TOPI

C8:LOCOMOTI
ONANDSUPPORTI
NPLANTSANDANI
MALS
LOCOMOTI
ONANDSUPPORTI
NANI
MALS
Locomot
ioni
sthemov
ementoft
hewhol
eor
gani
sm f
rom onepl
acet
oanot
her
.
Mov
ementi
sthedi
spl
acementofpar
tofanor
gani
sm.
Impor tanceofLocomot i
oni nanimals
i. Toobt ainf oodf rom theenv ironment .
i
i. Toescapeandav oidpredat ors
i
i
i. Tof i
ndmat es
i
v. Toav oidcompet i
tionforr esour ceswi thothers.
v. Tocol onizenewar easandbr eedingsites.
Requi rement sf orlocomot i
on
i. Ener gy :Thi si ssuppl i
edbyr espir
ationwi thintheani malandi tsuseddur i
ng
musclecont r
action,hear tbeat ,
etc.
i
i. Theskel eton:Thi sist hemai nsuppor ti
ngf rameoft hebodyagai nstwhi
ch
musclescont ractt ogener atet hepr opulsiveforceforf orwardmov ement.Thi
s
provi
desaf ramewor kforat tachmentofmuscl es.
i
i
i. Medi um;agai nstwhi chaf orcei sexertedt ogeneratethepr opulsiv
ef orceoft
he
bodye. g.soi l,ai
r,orwat er.
i
v. Muscl es,thesear ef i
brouscont racti
let i
ssues,formov ementoft hebodyorpar t
ofthebody .i.e.Theymov epar tsoftheskel eton
THESKELETON:
Defini
ti
on: Itisast r
uctureinanani malthatpr ovi
desmechani calsupportforthe
body ,
protectionf orinternal organsandaf ramewor kforanchor i
ngt heorgans.
Ty
pesofskel
etons
Dependi
ngont
henat
ureandl
ocat
ion,
skel
etonsar
eof3t
ypes
i
) Endoskelet
on ii
)Exoskelet
on ii
i)Hy drostat
ic
skel
eton
a)Endoskel
eton:thi
sist hemainsuppor t
ingframeoft hebodylyi
ngi nternall
ytothe
att
achedmuscl es.It
’sfoundinsidethebodyandmuscl esareattachedt oit.It
’s
madeupoft hebonesandcar t
ilage(skel
etalelements)whicharei nternaltothe
muscleswhichmov epartsofthem.Thi siscommoni nvert
ebrates.e. g.rept
il
es,
bir
ds,mammal s,fi
sh,amphibi
ans.
I
mportanceofendoskel et
on
i. i
tprov idesmechani calsupporttot hebody
i
i. i
tprot ectsthedelicateor gansoft hebodyf rom bei
ngdamaged
i
i
i. i
tmai nt ai
nst heshapeoft hebody .
i
v. i
tbringsaboutmov ementoft hebody .Muscl escont
ractandpul
lthel
imbs
tobringaboutmov ement .
v. I
ttransmi tssoundi nt heear s,
throught heearossicl
es.
v
i. StoresCal cium andphosphat esandr eleasesthem int
obloodincaseof
 t
heirscar
cit
y
v
ii
. I
tisusedforfor
mat
ionofer
ythr
ocy
tesi
nthebonemar
rows.

Adv
ant
agesofendoskel
eton Di
sadv
ant
ages
Joi
ntedt
oal
l
owf
lexi
bil
i
ty Compl
exandcannoteasi
l
yfor
m
Doesnotl
i
mi tgr
owthofani
mal
sbecause Li
mi t
s changes in bodysi
ze due t
oit
s
i
tmadeofli
vi
ngcell
s ri
gidi
tyandhardness
veryri
gid and har
dt o pr
ovi
de enough
suppor
ttotheanimal

i
. Exoskel
eton:thisist hetough,rigi
doutermostcoveri
ngofthebodywithatt
ached
muscleslyi
nginternallyt
oit.I
t’smadeofchi ti
nandathinl
ayerofwaxwhichmakes
i
twaterproof.Iti
sf oundinarthropodse.g.i
nsect
sli
kecockr
oaches,
mil
li
pedes.

Adv
ant
ages Di
sadv
ant
ages
Joi
ntedt
oal
l
owsomef
lexi
bil
i
ty i
tli
mitsgrowt
hinani
mal
ssi
ncei
t’
stough
andri
gid
I
tpr
ovi
despr
otect
iont
odel
i
cat
eti
ssues i
tiseasi
l
ybr
oken
Pr
ovidesahardwaxycov
eri
ngt
owhi
ch
musclesar
eat
tached

i
i. Hydrostati
cskeleton:
Thisisaf l
uid-f
il
ledcav i
tywithi
nsoft-
bodi
edani malsagainstwhi
cht
hesurroundi
ng
ci
rcul
arandlongitudinalmusclescontr
act
,al
ternat
elytocausemovementoft
hebody .
Thisi
sfoundi ni
nv er
tebrat
ese.g.ear
thwor
ms, snai
ls,
slugs.
I
ti ssurrounded byant agoni
sticsetsofmuscles.Movement
occurswhent hecontr
actionofthemusclescompr
essest
hefl
uid
thatmakesupt hehydrostat
icskel
eton.
Hydrost
ati
cskelet
onisusedfort
ranspor
tat
ionandst
orageof
cer
tainmater
ial
softhebody.
Di
sadv
ant
ages Adv
ant
agesofhy
drost
ati
cskel
eton
i
ti sits easi
l
ylost when t
he body i
s I
tisf
lexi
ble
damaged
doesn’
t pr
ovi
de pr
otect
ion t
o del
i
cat
e I
tisi
ncompr
essi
ble
ti
ssues
i
tscont
inuoushencel
i
mit
ingi
ndependence I
ttr
ansmi
ts pr
essur
e equal
l
yin al
l
 ofmov
ement di
rect
ions

Mer
it
sofexoskel
etonov
erendoskel
eton
i
) I
tcanprotectallt
heinnerpar t
sunli
ket heendoskel
etonwhi
chcan’
tpr
otect
t
hemusclesandbl oodvessels.
i
i
) I
t’
sli
ght
ersoi toff
ersfewerburdenstotheorgani
sm.
Generalfuncti
onsoftheskelet
on
i
. Itprov idesaf ramewor kf ort hebody
wher et hei nternalbodyor gansar e
held and pr event ed f r
om cr ushi ng
i
nt oeachot her .
ii
. Itpr otect sthedel icatebodyor gans
e.g.t heskul lpr otect st hebr aini nner
earandpar tsofey e,t her i
bspr otect
the l ungs and hear t whi l
e t he
vertebr alcolumnpr otect sthespi nal
cord.
i
ii
. Itfaci l
itateslocomot i
onbypr oviding
areaswher emuscl escanbeat tached
tot hebodypar tsespeci al
lyatt he
j
oint.
i
v. The r ibcage f aci l
itates gaseous
exchange by adj ust i
ng t he v olume
andpr essureoft het hor aciccav ity
v. Itaidst ransmi ssi onofsoundi nt he
eari.e.t heearossi cles.
vi
. Product ionofbl oodcel lsint hebone
narrow.
v
ii
. Storageofcal cium andphosphor us
i
nt hebones.

St
ruct
ureoft
hemammal
ianskel
eton
Themammal i
anskeletonisanendoskeletonmai nl
ycomposedofboneandcar ti
l
age.
Boththeboneandcar t
ilagehaveahi ghproport
ionofaf l
uidmatr
ixorgroundsubstance
secret
edbyt helivi
ngcel l
s.Thebonef l
uidmat r
ixorgroundsubst
anceissecret
edby
Osteoblastcel
lswhilethecarti
lage(chondri
nmat ri
x)issecret
edbythechondroblast
cel
ls.Thebonesar ecomposedoft oughcollagenfi
bres,Calci
um andPhosphateswhich
makei tveryhard.Cart
ilageshoweverlacktheCalcium andPhosphateshence,
theyare
fl
exibl
e
Di
ff
erencesbet
weenboneandcar
ti
lage
Bone Car
ti
lage
 Hasahardsoli
dgr
oundsubst
ance/
har
d Has rel
ati
vel
y fl
exibl
e gr
ound
andi
nfl
exi
ble subst
ance/sof
tandf
lexi
ble
Cont
aincal
cium andphosphor
oussal
ts Lackscal
cium andphosphat
esal
ts
Longboneshav
emar
row Nomar
row
Cont
ainsbl
oodv
essel
sandner
ves Nobl
oodv
essel
sandner
ves
Bonecell
sarearrangedinci
rcularlayer
s Carti
lage cel
l
s (chondr obl
asts) are i
n
ar
oundasy st
em ofcanals/osteoblast
s si
ngle pair
s orf ours,scatt
ered inthe
ar
earrangedinconcentr
icl
ayers. ground subst
ance,ar r
anged i n si
ngl
es,
pair
s, r
owsorscat
tered
I
tisanacti
vet
issuewhi
chcanmake I
tcannotmakebl
oodcel
l
s
bl
oodcel
l
s
Hasgottwot ypesnamel
y:spongyand Hasthreetypesi
.e.hy
ali
ne,f
ibr
ousand
compactbone el
ast
iccart
il
age
Par
tsoft
heHumanskel
eton
Ther
ear
etwomai
npar
ts;
i. theappendi
cul
arskel
eton
ii
. theaxi
alskel
eton
Al
toget
her
,ther
eareabout200bonesi
nthehumanskel
eton.
Theappendi
cul
arskel
eton
Thi
sist
heskel
etonoft
hel
i
mbs(legsandar
ms)
I
tconsi
stsoft
he: i
)Li
mbs i
i
)Gi
rdl
es
Gi
rdl
es
Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofgi
rdl
eswhi
chi
ncl
ude.
i
i
) pect
oral
girdl
e
i
i
i) pel
vi
cgirdl
e
Pect
oralgi
rdl
e:-
Iti
smadeupoft
hescapul
aorshoul
derbone,cl
avi
cle/
col
l
arbonewhi
chi
slong,
gent
ly
curv
edbone.
Scapulabladeisbroadandflatt
enedtoprovi
deal ar
gesur
facef
ormuscl
eat
tachment
.
Inthemi ddl
eoft hebladethereisascapularidgeor
spineformuscleat t
achment.Ati t
santeri
orend,the
scapul
ahasadepr essioncall
edglenoi
dcav i
tywhich
art
icul
atesorconnectswitht
heheadofthehumer us.

Di
agr
am showi
ngascapul
a,cl
avi
cleandHumer
us
Pel
vi
cgi
rdl
e/hi
pgi
rdl
es;
-
I
t’
smadeupoft hreesmallbonesfusedt
oget
hert
oform onei
nnomi
nat
ebone/
pubi
c
bone.Thet
hreef
usedbonesincl
udeili
um,
pubi
cbone,
andischi
um.
Onbothsidesofthegir
dle,t
her
ear
esocketscal
l
edacet
abul
um,wher
etheheadoft
he
femuri
spl uggedandt woholes(
Obtur
atorfor
amen)wheret
hebloodvessel
sand
nerv
espasstothelegs.
Di
agr
am showi
ngt
hepel
vi
cgi
rdl
es

I
mpor
tanceofgi
rdl
es/
appendi
cul
arskel
eton
I
.Theypr
ovi
dear
igi
dconnect
ionbet
weent
heaxi
alskel
etonandt
hel
i
mbs
i
i
.Theypr
ovi
dest
abi
l
ityt
othebodybysepar
ati
ngt
hel
i
mbs
i
i
i.Theypr
ovi
desui
tabl
esur
facesf
ormuscl
eat
tachmentt
hatmov
ethel
i
mbs.
Limbs
Theli
mbinmammal sendsi
naf i
ve-
digi
tstr
uct
ureknownast
hepent
adact
yll
i
mb.Thi
s
car
ri
esoutmanyf
uncti
onsasshownbelow:
i
. provi
dingagr aspingstruct
uree.g.i
nmonkey
s
i
i
. fl
yinge.g.inbirds
i
i
i. walkinge.g.inman
i
v. Runninge. g.i
nhor ses
v
. Diggingthegr ounde.g.inmoles
i
.Upper /foreli
mbs:-
Thesear
ecomposedof
:
-
thel
ongboneoft
heupperar
m cal
l
edhumer
us
-
thef
orear
m bonesnamel
yul
naandr
adi
us
-
thewr
istbonescal
l
edcar
pal
s
-
thepal
m bonescal
l
edmet
acar
pal
s
-
thef
ingerbonecal
l
edphal
anges/
finger
s
Thepent
adact
yll
imb/(
pent
a–5)
Thisisal i
mb withfi
ve digi
ts modi
fi
ed t
o perf
orm dif
fer
entf
unct
ions.I
tisa
char
act
eri
sti
cofal
ll
andver
tebrat
esandit
sstr
uct
ureisshownbel
ow:
Due to ev ol
uti
on (change in env
ironmentand
organi
sms) ,in order to adapt,animal s hav
e
star
tedusingthepentadactyll
i
mbf orv ar
iousnew
purposes e.g.graspi
ng in monkeys,digging i
n
moles,fl
yi
ngi nbatsetc.

Thebonesoft
hehand
Thef
orear
miscomposedoful
na(
longerbone)andr
adi
us(
shor
terbone)
.
Thet
rochl
eaar
ti
cul
ateswi
tht
hesi
gmoi
dnot
choft
heul
na.
Di
agr
am showi
ngul
naandr
adi
us

Hind l
imbconsist
soft helongt
high
bone/f
emur
,ti
biaandf
ibula
TheFemurbonei scomposedofalongshaf
tandpr
ocessesknownast
hel
esserand
great
ert
rochant
erformuscl
eat
tachment
.
Char
act
eri
sti
csoff
emurbone.
-
ithasel
ongat
edshaf
t
-
ithasapr
omi
nentbal
l
-shapedhead
-
ithasagr
eat
ert
rochant
er
-
ithasagr
oov
ebet
weent
hecondy
les
-
Ithasl
essert
rochant
er
Adapt
ati
onsoft
hef
emurbone
-
Hassmoot
hendstoar
ti
culat
eeasi
l
ywi
thot
herbones
l
eadi
ngt
oeasymov
ement.
-Hasalongshafttoprov
ideal
argesur
facear
eaf
or
att
achmentofmuscl
es
-
Iti
sri
gid/har
dtopr
ovi
desuppor
t
Humer
us
Thehumer
usbone:
-thi
sisal
ongbonecomposedofal
ongshaf
t
Char
act
eri
sti
csofHumer
usbone Adapt
ati
onsofhumer
usbone
-
ithasf
lat
tenedant
eri
or/
headend -has an el ongat
ed shaf
tfor
attachmentofmuscles
-
ithasaballshapedheadwhi char
ti
culat
es
witht
hescapul
a -
hassmoot h endsto art
icul
ate
wit
hotherbones
-
ithasanel
ongatedshaft
-
iti
sri
gidtoprovi
desupport
-
ithas a greatertuberosi
tyi.
e.a rough
proj
ect
ionf
oratt
achmentofmuscles
-
Ithasal
essert
uber
osi
ty
-
ithasadel
toi
dri
dge.
EXAMPLE;Compar
efemurbone and humer
us
bone.
Si
mil
ari
ti
es
Bot
hhav
eashaf
t;
Smoot
hends;
Bal
lshapedhead;
andar
eri
gid;
Condy
les
Di
ff
erencesbet
weenf
emurandHumer
usbone.
Humer
usbone Femurbone
I
thast
rochl
ea I
thaspat
ell
agr
oov
e
I
thasgr
eat
ert
uber
osi
ty I
thasgr
eat
ert
rochant
er
I
thasl
essert
uber
osi
ty I
thasl
essert
rochant
er
I
thasshor
tershaf
t I
thasal
ongershaf
t
I
thasabr
oadhead I
thasasmal
lspher
ical
head
I
thasar
idge I
thasnor
idge

Adv
ant
ageoff
emurboneov
ert
hehumer
usbone
 I
tisheavi
erhencemorecompactt
ogivemoresuppor
t.
 I
thaslongershaf
tformor
emuscleatt
achment
.
Adv
ant
agesofHumer usboneoverf
emurbone
 I
tisl
ightt
oreduceweightforeasyfl
ight
.
 Theheadendisbroadformoremuscl eatt
achment
.
Ti
biaandfibulabone
Thesebonesar efoundint helowerpar toftheleg.
Thetibiaboneislargerandl ongerthant hef i
bula
bone.Thedistalend( l
owerend/ posteri
orend)of
theti
biaboneformsahi ngejoi
ntwi t
ht hefootbone.
Theupperend( anteri
orend)oft hetibiaandf i
bula
for
m ahingejoi
ntwi t
haf emurboneatt hekneejoint.
Gener
alchar
act
eri
sti
csoft
ibi
aandf
ibul
abones
 Theti
biabear
scondy
lesatt
hedist
alend.
 Theheadendisbr
oadert
hanthedi
stalend.
  Theti
biabonebearsaridgeattheupperend.
 Theti
biai
slongerandlargert
hanfibul
aend.
 Theti
biaandfi
bulaar
ef usedatsomepoints.
N.
BTibi
aandfemurboneshav ethesameadaptati
onsl
i
keot
herl
ongerbones.
TheAxi
alskel
eton:
I
tcomposedoft
heskul
l
,ri
bs,
ster
num andthever
tebr
alcol
umn.
Theskul
l
Theskulliscomposedofmanyf l
atbonesf usedtogetherbyimmov ablejoi
ntsat
suturestoform acase.Theskul l
ismadeupof22f latbonesconnectedbyimmov abl
e
j
oints.Atit
slowerpart,i
thaspr ominentlargecondy l
eswhicharti
culatewit
ht heat
las
vertebr
altoform ahugejointfornoddingtheheadupanddown.Ther i
bsattach
themselvesatsternum ant
eriorl
yandt hethoraci
cv ert
ebraeposter
iorl
y.
Thevert
ebr
alcol
umn/ backbone
I
tistheskel
etonoft hetr
unk.Iti
scomposedofdiffer
ent
t
ypesofsmal lbonescall
edv ert
ebr
aefusedtogetherby
i
nter
vert
ebraldisccart
il
age.
Thevertebr
alcolumni smadeupof33bonesi nman.
Eachboneiscall
edav ert
ebraandi
snamedaccor
dingt
o
ther
egionofthevert
ebralcol
umnwherei
tisf
ound.
Thereare7Cervicalvertebrae(i
ntheneck),
12t horacic
vert
ebrae(i
nthethoracicr egi
on),5Lumbarvertebrae(i
n
theabdominalr
egion),5Sacr aland5Caudalv ert
ebraeinthel
owerabdomen.The
SacralandCaudalvertebraearebothfusedtogether.Ther
eareal
so12pair
sofribsand
onesternum.
Funct
ionsoft
hev
ert
ebr
alcol
umn
i
)I tprotectst hespinalcor
dandal l
owsforemergenceoft
hespinalner
ves.
i
i
)I tprovidessuppor tt
othehead.
i
i
i)Thej ointbet weenatlasandtheskul
lal
lowssl
ightmovementoftheheadina
verti
cal plane.
i
v)Transv ersepr ocessesprov
idepoint
sofatt
achmentoftendonmuscles,whi
ch
strai
ght entheback.
v
)Thecaudal vert
ebraefor
mt hetai
l.

Par
t Descr
ipt
ion Funct
ions
Neur
alspi
ne prov
idessurf
acef
orat
tachment
ofmuscles
Tr
ansv
ersepr
ocess These arelat
eralpr
oject
ions on t
he -
prov
idessur
facef
orAt
tachment
neural
arch ofmuscl
es
 -
theyal
soal
low Art
iculat
ionwi
th
r
ibsint
het
horaci
cvertebrae
Cent
rum Mai
nbodyoft
hev
ert
ebr
a -
itpermit
sAr
ti
cul
ati
onwi
thot
her
v
ertebrae
-i
talsoresi
stscompressi
onand
supportt
heweightoft
hebody
Neur
alCanal Hol
l
owpar
tjustabov
ethecent
rum -
prov
idesapassageandPr
otect
s
t
hespinal
cord
Neur
alar
ch Ringofbonesur
roundi
ngt
heneur
al -
Passageoft
hespi
nal
cor
d
canal
-
Prot
ect
sthespi
nal
cor
d
Pr
ojectstof or
m processes f
or
muscleat
tachment
Vert
ebroar
ter
ial Arefoundonthecer
vicalver
tebr
ae,
on -
Passageoft
heneckbl
ood
canal eachsideoft
heneuralcanal v
essels
Facets(
art
icul
ati
ng I
nclude the pr ezy
gopophy
sis and -
for Art
icul
ati
on wit
h ot her
surf
aces) postzy
gopophy
sis v
ert
ebr
aeandr i
bsi
nthethor
acic
v
ert
ebr
a

Ty
pesofv
ert
ebr
ae

Ty
peofv
ert
ebr
a Regi
onoft
hev
ert
ebr
al Numberint
hehuman
col
umn skel
eton
Cer
vical
ver
tebr
ae Neck 7
Thor
aci
cver
tebr
ae Thor
aci
cregi
on 12
Lumberv
ert
ebr
ae Abdomen 5
Sacr
alv
ert
ebr
ae Lowerabdomen 5
Caudal
ver
tebr
ae Tai
l 4
Cer
vicalv
ert
ebr
a:
Thesear
etheneck–bones.
Char
act
eri
sti
cs Functi
ons of cer
vical Adapt
ati
onsofcer
vicalv
ert
ebr
a
ver
tebra
Have provi
desuppor
ttothehead -haveneuralcanalf
orpassageof
vert
ebr
art
eri
al spinal
cord
-I
mpor t
anti
nthenoddi
ngand
canal i n t
he
rotat
ionoft
hehead. -hasneuralarchforpr
otect
ionof
transver
sepr ocess -providesvert
ebrarter
ialcanal spinalcord.
forarter
iestopass t hroughwhi chbl oodv essels
- pr ov
ides vertebrarter
ial canal
through. t
ot heheadpass.
through which blood v esselsto
-Haveshor tneur al -
provide tr
ansverse pr ocess theheadpass.
spine f
or at t
achment of neck
-hasCent r
um topr otectthespinal
muscles
-hav ev er
y smal l cordandsuppor ttheuppermass.
fl
atCentrum.
-
hav e di
vi
ded
tr
ansverse
process.

Cervi
calver
tebr
aear
ecl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
hree
groups,
-
TheAt
lasv
ert
ebr
a,
-
TheAxi
sver
tebr
aand
-Or
dinar
y/t
ypi
calcer
vical
ver
tebr
a

At
lasver
tebr
a/1stcer
vicalv
ert
ebr
a:i
tisonl
yoneandt
hef
ir
stcer
vicalbonear
ti
cul
ati
ng
wi
ththeskul
l
I
tisi
dent
if
iedbyt
hef
oll
owi
ngchar
act
eri
sti
cs;
-
 LacksaCent rum andzy gopophy ses
 Has f lat broad t r
ansv erse process for
muscl
eat tachment .
 Has gr ooved f r
ont f acets to al l
ow
ar
ti
culati
onwi thcondy l
soft heskull.
 Hasv erysmal lneuralspine( l
ikeri
dge).
 Hasawi deneur alcanal
 Hast wov ertebrart
eri
alcanal sforpassageofver
tebr
alar
ter
y.
I
tsspeci
fi
cfunctionist oall
ownoddi ngofthehead.
Axi
sver
tebr
a:i
tist
hesecondcer
vical
bonenextt
otheat
las.
 It
sCent rum hasanel ongatedstr
ucturecal
ledodont
oidpr
ocesst
hatar
ti
cul
ates
withtheneur alcanal oftheatlas.
 Later
allyflat
tenedneut r
alspinei.
e.wideneural
canal
.
 Small t
ransversepr ocess.
 Hastwov ertebr
arteri
al canals
 Has postzygopophy sis but no
 pr
ezygopophy
sis
Ty
picalv
ert
ebra
-
Eachv
ert
ebr
ahasashor
tneur
alspi
ne
-
Eacht
ransv
ersepr
ocessdi
vi
dedi
ncer
vical
ribs
-
Hast
wov
ert
ebr
oar
ter
ial
canal
s
-
Hasbot
hpr
ezy
gopophy
sisandpost
zygopophy
sis.

Thor
aci
cver
tebr
ae
Locatedi
nthet
hor
aci
corchestr
egi
onandt
her
ear
e12t
hor
aci
cver
tebr
aei
nmanand
rabbi
t.
Charact
eri
sti
csof Funct
ions Adapt
ati
ons
thor
acicver
tebr
ae
Hav e v ery l ong 1. Provi
deslongneur al
1.Narrow neur alcanal
neuralspi nes spineforattachmentof forpassageofspi nal
Hav e thoraci
cmuscl es cord.
demi facets/ f
acetsfor 2. Provi
desf acetsfor
2.Has neur alarch f or
arti
culation wi ththe at tachment/arti
culati
onofr
pri
bs
otection of t he
ri
bs thatformribcager esponsi
bl
spie
nalcor d
Hav eapai rofshor t forprotect
ingthehear tand
3.Longneur alspi net o
undividedt ransv
erse l ungsfrom mechani cal providel argesur f
ace
process damage. area f orat t
achment
Hav eLar geCent r
um of t he t horacic
Hav e nar r
ow neur al muscl es
canal 4.Large Cent rum t o
suppor t t he upper
massandpr otectthe
spinalcor d
5.Has f
acets for
arti
culationofribs.
Di
agr
am showi
ngt
het
hor
aci
cver
tebr
a
 Lumbarv
ert
ebr
a
Thesev
ert
ebr
aear
elocat
edi
ntheupperabdomi
nal
regi
on.
Theyal
l
owsi
deway
s,bendi
ngandr
otat
ional
mov
ementoft
hebody
.
Funct
ions Adapt
ati
ons Char
act
eri
sti
csofl
umbarv
ert
ebr
a
-Suppor
tsheavy -Lar
ge centr
um to support Extr
a pr
ocesses call
ed
weightimpar
ted the upper part
s of t he metapophy ses for muscl e
on the vert
ebral column and att
achment .
abdominal protect
ion of t
he spi nal  A l ar
ger/thi
ck and massi v
e
regi
on. cord. centr
um t hant hati nthecervical
andthoracicvertebra.
-Provides long -l
ongt r
ansversepr ocesst o
 Abroadandmassi v
eneuralspine.
transverse prov i
debasef orattachment
 Asmal lneuralcanal.
process f
or ofabdomi nalmuscl e
attachment of
-hasf acetsforar ticul
ation
abdomi nal
withnextv er
tebra
muscl es.
-has ext r
a t ransverse
processl i
kemet apophy ses
and hy popophy ses t o
i
ncr ease surface ar ea for
attachment of abdomi nal
muscl es.
-has neur
alcanalto al
l
ow
passageofspi
nalcor
d
-has neural arch f or
prot
ect
ionofspi
nal
chor
d

 Longtr
ansver
sepr
ocessf
aci
ngf
orwar
d.
Fr
ontvi
ewoflumbarbone

Sacr
alv
ert
ebr
al:
-Consi
stsof5v
ert
ebr
aei
nman
andinrabbi
t.Inadul
tmammal
s,t
hesev
ert
ebr
aear
efusedt
oget
hert
ofor
m ar
igi
dbody
str
uctur
ecalledsacr
um
Char
act
eri
sti
csofsacr
alv
ert
ebr
a
-
hasal
argecent
rum
-
Hasnar
rowneur
alcanal
-
hasal
argeandwi
ngl
i
ket
ransv
ersepr
ocess
-
neur
alspi
nei
ssor
educedt
oasmal
lnot
ch

Caudalvertebr
a:-
inmant
her
ear
e4v
ert
ebr
aewhi
char
efusedt
oget
hert
ofor
m coccy
x
whichi
sf uncti
onl
ess.
Inothermammal s,theyaresmal l
bonesofthetai
lwhi
charefusedtoget
her.Thei
r
neuralspi
nes,t
ransverseprocesses,cent
ra,
progr
essi
vel
yreducei
nsizefrom the
anteri
ortotheposteri
orendoft hetai
l.
Joi
nts:-
Poi
ntofi
nter
sect
ionbet
weent
woormoreboneswhi
chal
l
owsf
lexi
bil
i
tyf
oreasy
movement
Aj
ointi
sanar
eaorpoi
ntwher
etwobonesmeet
.
Mostjointsall
ow movementwhil
eother
sdonotal
l
ow anydegr
eeofmov
emente.
g.
sut
urejointbet
weenthebonesi
ntheskul
l.
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofj
oint
s
1.Immov ablejoi
nts:Thesear ejoi
ntsmadeupoft oughf i
brousli
gamentwhi ch
donotal l
owanymov ementsofthear t
icul
ati
ngbonesatall.Asaresult,t
hey
arefoundi nther i
gidareasofthebodye. g.bet
weent hebonesoft heskull
,
sacr
um and pubi c bones/ pel
vi
c girdle.They ar
e mai nlyimportantfor
mechanicalstrengthandalsoprotect
ionofthebodyorgans.

2.Par tial
lymov abl
ejoint:Thisall
owsmov ementofadj acentbonestoali
mited
extent.itisnotenti
relyfr
eee.g.gli
dingjointfoundbetweent hebonesofthe
ankle,wr i
standadjacentvert
ebrae.
3.Mov ablej oi
nt:Thisal l
owsf reeorl i
mi t
edext entof mov ementbetween
adj
oi ni
ngbones.Theyar ecategori
zedintot wo:-
a)Parti
allymov abl
ej oi
nts:-
theseal l
ow mov ementoft headj acentbonestoa
l
imitedext ent.
Examples
1.Pivotj
oint
,whi
chexi
stbet
weent
heat
lasandaxi
sver
tebr
aewhi
chal
l
owsr
otat
ionof
thehead.
2.Gl
idi
ngj
oint
,whi
chexi
stbet
weent
hev
ert
ebr
aeexceptat
lasandaxi
s,t
hewr
istbones
(
i.
ethecar
pal
sandt
heankl
ebones(
tar
sal
s))
B)Freel
ymov abl
e( sy
novi
al)j
oints:-
theseal
l
ow f
reemov
ementofadj
acentbones.
Theyoccuri
ntwotypeswhi
chinclude:
-
1.Hingejoi
nt:
-whi
challowsfr
eemov ementi
nonl
yonepl
ane/
dir
ect
ione.
g.knee,
elbow,
fi
ngerjoi
ntsandbetweenjawandskull
.
2.Bal
landsocketj
oint
:-
thi
sal
l
owsf r
eemov ementi
nallpl
anese.
g.theshoulderj
oint
bet
weenthescapul
aandHumerusandthehi
pjoi
ntbet
weenthefemurandpelv
icgir
dle.
Tabl
eshowi
ngt
hej
oint
sint
hemammal
ianskel
eton
Nameofj
oint Ty
peofj
oint Locat
ion
Sut
ure I
mmov
abl
e Skul
l
,sacr
um,
pubi
cbones
Gl
i
ding Par
tl
ymov
abl
e Wri
st,ankl
e&bet
weenadj
acent
ver
tebrae
Pi
vot Par
tl
ymov
abl
e Bet
weenaxi
sandat
las
Hi
nge Sy
nov
ial El
bow,
knee,
finger
s
Bal
landSocket Sy
nov
ial Shoul
der
,hi
p

Thesy
nov
ialj
oint
Thesy novi
alj
oint
;-whi
chismadeupsynovial
cavit
ywhichsepar
atest
hehyal
ine
cart
il
ageslocat
edattheendsofeachbone.Atthej
oint
,bonesar
enotdir
ect
ly
connected.
Ifthiswasthecase,t
heboneswouldcrackdur
ingmovement.Bet
weent hebonesat
thejointi
saspacecall
edsynovi
alcavi
tywhi
chcontai
nsalubri
cat
ingfl
uidknownas
Synov i
alf
lui
d.Thebonesur
facesareal
socover
edbycart
il
ageinordertoreduce
fri
cti
on.
Cart
il
ageinthejoint
salsoworksasashockabsorber
.Thejointi
sstrengt
henedby
l
igamentswhichconnectonebonet
oanot
herandtendonswhichconnectmuscl
esto
bones.

Funct
ionsoft
hedi
ff
erentpar
ts
Sy
novi
alf
lui
d-r
educesf
ri
cti
onbyl
ubr
icat
ingt
hej
oint
s,
Sy
novi
almembr
ane-
secr
etessy
nov
ial
flui
d
Li
gament-
isanel
ast
ict
issuet
hatj
oinsbonet
obone,
itkeepst
hej
ointst
abl
eand
movabl
eduetoit
sel
asti
cit
y
Capsul
eli
gament-pr
eventsl
i
nkageoft
hef l
uids,
joi
nst
het
wobonesbutal
l
ows
movement,suppl
i
esnutri
ent
stothej
oint
s.
Ar
ti
cularcar
ti
lage:
-absor
bsmechani
cal
shocks,
prov
idessmoot
hsur
facef
orj
oint
movement
Joi
nt.
Joi
ntcapsul
e-encl
osest
hej
ointcav
ity
Tendon–bendsmuscl
etobonest
okeept
hej
ointst
abl
e.
Di
agr
am showi
ngt
hesy
nov
ialj
ointatt
hekneej
oint

bal
landsocketj
ointoft
hehi
p

Muscl
es
Amuscl
eisaf
ibr
oust
issuewhi
chcont
ract
stocausemov
ementofapar
torent
ir
ebody
.
Ther
ear
e3t
ypesofmuscl
eswhi
chi
ncl
ude
a)Car
diacmuscl
es
b)smoot
h/v
iscer
al/
inv
olunt
arymuscl
es
c)skel
etal
/vol
unt
arymuscl
es

Car
diacmuscl
es:
-
Theyarelocatedwithi
nt hehear
twall
s,t
heyaremyogenicinnaturei
nt hattheini
ti
ati
on
orbeginni
ngoft heircontr
acti
onisnotundercont
rolofthenervoussy st
em,buti sby
themuscl ethemselves.Theyhaveagr oupofmodifi
edandspeci al
izedf i
brescall
ed
sino-
atr
ialnode( SAN)whi chemitsimpulsest
ost i
mulateothercardiacmuscl esto
contr
act.
Descr
ipt
ion
Cardiac muscl
es haveter
minal
ly branched cel
l
s.Each cel
lis
enclosedbyamembr anecall
edsarcolemma.eachcel
lhasmany
nucleiandmit
ochondr
ia
Thecy
topl
asmi
cfl
uidofmuscl
esi
scal
l
edsar
copl
asm
They hav
e stri
ati
ons and i
ntercal
ated di
scs whi
ch speed t
he
i
mpulsesrapi
dlytoal
lthemusclecel
ls

Smooth/
viscer
al/
inv
oluntarymuscles:-t
hesearelocat
ed i
nwall
sofmanyi
nter
nal
or
gansofthebodye.g.
..Uter
us,
bladder,
uret
er,
ali
mentar
ycanal
.
-
Theycont
ractsl
owl
yandt
akeal
ongt
imet
obecomef
ati
gue
-t
heycontractwit
houtconsci
ouswill
/invol
unt
arybecauset
hei
r
cont
ract
ioniscont
rol
ledbyi
nvol
unt
aryner
voussyst
em.
Eachmuscl ecel
lisspi
ndl
eshapedwi
thonenucl
eusandmany
mitochondr
ia
I
tlacksst
ri
ati
onsandsar
col
emma.

Skel
etalmuscl es:-theseareat t
achedont hebonesoft
heskel
eton,byt
ough,f
ibr
ous
connect
ivet i
ssuescal l
edt endons.Theycont ractat
ourconsciouswi l
l,becausetheircontract
ionisunder
the control of v ol
untary nervous sy stem. They
contr
actrapidl
yandbecomeeasi lyfat
igued.
Eachskel
etalmuscl
ehasmanymuscl ef
ibr
es,whi
ch
areel
ongat
edandcyli
ndr
ical
inshape.
Eachmuscl
efibrehasmanynucl
eiwhi
char
elocat
ed
onit
ssi
de/per
ipher
y.
Theyhavemanymi tochondr
iaforATP synthesisandhav
eahi ghconcent
rat
ionof
myoglobi
ntostor
eoxy geninform ofoxy my ogl
obi
nneededduri
ngbreakdownof
gl
ucosetopr
oduceenergyinf
orm ofATP.
Skel
etalmuscleshavestri
ationsandsarcolemmamembr ane.Mostskel
etalmuscles
areantagoni
sti
cfunct
ionall
yinthattheycauseopposi
temov ementi
nsuchawayt hat
asonesetofmusclecontractsanot
hersetofmusclesrel
axes.

Ant
agoni
sti
cact
ionofmuscl
es
Musclesthatcausemov ementusual
lyoccuri
npair
s.Theyworkantagonist
ical
lysuch
thatwhenonemuscl econtr
acts,t
heothermuscl
eofthepairr
elaxesandv i
cev ersa.For
example,thehumanarmi smov edbytwosetsofmusclesnamelybiceps(f
lexor)and
tri
ceps(extensor
).
Mov
ementoft
hef
orel
imb
Themov ementoft hefor
el i
mbisbroughtabout
by the contr
act
ion of tr
iceps (
ext
ensor) and
bi
ceps(f l
exor
).Thet woset sofmuscleswor k
ant
agonisti
cal
lybecausetheyproduceopposite
movementwhent heycontr
act
-Whent hebicepsmuscl
escontracts,tobecome
shor tand bul
gy,theypul
lon t he radius t
hus
raisingtheforear
m andt hearm bendsatt he
elbow.Thet ri
cepsmusclerel
axesatt hesame
ti
meandbecomet hi
nandlong.Sincethismuscler
esul
tsi
nbendi
ngatt
heel
bow i
t’
s
calledfl
exormuscl
e
However,whenthetri
cepscontr
actt
heypull
ontheul
nathusst
rai
ghteni
ngthearm.The
bi
cepsmuscl er
elaxesatthesameti
meItiscal
l
edtheext
ensormusclebecausei
t
st
rai
ghtensthearm attheel
bow.
Locomot
ioni
nbonyfi
sh
Mostfishmov ebyswi
mmi
nginwater
.Inordert
odothi
s,f
ishhav
ethef
oll
owi
ng
adapt
ations:
i
) Ast r
eam- l
inedbodyshapet or educewat erresistanceduringf orwardmov ement
inwat er
i
i
)Al aterallinewhi chtodetectchangesi nsoundv ibrati
onsandpr essureinwat er
.
i
i
i)Finswhi chpr ovideforpropulsion/mov ementandst abil
it
y.
i
v)Bonyf ishhav easwi m bl adderfordept hadjust mentandbuoy ancy. i
.e.which
theyf i
llwi thairinordertost ayafl
oatorexpel theai rt
oallowt hem sink.
v
)Lar geey eswhi chtohav eawi derangeofv i
siont herebydetect i
ngandav oi
ding
obst aclesi nwat er.
v
i)Bodycov eredwi thathinlayerofmucuswhi chr educeswat erresistance.
v
ii
)Scal esov erlaponeanot hert oreduceresist
ance
v
ii
i) Havequi
ckmeansofobt
aini
ngox
ygeni
nit
smedi
um byhav
ingmanygi
ll
fi
lament
s.

Di
agr
am showi
ngt
hest
ruct
uresusedi
nthel
ocomot
ionoff
ish

Act
ionofmuscl
es
Inbonyfi
sh,thesidemovement
softhetai
lmovethefi
shfor
war
d.Thefi
shhas
muscleblocks/my ot
omesoneit
hersi
deofthevert
ebr
alcol
umn.Themuscl
eswor
k
antagoni
sti
call
y.
Whentheleftmuscleblock/Myot
omescontract
s,therightmuscleblockrel
axand
thetai
lispushedont helef
tagai
nstwater
.Wat erresist
anceisresolvedint
othe
for
wardforcef
orforwardmovementoft
hebodyandl ateraldr
ag,whi
chdef l
ectst
he
headsl
ightontheri
ght.

Whent herightmuscleblockcontr
act
s,thel
ef tmuscleblock/
my otomesr el
axand
thetailispushedont her i
ghtagai
nstwater
.Wat erresi
stanceisresolv
edi nt
ot he
propulsiv
ef orceforforwardmov ementoft hebodyandt helateraldragwhi ch
causesasl i
ghtdefl
ect
ionoft heheadt ot helef
t.Thet wo muscl eblocksar e
antagonisti
csucht hatast hel
eftmuscleblockcontract
s,therightmuscl eblock
rel
axes.
I
ll
ust
rat
ion
 Act
ionoft
hef
ins
Thepai
redfins(
pel
vi
candpect
oralf
ins)ar
eusedforst
eer
ing,bal
anci
ng,breaki
ng,
for
wardandbackwardmovement.Theyarealsousedtoav oi
dinst
abil
it
ywhen
swimming.
The unpai
red fi
ns (dor
sal,vent
raland analfins) al
so cal
led medi
an f
ins
cont
rol
/pr
eventr
oll
ingandyawi
nginst
abi
li
ti
esdur
inglocomoti
on,
Exampl
e:Whatar
ethef
unct
ionsoft
hepai
redandmedi
anf
insi
nfi
sh?
I
nst
abi
li
ti
esdur
ingl
ocomot
ion
Fi
sh exper
ience t
hree t
ypes of i
nst
abi
l
ity
namel
y:
i
. Yawi ng:t hi
sist hesi deway smov ement
of t he head due t o side t o si de
mov ementoft het ail
.Thi sist hel ateral
deflection oft hehead r esult i
ng f r
om
propul sive action of t he t ai
l.I tis
overcome by usi ng t he medi an f i
ns
(unpai red fi
ns whi ch i nclude,dor sal,
ventralandanalf ins.it’salsoov ercome
by pr essure exer ted on t he massi ve
head.i .e.Iti s bal anced outby t he
dorsal andv entralfins.
i
i
. Pitching:Thi sist het endencyoft heheadt oplungedownwar dsasthefish
mov es.Thi sispr event edbyt hepect oralandpelvi
cf i
ns.
i
i
i. Rolling:I ti
st her otationoft hef i
shbodyoff i
shabouti t
slongi
tudi
nalaxis.
Thisi nstabi
li
tyi sprev entedbyal lthefins.i.
e.bot
ht hepair
edandunpair
ed

Act
ionoft
hef
ins
Thepai
redf
ins(
pel
vi
candpect
oral
fins)ar
eusedf
orst
eer
ing,
bal
anci
ng,
breaki
ng,
for
wardandbackwar
dmov
ement
.Theyar
eal
sousedt
oav
oidi
nst
abi
l
itywhen
swimming.
Theunpai
redfi
ns(
dorsal
,ventr
alandanal
fins)al
socal
l
edmedi
anf
inscont
rol
/pr
event
rol
l
ingandyawi
nginst
abi
li
tiesdur
ingl
ocomot i
on,
Exampl
e:Whatar
ethef
unct
ionsoft
hepai
redandmedi
anf
insi
nfi
sh?
I
nst
abi
l
iti
esdur
ingl
ocomot
ion
Fi
shexper
iencet
hreet
ypesofi
nst
abi
l
itynamel
y:
Yawing:thisisthesideway smovementoft heheadfrom sidetosideduetosidetoside
mov ementoft hetail.Thisisthelat
eraldefl
ect
ionoftheheadr esult
ingf
rom propulsi
ve
acti
onoft hetail
.Itisov ercomebyusi ngthemedianfins(unpair
edfinswhi
chi ncl
ude,
dorsal
,ventralandanal fins.i
t’
salsoov er
comebypr essureexertedonthemassi v
e
head.i.
e.Itisbalancedoutbyt hedorsalandventr
alfi
ns.
Pi
tchi
ng:Thi
sisthet
endencyofthenosetopl
ungedownwar
dsast
hef
ishmov
es.Thi
s
i
sprevent
edbythepect
oralandpelv
icfi
ns.
Rol
l
ing:I
tist
herotati
onoft
hefishbodyoffi
shaboutit
slongi
tudi
nalaxi
s.Thi
s
i
nst
abil
i
tyisprev
entedbyal
lthefi
ns.i
.e.bot
hthepai
redandunpaired
Exampl
e:
A)St
ateway
sbywhi
chfishmaylosest
abi
li
ty.
Pi
tchi
ng; Rol l
i
ng; Yawing;

B)Namet hefi
nsresponsi
bleforpr
event
ingeachoft
hef or
msofi
nst
abi
li
tyst
ated
i
n
Pi
tchi
ngiscontr
oll
edbypelvi
c;andpector
alf
ins;
(pai
redf
ins)
;
Rol
l
ingi
scont
rol
l
edbydor
sal
;vent
ral
(anal
);(
medi
anf
ins)
;tai
l(caudal
)fi
n;
Yawi
ngi
scont
rol
l
edbydor
sal
;andv
ent
ral
fins;
(medi
anf
ins)
;
C)Howdoesabonyf i
shswim
i
) fr
om alowleveltoahighl
evel?
Bytaki
nginmoreairi
ntotheswim bl
adder;
whi
chmakesi
tli
ght
er/
lessdense/
buoy
ant
andther
efor
emovesup; OR
Pect
oral
/pel
vi
c/pai
redfi
nsarehel
datanangl
e;toal
l
owwat
ert
opassundert
hem
cr
eati
nganupthrustfor
cepushi
ngthef
ishup; OR
Pectoral
finsmoveupanddown;
andr
esi
stedbywat
ercr
eat
inganupt
hrustf
orce
pushingthefi
shupwar
ds;
i
i) For ward?
Pushesi
tscaudal
/t
ail
finagai
nstwateral
ter
natel
y/si
det
osi
demov
ementofcaudal
/t
ail
fi
n;whi
chprovi
desaforwardt
hrust
/pushmov ementoft
het
ail
.
 i
ii
) f r
om ahighl
evelt
oalowlevel?
Bylosi
ngairfr
om t
heswim bl
adder
;whichmakesi
theavi
er/
mor
edense/
lessbuoy
ant
andther
eforemovesdown; OR
Pect
oral
/pel
vi
c/pair
edfinsar
eheldatanangle;
toall
owwat
ert
opassov
ert
hem
cr
eati
ngdownwar dfor
cepushingt
hefishdownward;
LocomotioninI
nsect
s
Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofl
ocomot
ionininsects.
1.Walki
ngandr
unni
ngwit
hthehelpofl
egs.
2.Fl
i
ghtbyuseofwi
ngs.
Usesofl
egsini
nsect
s:
i
) Wal
kingandr unni
ng
i
i
)Capturi
ngpr ey.
i
i
i)Col
l
ectingnectarl
ikei
nbees
i
v)Swi
mmi ng
v
)Diggingholes.
Locomot
ionbywi
ngs
Fl
ightisbroughtbytheact
ionofthefl
i
ghtmusclesont heexoskel
etonandthewings.
Whent hesemusclesareat
tachedont
hewingbasetheyarecaleddi
l rectf
li
ghtmuscles.
Howev er
,whent heyareattachedontheexoskel
eton,theyarecalledi
ndir
ectfl
ight
muscles.
Dir
ectfl
i
ghtmuscl
esaref
oundinlargei
nsect
sli
kebutter
fl
iesanddragonf
li
es.I
ndi
rect
fl
i
ghtmusclesar
efoundi
nsmal li
nsect
sli
kebees,waspsandf l
i
es.Suchi
nsect
shav e
smallwi
ngsandarapi
dwi
ngfrequency.
Fl
ighti
ninsect
s
Ther
ear
etwot
ypesoff
li
ghti
ninsect
swhi
chi
ncl
ude
a)
.Di
rectf
li
ght
b)
.Indi
rectf
li
ght
Di
rectf
li
ght

Thi
sinv
olv
esupanddownf
lappi
ngofwi
ngsduet
oal
ter
nat
econt
ract
ionofdi
rect
muscl
es.f
li
ghtoccur
sint
woser
iesnamel
y
a)Upst
roke b)downst
roke
Upst
roke
Dur
ingupst
roke,
thewi
ngmov
esuporbecomesel
evat
ed.
 Elevat
or muscl es ( vert
ical muscl es) Cont ract
s and Depr essor muscl
es
(l
ongitudinal muscles)rel
ax es.
 Whent heel evat
ormuscl escont ractandshor ten,thewingispull
edagainstt
he
tergum/ dorsalcuti
cleofthet horaxtherebymov ingthethoraxdownwards.
Thesemuscleswor kant
agoni st
icall
y.Allfl
yi
ngi nsectshavedirectf
li
ghtmuscleswhi
ch
adj
usttheangl eoft hewingt oprov i
deforwardmov ement.
b)Downst
roke
Thedepressormuscl
escont
ractandpul
lthet
hor
axt
osuchanext
entt
hatt
het
ergum i
s
thr
ustupwards
Di
agr
am showi
ngt
heat
tachmentofi
ndi
rectf
li
ghtmuscl
es

i) Locomot i
onbyl egs
Thetypeofjoi
ntintheinsectlegiscalledthepegandsocketjoint
.Ital
l
owsmov ement
i
nonlyonepl ane.Thereforeitoperatesli
keahi ngejoi
nt.Atthejoi
ntaret
woset sof
muscl
est heflexor(ordepressor)andt heextensor(
orelevat
or)Thesemuscl
eswor k
ant
agonist
ical
lyandareco- or
dinatedbythenervoussyst
em.
Whent hefl
exormuscl
escont
ract
,thelegsbend(atthi
stimet
heextensormuscl
es
ar
er el
axed)andwhent heext
ensormusclescontract
,thelegsst
rai
ght
enpushingthe
i
nsectforward
Di
agr
am showi
ngt
hepegandsocketj
oint
 Adapt
ati
onsofi
nsect
stomov
ebyl
egs
i
. Clawsatt heendofthelegstomov ealongroughsurfaces.
i
i
. Glandularpadsal soattheendoft hel egst omov eonwat erorsmooth
surfacesandsomet i
mesupsi dedownont heceili
nge.g.
inhousefli
es
i
i
i. Longerhi ndli
mbsi nsomei nsect
sli
kel ocuststohelpthem leapovergr
eat
dist
ances.
i
v. Somei nsect
se.g.cockr
oacheshav egotspi nesontheirlegswhichprev
ent
them from sl
ippi
ngbackwards.

Mechani
sm ofWal
kingi
ninsect
s
I
nsect
suset
hei
r6l
egsi
nat
ri
podf
ashi
ont
owal
k.
Thisinvol
veslif
ti
ngthet hr
eel egsof fthegroundduet ocontr
acti
onoft hefl
exor
musclesand and extending forward duet o contr
acti
on ofext
ensormusclewhile
another3legsareont hegr oundpr ovi
dingsupportandstabi
li
tytothebody.Thel
eft
for
e-li
mbpullsthebodyf orward,thelefthi
ndpushest hebodyforwardwhi
letheri
ght
middlesuppor
tsthemov ementact iv
ityofbot
ht heforeandt
hehindli
mbs.

Hoppi
ng/
leapi
ng/
jumpi
ngmov
ementofagr
asshopper
Theelongat
edhindl i
mbl egsflexf ul
l
yandpr essf i
rmlyagai
nsttheground.Duet
o
contr
acti
onofbothextensorandflexormuscl
est heygener
ateali
ftfor
cewhichduet
o
rel
axati
onofthef
lexormuscles,
lif
tthebodyupwar dsi
ntheair
Locomoti
oninBir
ds
Bi
rdsbasi
cal
l
ymov
ebyf
lyi
ng.Thefol
l
owingadapt
ati
onshel
pthem t
odot
his:
i
. Possessionofwingstopr ovi
deal argesur f
acear eaf
ormov ementinairand
i
nsulat
et hebodyagainstexcessiveheatlossduringfl
ight.
i
i
. Largepector
almuscleswhi chmov ethewi ngs.
i
i
i. Askeletonmadeofl ighthollow boneswhi chreducet hetotalwei
ghtofthe
bi
rd.
i
v. Fusedboneswi t
hadeepkeel -l
i
keext ensi
onoft hesternum whichpr
ovi
desa
 l
ar gesur facear eaf orattachmentofmuscl es.
v. An ef ficientci rculatorysy stem necessar yfort ransporti
ng nut ri
ents and
respi ratorygases.
vi
. Ashar pey esi ghttoenabl et hem j udgedi stancescor rectl
ye.g.whenl anding
vi
i
. Ast ream l inedshapet oreduceai rresistanceadpr ovi
desmoot hmov ement
i
nt heai r.
vi
i
i. Abi li
tyt of oldl egsawaydur i
ngf l
ightt oav oidfr
icti
onbet weenai randt helegs.
i
x. Pr esenceofl argepect oralmuscl est hepect or
alismaj orandpect orali
smi nor
whi chf l
apt hewi ngswhent heycont r
act.
x. Anef ficientbr eathingsy st
em wi thai rsacsat t
achedt othelungsnecessar yto
prov idet henecessar yoxy genf orrespi r
at i
onandt or emov i
ngther esulti
ng
car bondi oxi de.
xi
. Ahi ghmet abol i
cr ateforprov idingt hehi ghamountofener gyr equir
edf or
fl
ight
xi
i. Ahi ghr edbl oodcel l
countf oref ficientoxy gentranspor t
.
xi
ii
. Akeeney esi ghtt ojudgedi stancescor r
ect l
yespeciallyonquickl andi
ngand
fl
ight .

Dur
ingfl
i
ght
,thebi
rd’
swingprovi
dessupportandtheforcet
omovethebi
rdfor
ward.
Thewingismadeupoff eather
sofdi f
ferentforms.Gener
all
y,t
hebird’
swing
per
for
msanumberofr ol
esasfarast
hebirdisconcerned.
St
ruct
ureoft
hebi
rd’
swi
ng

St
ruct
ureandf
unct
ionsoff
eat
her
s.
Therear
efourt
ypesoff
eat
her
s1.Qui
l
lfeat
her
s2.Cov
ertf
eat
her
s 3.Downf
eat
her
s.4.
Fi
lopl
umes.
Ont
hebody
,feat
her
sar
ear
rangedi
nrows.
Funct
ionoff
eat
her
stobi
rds.
1.Theyprotecttheski nfrom abrasion,rai
nanddirectsunray
s.
2.Theyassistinmai nt
enanceofbodyt emperat
ureorr egul
ati
ngbodytemper
atur
eby
i
nsulat
ingagai nstheatl oss.
3.Theyareusedi nf l
ight
4.Theyareforcamouf laget oavoidpredator
s.
5.Theyareforcour tship.Feathersareusedtoattracttheopposi
tesexi
nbir
ds.
6.Theyar
eforsensat
ion,
i.
e.t
heycol
lectsoundwaves
Str
uct
ureofat ypi
calf
eat
her

Par
tsoft
hef
eat
her
1.Theshaf t.Thisisthef ramewor koraxi softhef eather.Theshaf tisdivi
dedintothe
quillandr achi
s.
2.Thequi ll.Thisisacy li
ndr i
calstructur
epoint
edatt heend.I thast woopeningsati ts
endscal ledinferi
orumbi l
icusandsuper i
orumbi l
icus.
3.The r achis.Thi s extends f r
om t he super
iorumbi li
cus oft he quill
.Itprov i
des
attachmentoft hevanes.
4.The v ane.Thi sisaf eatheryf l
atblade attached t othe r achi s.I
tconsi st
s of
structurescalledbar bs.Thebar bshav esmal l
erpar all
elprojectionscalledbarbules.
Thebar bulesstrengthent hefeatherbymaki ngi nt
erlocki
ngconnect i
onswitheach
other.

1.Quillf
eather
/cont
ourfeat
her
.
Locat
ion:Thesearef
oundonthetai
landwi
ng.
Char
act
eri
sti
cs:
 Theyhaveahardstronghollowqui l
l.
 Theyhavealar
gev ane.
 Theyhaveasmallaftershaft.
 Thei
rvanesconsi
stofbar bsandi nter
locki
ngbarbul
es.
 Theyhavetwohol
es, i.
e.theinfer
iorumbi l
i
cusandsuperi
orumbi
l
icus.
 Theyhavealar
geandl ongshaf t.
Functionsoft hequi
llf
eather
s
1.Theyar
eusedi nfli
ght.
2.Theypr
otecttheskinofthebir
d.
3.Theyi
nsulat
et hebir
d’sbodyagai
nstheatl
oss.
4.Theypr
ovideanairproofsurf
aceeff
ecti
veatbreaki
ngagai
nstai
rdur
ingf
li
ght
.
Descri
pti
onoftheSt r
uct
ure:
Atypi
calquillf
eatherhasastif
fshaf
tthatsupport
sav aneandresist
sbreakageduet
o
ai
rpressure.Thelongquil
lisholl
owtoreduceweightduri
ngfl
ightwit
hahol eatt
he
basecall
edi nf
eri
orumbili
cusandanotherholeknownassuperiorumbil
i
cus.
Thequi
l
lisal
sol
ongf
orat
tachmentoft
hef
eat
heri
ntot
heski
n.
Theshafthast i
nybranchescalledbar bsarrangedobliquel
yoneitherside.Eachbarb
bearstworowsofsmal lbranchescal ledbarbules.Somebar bul
eshav ehookswhi le
other
shav eri
dges.Thosewi t
hhooksar eopposi tethosewithri
dgesandt heresultis
thatt
heyinter
lockwiththosethathav er i
dges.Thisbindsthewholev anetogetherso
thati
tcanbeatt heai
r.Allt
hebar bulesinthev aneofaqui l
lfeat
herareinterl
ockedto
maket hevanesmoot htoresistairpressuredur i
ngfli
ght.
Thev
anei
slar
get
opr
ovi
deal
argesur
facear
eaf
orr
esi
sti
ngt
heai
rdur
ingf
li
ght
.
Di
agr
am:

2.Cov
ertf
eat
her
s/Cont
ourf
eat
her
s.
Locat
ion:Thesear
efoundar
oundt
heneckandt
heuppersi
deoft
hebody
Char
act
eri
sti
cs:
 Iti
ssmal l
erthant hequil
lfeat
her.
 Ithasalargeaf t
er-shaf
t.
 Ithasashor tvane.
 Ithasasof tquil
l.
Functi
on:Theyhelpi ntemperatur
eregul
ati
onbycov
eri
ngt
hebodyt
opr
eventheatl
oss.
Theyalsogiv
et hebodyshapeandcol our.
St
ruct
ureoft
hecov
ertf
eat
her
 Adapt
ati
onst
oit
sfunct
ions
 Hasacurvedsurf
acewhichgivesthebi
rdit
sshape.
 Hasafl
uff
yaf t
ershaftt
oinsul
atethebody.
 Havei
nter
locki
ngbarbsandasmoot hvanethatmakethebi
rdwat
erpr
oof
.
Si
milar
it
iesbetweenquil
landcont
ourfeat
her
s
 Bot
hhav
eaquill
 Bot
hhav
ebarbsatthebaseoftherachi
s
 Bot
hhav
evanesint
erlockedbybar
bs
Diff
erences
Qui
llf
eat
her
s Cont
ourf
eat
her
s
Hasast
if
frachi
s Hasaf
lexi
bler
achi
s
Hasal
ongv
ane Hasashor
tvane
Hasal
ongqui
l
l Hasashor
tqui
l
l
Bar
bscl
osel
yint
erl
ocked Lessi
nter
lockedbar
bs

Descr
ipt
ion
Thisf
eatherhasal
argeaft
er-
shaf
t,hal
fthev aneisfl
uffyandhasfr
eebar
bstoi
nsul
ate
thebi
rd’
sbodywhil
et heot
herhal
fhasinter
lockingbarbsresul
ti
ngi
ntoasmoot
hvane
Thecov
ertf
eat
heri
ssmal
l
ert
hant
hequi
l
lfeat
her
.
Dr
awandl
abelt
heCov
ertf
eat
herf
rom page58NewBi
ologyf
orTr
opi
calSchool
sby
St
oneand
Cozens.
2.Downf eather
s
Locat
ion:Thesearefoundal
lov
ert
hebodyespeci
all
yont
heabdomenandbet
ween
cover
tandfli
ghtfeat
her
s.
Char
act
eri
sti
cs:
 Iti
ssmallerthant hequil
landcov er
tfeathers.
 Iti
ssoftandf luff
y.
 Ithasashor tandsmal lqui
ll
.
 Ithasnov anebuti nst
eadithasfreebarbs.
Funct
ion:
Iti
nsul atesthebodyagainstheatloss.
Descr
ipt
ion
Thesear
efoundonthelowerpartoft
hebody.Theyar
efluf
fyandsotr
apal
ayerofai
r
cl
osetothebody
,whichprev
entsexcessi
veheatl
ossfr
om thebi
rd.
Theyar
ever
ysmal
l
,sof
t,wi
thshor
tshaf
tscompar
edt
othequi
l
lfeat
her
s.Thebar
bsar
e
fr
ee.
3.Fil
oplumes
Locat
ion:Thesear
efoundspar
sel
ydi
str
ibut
edal
lov
ert
hebodyamongstot
herf
eat
her
s.
Char
act
eri
sti
cs:
 Theyar el
ongandhai r
-l
ikefeat
hers.
 Theyhav ealongr achi
s.
 Theyhav eathread-li
keshape.
 Theyhav efewfreebar bsatoneend
Funct
ion.Thesefeathersareforsensat
ion.
Thesear
efoundal
lov
ert
hebody
.Theyar
eforsensi
ti
vi
ty
Thi
sfeat
heri
sver
ysmal
l
,sof
t,andhasasl
ender
,thr
ead-
li
keshaf
twi
thf
reebar
bs.
Funct
ionsoft
hef
eat
her
s
i
. Fl
ight
i
i
. I
nsulationagainstheatlossthusregulat
ingtemperature
i
i
i. Protecti
onf r
om mechani cali
njur
ythroughcamouf l
age
i
v. Courtship.Thef eat
hersareusedt orecognizemember softhei
rspeci
esand
malesf rom f
emal es.
Tabl
eshowingchar acter
isti
cs,f
unct i
onsanddi st
ribut
ionofbird’
sfeat
her
s

Ty
peoff
eat
her Char
act
eri
sti
cs Di
str
ibut
ion Funct
ion
Qui
l
l -
lar
gev
ane -
fl
ight
Av
anewi
thbar
bs -
wings
-
alargehol
l
owst
rong
qui
ll
-
Tai
l -
prot
ect
ion
-
Asmal
laf
tershaf
t
-Super
iori
nfer
ior
umbili
cus
-Lar
ge l
ong hol
l
ow
shaft
Cov
ertf
eat
her -
smal
l
ert
hanqui
l
l Neck and upper -I
nsul
ati
on agai
nst
si
deoft
hebody heatl
oss
-
lar
geaf
tershaf
t
-
prot
ect
ion
-
shor
tvane
Downf
eat
her -
Smallert
hanthequi
ll Lowerside oft
he Insulati
on agai
nst
bodyi.
e.abdomi
nal heatloss
-
Nov ane
regi
on
-
Verysmallandshor
t
qui
l
l
-Ver
ysmal
landshor
t
shaft
-
Iti
ssof
t
Fi
l
opl
ume -
Thr
eadl
i
kei
nshape Throughout t
he Sensor
y
body
-
Ver
yfewbar
-
Noqui
l
l
 MECHANI
SM OFACTI
VEFLI
GHT/
FLAPPI
NGI
NBI
RDS.
Acti
vefli
ghtoccurswiththehel
poff l
i
ghtmuscles.Thesemusclesar
epector
ali
sminor
andpectorali
smaj or
.Themuscl esareantagonist
icthatiswhentheycont
ract,t
hey
produceopposit
eef f
ects.Act
ivefl
i
ghtinv
olvestwost r
okes,t
hedownwardstrokeand
upwardstroke.
St
ruct
ureshowi
ngat
tachmentoff
li
ghtmuscl
esi
nabi
rd

Dur
ingt
hedownst
roke:
Thepectoral
ismaj
orcontract
sand
thepect
oral
ismi
norr
elax.
The fl
i
ght f eat
her
s ov er
lap and
becomeair
-t
ightinordertoprev
ent
ai
rmovingt
hroughthem.
The wi ng mov es down and
backwards.Theairoff
ersresi
stance
tothewing,whichgiv
esthebirdanupwar
dandf
orwar
dthr
ust
.Thebi
rdi
sthenabl
eto
mov eupwardsandforward.

Note:For
wardmov ementisprovi
dedbythestr
eam ofairdi
rect
edbackwar
dsbecause
thewingisfl
appedwit
ht heleadi
ngedgebelowthetrai
l
ingedge.I
nthiswayt
hewi ng
actsasanaerofoi
l
.
Upst
roke:
Thisisalsocal
ledtherecover
ystr
oke.I
tisbroughtaboutbyt
hecont
ract
ionoft
he
pector
ali
sminorandrel
axati
onoft
hepect
oral
i
smaj or
.
Thepect
oral
i
smi norcont
ract
sandt
hef
li
ghtf
eat
her
sopent
oal
l
ow ai
rthr
ought
hem
sucht
hatl
essresi
stancei
sfel
t.
The reduct
ion i
n ai
rresistance causes t
he wing t
o be raised.The wi
ng r
eaches
maximum point,t
hepectorali
smaj orresumesit
scontract
ions,star
ti
ngthedownward
st
rokeagain.

Ty
pesoff
li
ghti
nbi
rds

Ther
ear
etwot
ypesoff
li
ght
Act
iveandpassi
vef
li
ght
Act
ivef
li
ght
i
. Flapping(
acti
ve)fl
ight:duringflappingfli
ght,t
hebi r
di sacti
vel
yf l
yi
ngby
raisi
ngandloweri
ngi t
swi ngsact i
vely.I
tinvol
vesgreateruseofrespi
rat
ory
energyandassuch,t hi
st ypeoff li
ghtisalsorefer
redt oasacti
vefli
ght
.It
i
nv ol
vesact
ivemusclecontracti
on.
Passi
vef
li
ght
1.TheGl i
ding
Thisisat y
peoff l
ightwher ethebir
dmov esunderthegravit
at i
onalforcebyspreadi
ng
i
tswi ngsandtai
l.Thisresult
sintoslowmovementast hebir
dl ossesheight
.Iti
susuall
y
usedwhent hebirdisgoi ngtoland.Thebir
dsimplyspreadsouti tswingsandusesai r
curr
entstomov ei nair
.Thebi rdcaneasil
yloseheightbyslidingthr
ought heairatan
angletothegr
ound.
2.Thesoar i
ng
El
ev at
ionmov ementwherebythebi
rdgai
nshei
ghtwit
houtfl
appi
ngit
swi ngsoristhe
passiveri
singupofthebi
rdthr
oughai
rusi
ngai
rcur
rent
swhichpassunderthewings.
Normall
ybi r
dscarryoutpassivefli
ghtwhent hereisanai rcurrent
.Theseaircurr
ents
normal
lyar i
sewhenairfrom t
hegr oundisheatede.g.onahotdayorwhenbushesar e
bei
ngbur ned.Coolcur
rentsmov i
ngdownwar dsaref orgli
ding.Stor
ks,
Kitesandeagles
cansoarandgl i
deforl
ongdistances.Migrat
ionbir
dsal sousepassivefl
ightdur
ingthei
r
l
ongjourneys.
Si
mil
ari
ti
esbet
weenf
li
ghti
nbi
rdsandi
nsect
s
i. Bothusewi ngs.
i
i. Inboth,t
hewi ngsar emov edbysetsofant agonisticmuscles.
i
i
i. Mostbi r
dsandi nsectshav eastream li
nedshapet ominimizeai
rresi
stance
duri
ngfli
ght.
i
v. Largeinsectslikebut terf
liesanddr agonf l
ies,justli
kemostbi r
dscanshow
bothacti
veandgl i
dingf l
i
ght .
v. Inboth,musclecont racti
oni scont
rolledbythener voussystem.
Dif
ferencesbet weenfl
ightininsectsandbi rds.
I
nsect
s Bi
rds
i. Wi ngsaremov edbyonl ydirect -Wingsmaybemov edbydirectorindi
rect
fl
ightmuscles fli
ghtmuscles
i
i. Muscles ar e att
ached to t he
-The fli
ghtmuscl es ar
e at
tached tot he
exoskelet
on
sternum.
i
i
i. Wi ngs ar
e membranous,
supportedbyveinsofchi
ti
n. -Wingsar ethi
ck,withbonesandmuscl es
coveredbyfeather
s.

MOVEMENTI
NORGANI
SMSWI
THOUTMUSCLES
Thr
eedi
ff
erentt
ypesofmov
ementwi
l
lbeconsi
der
edi
nthi
ssect
ion.Thesear
e
amoeboi
d,ci
l
iar
yandf
lagel
l
amov
ement
s
1)Amoeboi
dmov
ement
.

Amoeboi
dmovementi
sshownbyamoeboi
dpr
otozoa(
e.g.amoeba)andal
soby
whi
tebl
oodcel
l
sinver
tebr
ates.
Amoebahasapl asmamembraneencl
osingcytoplasm di
ff
erent
iat
edint
oregi
ons:a
fl
uidendopl
asm i
nthecent
reandasti
ff
erectoplasm nextt
otheplasmamembr ane.
Mov ementdependsont r
ansf
ormationofcyt
oplasm from oneformtot heot
her.The
fl
uidcy t
oplasm (solf
orm)fl
owsintothecentr
esofpr ojecti
onscal
ledpseudopodia.
Onr eachingtheleadi
ngendoftheanimal,t
hesoi l
isconv ert
edint
othi
ckcy t
oplasm
(
gel form).Attherearendoftheani
mal,thegelisconvertedint
oasol andfl
ows
t
owar dst heleadi
ng
2)Ci
li
arymov
ement

Ci
l
iar
ymov
ementi
sshownbyci
l
iat
edpr
otozoasuchasPar
ameci
um.
Thecil
iabeati
nahi
ghl
ycoor
dinat
edway
,pr
opel
l
ingt
heani
mal
toi
nagi
ven
di
rect
ion.
Inpar
amecium,theci
l
iabeatdiagonal
l
ybackwardsfr
om l
efttor
ight
,pr
oduci
nga
spi
ralmot
ion.Duri
ngthebackwardeff
ect
ivest
roke,
theci
li
aryar
ealmostri
gid.
3)Fl
agel
lamov
ement

Fl
agel
l
amov
ementi
sexhi
bit
edi
neugl
ena.
SUPPORTI
NPLANTS
Necessi
tyf
orsuppor
tandmov
ementi
npl
ant
s
1.Itensur
esthatl
eafbl
adesar
ewel
lspr
eadt
oexposemaxi
mum sur
facear
eaf
or
sunli
ghtabsor
pti
on

2.I
tensur
est
hatf
lower
sar
ewel
lexposedt
opol
l
inat
ionagent
sli
kewi
ndandi
nsect
s

3.I
tensur
est
hatf
rui
tsandseedsar
ewel
lexposedt
odi
sper
sal
agent
s

4.Suppor
tst
ruct
uresenabl
epl
ant
stor
esi
stbr
eakagebyf
orceofwi
ndandwei
ght

Suppor
tinpl
ant
sisduet
o;
 Cel
ltur
gidi
ty

 Pr
esenceofsuppor
tmat
eri
al

 Suppor
tst
ruct
ures

Cellt
urgi
dit
yofallcel
l
sinherbaceousplant
scausesthepl
antstem andl
eav
est
obe
fi
rm.Thestem becomeserectorupri
ghtandthel
eaveswellspr
eadout.
Suppor
tti
ssueshavest
rengt
heni
ngmateri
ali
nthei
rcel
l
s.Exampl
esi
ncl
ude;
xyl
em,
par
enchyma,col
l
enchymaandscl
erechy
ma.
Ti
ssue St
rengtheni
ng Locat
ionoft
issuei
npl
ant
mater
ial
Xy
lem Li
gni
n Vascul
arbundl
esofpr
imar
yxy
lem
For
mswoodi
nsecondar
yxy
lem
Col
lenchy
ma Cel
l
ulose Beneat
hepider
misofst
ems,
leafpet
iol
esand
al
ongveinsofl
eaves
Scl
erenchy
ma Li
gni
n Foundnextt
oxy
lem andphl
oem out
err
egi
on
ofcor
tex
Cov
eri
ngoff
rui
tsandseedcoat
s
Par
enchy
ma Cel
l
ulose Maj
orcomponentofcor
texandpi
th
Thev
ascul
arbundl
esar
ear
rangedcent
ral
l
y,t
husr
einf
orci
ngpl
antor
gansuppor
t

Suppor
tstr
uct
ures,
someplantshav
etendr
il
sandt
wini
ngst
emswhi
chcoi
lar
ound
suppor
tobj
ect
stosuppor
tplant
switht
hinst
ems
ASSI
GNMENT
1. (
a) Howar
ebi
rdsadapt
edt
ofl
i
ght
?
(
b) Descr
ibehowf
lappi
ngf
li
ghti
sbr
oughtabouti
nbi
rds.
2. (
a) St
atet
headapt
ati
onsofeacht
ypeofv
ert
ebr
afoundi
nman.
(i
) Cer
vical (
ii
) t
hor
aci
c (i
i
i)l
umbar (
iv) sacr
al (
v)
caudal
(
b) St
atet
hedi
ff
erencesbet
weent
heat
lasandaxi
sver
tebr
a.
3. (
a) Howar
ethebi
rdsadopt
edf
orf
li
ght
?
(
b) Namet
het
ypesoff
eat
her
sfoundi
nabi
rd
(
c) Dr
awandl
abel
thest
ruct
ureofaqui
l
lfeat
her
.
4. ( a) Descr i
bethest
ruct
ureofdi
ff
erentt
ypesofabi
rd'
sfeat
her
s,st
ati
ngt
he
funct
ionofeacht
ype,
(
b) Whatf
act
orscont
ri
but
etot
hebi
rds'
abi
l
ityt
ofl
y?
5.Thef
igur
ebel
owshowsadi
agr
am oft
hei
nter
nal
str
uct
ureofanar
m
 a. Namet
hepar
tsl
abel
l
edA,
B,andC.
b. Gi
veonef
unct
ionofst
ruct
uresAandB
c. Namet
het
ypeofj
ointt
hatexi
stsatQ
d. Whatmaycauset
heaccumul
ati
onofl
act
icaci
dinAandB?
e. Whatwoul
dbet
heef
fectofhi
ghconcent
rat
ionofl
act
icaci
dinmuscl
esA
andB?
6. (
a) Expl
ainwhyaskel
etoni
snecessar
yint
hemammal
i
anbody
(
b) Wi t
houtt
he ai
d ofdi
agr
ams descr
ibe how a human ar
m can be
st
rai
ght
ened.