The marine environment 7

0.8 Oscillatory Solitary wave

wave Hw /d  0.479
0.6 Lw /d  16.4 Lw /d  infinite

0.4
w /Hw

0.2

0
Cnoidal
0.2 wave

0.4
Hw /d  0.479 Lw /d  16.4
0.6
8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8
x/d ()

Figure 1.7 Comparison of different wave profiles.

0.7 gravity acceleration acts on the mass of the water

particles and tries to smooth the water surface. In
the most simplified fashion, we only look at regular
0.6 sinusoidal waves in a two-dimensional space for
unidirectional waves in deep water. Figure 1.9 shows a
regular sinusoidal wave with the orbital wave motion.
0.5

y
0.4 The basic wave Derived basic wave parameters are
parameters are
wave height Hw wave steepness Hw /Lw
0.3 wave length Lw circular wave frequency ω
wave period Tw wave number k
wave celerity (phase velocity) c
xt
0.2

Figure 1.8 Breaking wave.

For deep water waves, this results in a maximum wave
steepness of 0.142 or 1/7. In other words, a wave cannot
be higher than 1/7 of the wave length. When the wave
reaches a steepness of 1/7, the wave breaks. Figure 1.8
shows the profile of a breaking wave as calculated by
Longuet-Higgins and Cokelet (1976).
1.5 The sinusoidal wave
1.5.1 Basic relationships to describe regular
waves in deep water
The wave pattern we observe at the water surface results
from orbital motions of water particles generated by
wind energy transfer. We speak of gravity waves, as
The orbital angle is ε  kx  ωt. Circular frequency ω
is defined as the angular velocity of the orbital motion
of the water particles in the wave. This is the ratio of the
angle of one cycle, 2π, to the time period Tw needed:
2π
ω (rad/s) (1.11)
Tw
The inverse of the period is the wave frequency fw:
1 ω
fw   (1.12)
Tw 2π
The dimension of the frequency fw is in Hz (Heinrich
Hertz, 1857–1894, who discovered the electro-
magnetic waves). In fact, 1 Hz is equal to 1/s. In
comparison, the dimension of ω is rad/s, which also
gives 1/s. The difference in the numerical value is the

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 8 Maritime engineering reference book

Crest 0.5 Lw Trough

Relative ordinate ε 0.5 Tw

0.5
/Hw ()
0 ω Hw

0.5
0.25 0 0.25 0.5 0.75
t/Tw, x/Lw ()

Figure 1.9 Orbital motion, wave length and wave period.

factor 2π, so it is appropriate to make the distinction It should be pointed out, that there is a distinction
in using a different notation for fw and ω  2πfw. between the velocity c at which the wave crest
Accordingly, the wave number k is the ratio of 2π propagates, and the tangential velocity of the water
to the wave length Lw: particles vt due to the orbital motion. We speak of the
phase velocity c, also referred to as wave celerity, as
2π
k (rad/m) (1.13) against the orbital (tangential) wave velocity vt:
Lw
vt  0.5  H w  ω (1.21)
Celerity c is also called phase velocity. It is the
velocity of the wave contour propagating at the sea
surface: The orbital acceleration is:
Lw
c (1.14) at  vt  ω  0.5  H w  ω 2 (1.22)
Tw

Wave length is proportional to the wave period Table 1.2 gives numerical results for regular sinusoidal
squared. The derivation is based on assumptions of deep-water waves of different length, plotted in Figure
continuity and of conservation of energy using the 1.10. The wave height is chosen to a constant 2.50 m.
Bernoulli equation (Prandtl 1931, 1952):
g 2
Lw  Tw (1.15)
2π 1.5.2 Normal dispersion of a wave field
Longer waves have a larger celerity than shorter
By Equations (1.14) and (1.15), we find the wave celerity
waves (Equation 1.17). This results in a large scatter
as a function of the wave period or the wave length
of waves originating in the same storm field. The
g phenomenon is called normal dispersion of waves.
c  Tw (1.16)
By swell, we mean the longest waves generated in a
2π
storm. Due to the larger velocity of crest propagation
gLw compared with shorter waves, swell approaches areas
c (1.17) outside the originating wind field. Swell advances a
2π
longer distance in the same time than shorter waves.
Based on the above relationships, different formulae Although swell has smaller wave steepness than
can be derived, which contain basically the same the shorter waves, it can have considerable wave
information: height due to its large wave length.
The above formulae and values in Table 1.2
g demonstrate that longer waves have a larger wave
c (1.18)
period, increasing with the square root of the
ω
wavelength. In the next three equations, the constants
g are also approximated in the (metric) SI system with
c (1.19) g  9.81 m/s2:
k
ω2 2π Lw
k (1.20) Tw  ≅ 0.8 Lw (1.23)
g g

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 The marine environment 9

Table 1.2 Sinusoidal wave data.

Lw k ω c c fw Tw 100 Hw /Lw vt 100 vt /c at

m rad/m rad/s m/s kn Hz s % m/s % m/s2

15 0.419 2.03 4.8 2.5 0.323 3.1 16.67 2.53 52.3 5.14
25 0.251 1.57 6.2 3.2 0.250 4.0 10.00 1.96 31.4 3.08
50 0.126 1.11 8.8 4.5 0.177 5.7 5.00 1.39 15.7 1.54
100 0.063 0.79 12.5 6.4 0.125 8.0 2.50 0.98 7.9 0.77
150 0.042 0.64 15.3 7.9 0.102 9.8 1.67 0.80 5.2 0.51
200 0.031 0.56 17.7 9.1 0.088 11.3 1.25 0.69 3.9 0.39
250 0.025 0.50 19.8 10.2 0.079 12.7 1.00 0.62 3.1 0.31
300 0.021 0.45 21.6 11.1 0.072 13.9 0.83 0.57 2.6 0.26
350 0.018 0.42 23.4 12.0 0.067 15.0 0.71 0.52 2.2 0.22
400 0.016 0.39 25.0 12.8 0.062 16.0 0.63 0.49 2.0 0.19
450 0.014 0.37 26.5 13.6 0.059 17.0 0.56 0.46 1.7 0.17
500 0.013 0.351 27.9 14.4 0.056 17.9 0.50 0.44 1.6 0.15

30
100fw (Hz)
Hw  2.50 m
25
100k (m1)
20 c (m/s)
15 Tw (s)

10 100Hw /Lw %
10vt (m/s)
5
10at (m/s2)
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Lw (m)

Figure 1.10 Parameters of single sine wave versus wave length.

Longer waves have a smaller wave frequency: Table 1.3 Decay of orbital radius with distance from
surface.

g2π g 7.85 z/Lw 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1

ωw   ≅ r/(0.5Hw)  exp(kz) 1 0.21 0.04 0.009 0.002
k Lw Lw
g2π g 7.85
ωw   ≅ the surface, the orbital radius of the wave motion has
k Lw Lw been reduced to 4% of the radius at the surface.
ωw 1 g 1.25 The wave is progressing from left to right with
⇔ fw    ≅ (1.24)
2π Tw 2π Lw Lw celerity c. Water particles orbit clockwise with the
angular velocity ω. Clockwise is mathematically
negative. The angle ε of the orbital position is
1.5.3 Orbital motion of water particles in a wave mathematically positive, counter-clockwise, see also
Figure 1.9.
The orbital motion of the water particles has its The horizontal and vertical components of the
maximum at the water surface. With increasing orbital radius are
vertical distance from the surface, the orbital radius
r decreases exponentially. rx (z )  r (x ) sin ε (1.26)
rz (z )  r (z ) cos ε (1.27)
r (z )  0.5  H w  exp(kz ) for z
0 (1.25)
The wave ordinate ζ is equal to the vertical
component of the orbit at the surface, rz (z  0):
as shown in Table 1.3, Figure 1.11 and Figure 1.12.
At the water surface, the radius is equal to half the H L
ζ (x, t )  w cos ε with d  w (1.28)
wave height 0.5 HW. At half the wave length underneath 2 2

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