopedthatthosefamiliarwiththeGalician-Portuguese cantigasde
amigo will agree,on the basis of the small sampling of formula systems
presented above, thatthis technique for the dissection of the poems does not
distortor alterin anysubstantial way the traditional description or charac-
terizationof the cantigasde amigo. Indeed,the idiosyncratic featuresto
whichscholarshave consistently referred during thelast century appearto
have been highlighted, even more sharplydelimited,by thismethodof
analysis.Ifitis truethatvestigesofan oral lyrictradition can be uncovered
using these methods, and proceeding with the caution thata small but
inevitable percentage of learned material remains even after carefulsieving,
itcan safelybe said thattheremnants ofthepopulartradition ofwomen's
poetry which the
inspired cantigapoets are among our formula systems.
This is not to say, however,thatall elementsof thispopularlyricwere
absorbedintothecantigasde amigo.
A comparisonof formulaic expressions in thecantigasde amigoand the
Romancekharjasrevealsimportant pointsof contactand specificareas of
divergence, not theleastof which stem fromthedifferent learnedtraditions
with which each was closely associated. The furtherinclusionin the
discussionof Castilianvillancicosand Old Frenchpastourellescould not
confirm theexactnatureof therelationships; butit would giveadditional
support to the contention thatthe formula systemsof thecantigasas they
havebeenpresentedare popularin origin.The evidencecertainly suggests
thatonce analyseshave beenmade whichwillaccuratelydefinetheseand
otherlyrictraditions, both in isolationand in theirrelationships to each
other, a clearer will
picture emerge of the manner in which thethreads ofthe
underlying popularlyric traditionwere woven.
Brown University

Editorial Note: This article, originallywrittenin 1980, was read in a revised form at the
InternationalCourtlyLiteratureSocietyCongress,August1986. It has been editoriallyrevisedby
ProfessorAlan Deyermondto fitthecontextofPortugueseStudies,butDr Schaffer has done further
workon thissubject,whichcould not be incorporatedintothetextat proofstage.The articledoes
not,therefore,necessarilyrepresentin detailhercurrentpositionon all of theissuesraised.
33See
p. 13 above.There are correspondencesto the cantiga formulaben vo-lo-digo in the
villancicos:
No me firais,madre;
yo os lo diré: (141)
Old Frenchpastourellesprovide:
bienle vos di (79 11)
je le vos dirai (7 11)
je lou vos di (26 1)

This content downloaded from 150.131.192.151 on Wed, 24 Feb 2016 14:28:54 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions