9/13/2022

Session outline

In this session we are going to see,

 LCR circuit
 Phasor method
 Analytical method
 Q factor
 Power factor
 LC oscillations

AC circuit with series L,C & R / series LCR circuit

VL 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 V 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖

VR i

VC

𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 V 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧

Let, VL>VC
VL-VC

xL-xC

V −V x −x
tan  = tan  =
 V 𝑅

R
i R

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Resonance in LCR circuit

V V V x −x
𝑖= = = tan  =
𝑧 𝑅 2 + x −x 2
2 2 𝑅
𝑅 + 𝐿𝜔 −
V 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆
𝐴𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, x = x 𝑖 =
1 𝑅
𝐿𝜔 =
𝐶𝜔
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝜔 is resonant frequency.
For 𝜔 current is maximum in the circuit

(𝜔 )2 =

1 1
𝜔 =  =
𝐿𝐶 2𝜋 𝐿𝐶

Q-factor / Sharpness of resonance curve

V V V
𝑖= =
𝑅 2 + 𝐿𝜔 − 2 𝑅 2 2 2
𝑅 + 𝐿𝜔 −
1 ε 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
𝐴𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐿𝜔 = 𝑖 =
𝐶𝜔 𝑅
𝑅 2= 𝑅 2 + 𝐿𝜔 − 2
𝑖
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠,
2 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑒,
2𝑅2 = 𝑅2 + 𝐿𝜔 − 2
𝜔 = 𝜔 + ∆𝜔
𝜔 = 𝜔 − ∆𝜔 𝑅2 = 𝐿𝜔 − 2

2∆𝜔 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ

𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠
𝑖 V
=
2 2 2 𝑅 = 𝐿𝜔 −
𝑅 + 𝐿𝜔 −

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Q-factor / Sharpness of resonance curve

𝜔 𝐿𝜔 1
1 𝑄= = =
𝑅 = 𝐿 𝜔 + ∆𝜔 − 2∆𝜔 𝑅 𝐶𝜔 𝑅
𝐶 𝜔 + ∆𝜔
𝑄 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
∆𝜔 1 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑐𝑛𝑦
𝑅 = 𝐿𝜔 1+ −
𝜔 ∆𝜔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
𝐶𝜔 1+
𝜔

∆𝜔 1 ∆𝜔
𝑅 = 𝐿𝜔 1+ − 1+
𝜔 𝐶𝜔 𝜔

𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

∆𝜔 ∆𝜔
𝑅 = 𝐿𝜔 1+ − 𝐿𝜔 1−
𝜔 𝜔

2∆𝜔
𝑅 = 𝐿𝜔
𝜔

Power factor

Let us consider an ac circuit wih current and voltage having a phase difference
of . The average power consumed in a full cycle is given by the equation,

𝑃 = V i 𝑑𝑡 = V sinω𝑡 i sin(ω𝑡 + )𝑑𝑡

𝑃 =V i sinω𝑡 sin(ω𝑡 + )𝑑𝑡

𝑃 =V i sinω𝑡 sinω𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠ω𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑡

𝑃 =V i sin2ω𝑡 cos + sinω𝑡 cosω𝑡 sin 𝑑𝑡

Vi
𝑃 = V i cos sin2ω𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + sin (sin2ω𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
2

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Power factor

After integrating and applying the limits, we get,

ε i
𝑃 = V i cos sin2ω𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + sin (sin2ω𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
2
1/2 0

Vi V i
𝑃 = cos = cos 𝑃 =V i cos
2 2 2

The term cos is called power factor PF . It does not have unit.
The value of power factor, cos can vary from 0 to 1.

Power factor

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Transformers

𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑀 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

𝑑 V 𝑁
V = −𝑁 V ∝𝑁 =
𝑑𝑡 V 𝑁
𝑑 V 𝑁
V = −𝑁 V ∝𝑁 =
𝑑𝑡 V 𝑁

Step-up and Step-down transformers

𝐼𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟,

V 𝑖
V 𝑖 =V𝑖 =
V 𝑖
𝑁
𝐼𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 − 𝑢𝑝 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟: 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, >1
𝑁
𝑁 >𝑁 V >V 𝑖 <𝑖

𝑁
𝐼𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 − 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟: 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, <1
𝑁
𝑁 <𝑁 V <V 𝑖 >𝑖

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Types of losses in transformers

𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑠.

𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑓𝑡 𝑖𝑜𝑟𝑛.

Analytical method for resonance in LCR circuit

𝑑𝑖 𝑞
𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖 + = V 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝑖=
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑞
𝐿 +𝑅 + = V 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑞.
𝑊ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑞.
𝑞 = 𝑞 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃
𝑑𝑞
= 𝜔𝑞 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑞
= −𝜔 𝑞 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃
𝑑𝑡

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Analytical method for resonance in LCR circuit

𝑂𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑠,

𝐿(−𝜔 𝑞 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 ) + 𝑅 𝜔𝑞 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃
1
+ (𝑞 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 ) = V 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝐶
1
𝑞 𝜔[𝑅 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 + − 𝐿𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 ] = V 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝐶𝜔

𝑞 𝜔 𝑅 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 + 𝑋 − 𝑋 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 = V 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑅 2 + x −x 2

𝑅 𝑋 −𝑋 V
𝑞 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 + sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧

Analytical method for resonance in LCR circuit

𝑅 𝑋 −𝑋
𝑞 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 + sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 = 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑧 𝑧

𝑅 𝑋 −𝑋
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠  = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 
𝑧 𝑧

𝑞 𝜔 𝑐𝑜𝑠  cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛  sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 = 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

𝑞 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠  + sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛  = 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

𝑞 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 −   = 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝜋 𝜋
𝐿𝑒𝑡, 𝜃 −   = − 𝑞 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡 − = 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
2 2

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Analytical method for resonance in LCR circuit

𝑞 𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑖 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑖 = 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑞 𝜔=𝑖

ε ε ε
𝑋 −𝑋 𝑖= = =
𝑡𝑎𝑛  = 𝑧 𝑅 2 + x −x 2 1
𝑅 𝑅 2 + − 𝐿𝜔 2
𝐶𝜔
ε
𝐴𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, x = x 𝑖 =
𝑅
1 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝜔 is resonant frequency.
𝐿𝜔 = (𝜔 )2 =
𝐶𝜔 For 𝜔 current is maximum in the circuit

1 1
𝜔 =  =
𝐿𝐶 2𝜋 𝐿𝐶

LC Oscillations

𝐵𝑦 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐾𝑖𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑤,

𝑞 𝑑𝑖 𝑞 𝑑2𝑞
+𝐿 =0 +𝐿 2 =0
𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝑑𝑡

𝑞 𝑑 𝑑𝑞 𝑑2𝑞 1
+𝐿 =0 = − 𝑞
𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡2 𝐿𝐶
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑆𝐻𝑀
𝑑2𝑦 1 1 1
= −𝜔2𝑦 𝜔2 = 𝜔= =
𝑑𝑡2 𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶 2𝜋 𝐿𝐶

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝜔

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Oscillation of energy in LC oscillations

1 𝑘
𝜔= 𝜔=
𝐿𝐶 𝑚