BIOLOGY PRACTICALS

Experiment Experiment Name

No.
1. Prepare a temporary mount to observe pollen germination.
2. Study the plant population density by quadrat method.
3. Study the plant population frequency by quadrat method.
4. Prepare a temporary mount of onion root tip to study mitosis.
5. Isolate DNA from available plant material such as spinach, green pea seeds,
papaya, etc.

Serial No. Spotting

1. To study pollen germination on stigma through a permanent slide.
2. Identification of stages of gamete development, i.e., T.S. of testis and T.S. of
ovary through permanent slides.
3. To study T.S. of blastula through permanent slides (Mammalian).
4. To study and analyse the given pedigree chart for genetic trait of blood group.
5. To study and analyse the given pedigree chart for genetic trait of Widow’s
peak.
6. To study the process of controlled pollination - emasculation, tagging and
bagging.
7. To identify disease causing organisms like ascaris, entamoeba histolytica,
plasmodium and ringworms.
8. To study the flowers adapted to pollination by wind.
9. To study the flowers adapted to pollination by insects.
 Dated

P-1 EXPERIMENT NO-1

m Slide.
To Study folle
Geminaion

*Aim

&APPARATUS REqUIRED
o Difunent Flowey
'ollen Gains MonobruaK .CoverSlib Beake.
Glass slide
.Caviby slide meedle doppeu

*PROCEDURE

dops e ubent Solution

Jake a fe
avulable
2 Noo take some Houoe eCocally
Speu'es.

3 Cove i t wi tt covesip.
4Place the slideundístuoed fox Sometîme.

5 Repeat the expeximent oith pollen o Otae

Howes:
oqSuonose
Nutrent&olutionl OOmL dishlled wa Solvent
O mg o c aud
O mg Po tassium Nitrale
d mg Manesium aulphake
 Dalrd.nre

GERMINATED

PoLLEN GRAINS.

NON- 6ERMINATED

PoLLEN GRALNS.
EXINE
INTINE

GERM
PORE

/ NUcLEUS

V E GE TATIVE
CELL

GENERATIVE

CELL

MALE GAME TESC2)

>TUBE NUCLEUS.
Teacher's Signature

KK
 Dated

*PRECAUTIONS
Pollen
*USe dean and d Sides b obsenvt
grains.

* Flouous showld be fsaly pluuked.

Nutient Solutio shod not oveaflouo

a feo olle Showd be dusted.

on
 (
Dated

ebseyations

NAME OF No. OF PoLLEN NO OF POLLEN OF

S.No FLOWER GRAINS AFTER RAUNS AFTER
5 min. IO min:_ GERMINATION

Rass A 12 19 10.1

2- ET UNIAA 8 21 41.1

HIBISCUs13 17 63

Teacher's Signatur
KK
Aim
To study the plant population density by the quadrat method.

Materials Required

• Nail.
• Thread
• Hammer

Procedure

• In the selected site of study, hammer the nails firmly without damaging the vegetation.
• Fix four nails to make a square.
• Tie each end of the nails using a thread, to make a 1 m X 1 m quadrat.
• Similarly make nine more quadrats randomly in the site of study.
• Count the number of individuals of a species “A” present in the first quadrat.
• Record the data in the table.
• Similarly count the number of individuals of the species “A” in other quadrats respectively and record
the data in the table.
• Count the number of individuals of a species “B” present in the all the quadrats.
• Record the data in the table.
• Repeat the same procedure for species C and record the data in the table.
• We can calculate the density of plant population by this equation:

Observations

Conclusion
The population density is the highest for species A and the lowest for species C. The density value is
expressed as the number of individuals per unit area.
Aim
To study the plant population frequency by the quadrat method.

Materials Required

• Cotton/Nylon thread
• 4 nails
• Hammer

Procedure

• In the selected site of study, hammer the nails firmly in the soil without damaging the vegetation.
• Fix four nails to make a square.
• Tie each end of the nails using a thread, to make a 1 m X 1 m quadrat.
• Similarly, make nine more quadrats randomly in the site of study.
• Select the plant species for study of the population frequency.
• Observe the presence of species “A” in the first quadrat and mark it in the table.
• Similarly, check for the presence of species “A” in other quadrats respectively and record the data in
the table.
• Observe the presence of species “B” in all quadrats and mark it in the table.
• Repeat the same procedure for species C and record the data in the table.
• We can calculate the frequency of plant populations by this equation:

Percentage frequency= (No. of sampling units in which species occur)/(Total number of sampling units
used in the study)*100

Observations

Conclusion
The plant population frequency is the highest in species A and the least in species B. It shows how many times
a plant species is present in the provided number of sample quadrats.
 Q6 Dated..a

EXP ERIMENT NO -12

*|HIM|- To pre þane tempor am aeto camin&

Stained mount of Oni o n ooot 6P stud

vario s stages ofmito sis.

REUIRE MENTS-
o Coi cal laIKS SdSsorS dissecing nee dle
Petri dishes. ForcepS mete alcoual
idu
*
A cetic au d
G* Hydo nlonc ai

* P ROCEDURE
1 tolleckt bulbs 4 cut off o ld vots
u tPut tae oni O w i Hh uts ut base touo dL
ae o aten.
NO o Cut he fein root albout bmm
mm
Tace out the ots aCC. o E é nerds
ydolyse it.
Tace out o o t Gps axd wa tuemw.
Put a drop of aceta mide t t u e slide.

RECAU TION s
Root bpS be
ed in
moming
ide o tt stained tissue be me c
 Dated

-ONION
ROOTSS

-oATER

os e ations

- NUCLEAR ENVELOPE

CEL M EMBRANE

CHROMATIN THREADS
NVCLEDLUS

CENTRIOLESINTERPHASE

CYTOPLASM

ASTER
CEN TRIOLE

NUCLEAR
ENYELDrEE
PROPHAse
NUCLEOLUS
CHRDM6soME

Teacher's Signature
KK
 (28)
Dated

-SPINDLE FIBRES

METAPHASE CENTROMERE

CHROMATIDS ARE PULED

ArART
ANAPHASE

PAIR OF CENTRIDES

NULLEOLUS
CHRoMATIN THRE ADS
TELOPHASE (CirDKINE SIS NUCLEAR ENVELOPG

Teacher's Signature . '**********'**********'*****

KK
 OBSERVATION
1. On observing the material (tissue) under the microscope
(compound microscope) rectangular cells with pink nucleus are

seen.
On
otbserving underhigh power different stages in mitosis could
be seen. (refer
figures)
About the different stages of mitosis :
(a) Interphase
() Non-dividing stage of cell and its nucleus.
(ii) Replication of DNA along with synthesis of basic
nuclear protein especially histones.
(i) Svnthesis of energy rich compounds which provide
energy for mitosis.
(i) Chromosome appear very thin thread like, chromatin
network.
(b) Prophase
() Chromatin network begins to coil fibres shorten and
thicken to be seen as slender thread like structures
chromosomes.
(i7) Each chromosome appear to consist of two longitudinal
identical threads càlled sister chromatid, the two
chromatid are attached to each other by means of a
narrow point called centromere.
(ii) Late prophase cells show broken nuclear envelope, two
asters come to lie in the area of future spindle poles.

c)Metaphase:
() Chromosomes become more conspicuous, nuclear
membrane disintegrate completely.
seen. In animal
(ii) Spindle apparatus is prominently
cells asters act as poles and each aster at poles called

amphiastral. In plant cells, of

due to non-presence
centrioles no asters formed so the spindle formed
called anastral.

(11) Chromosome fibres tighten and assemble at the

c a n be seen in cells (at metaphase plate)
equator,
(d) Anaphase:
chromosome can be seen
() The sister chromatids of each
separating or separated.
 (1) The new chromosomes (chromatids) move towards
Pair of centrioles
the poles, with centromere directed towards poles and
Nucleolus
arms towards equator (refer Fig.). Chromatin threads
(iin) At the end of Anaphase, the two similar groups of
Nuciear envelope
chromosome reach opposite poles. Cytokinesis beginning
() Telophase : (division of the cel)

() At poles chromosomes become long thread like

Telophase
structure.
(i) Chromosomes become thin, granular and thread like and overlap to form chromatin network.
(iii) Spindle and microtubule of aster disappear.
(iv) Nucleolus reappears. Nuclear membrane get reconstructed around each group of chromosomes that have
re-organised into network of chromatin threads.
() Formation of two nuclei at poles occur called karyokinesis.
f) Cytokinesis
(i) Cells with two nuclei and furrow in the middle can be seen.
(i) Cell plate formation can be seen.
(ii) Finally divided cells can be seen.
(iv) In plant cells cytokinesis is from inside to outside, a cell plate is formed in the middle of cell by endoplasmic
reticulum and dictyosomes. In animal cell a constriction divides the cell into two daughter cells.
Aim
To isolate DNA from plant materials such as spinach, green peas, papaya and any other available plant material.

Necessary Materials & Apparatus

• Any available plant materials
• Mortar and pestle
• Test tubes
• Beakers
• Ethanol
• Spool
• Enzymes (Cellulase, ribonuclease, lipases, protease)

Procedure
• Take the available plant material and grind it in the mortar.
• Treat the material with cellulase to break down the cell wall of the plant cells.
• Next, treat it with protease to hydrolyze the peptide bonds of proteins in the plant material. In other
words, the enzyme removes the histone proteins which are intertwined with the DNA.
• Dissolve RNA with ribonuclease
• Use lipase to dissolve lipids.
• Add chilled ethanol to enable the precipitation of the DNA. It essentially increases DNA concentration.
• Use spooling to extract the precipitated DNA. Spooling involves winding the fine threads of DNA on to a
reel.

Observation
The DNA appears as white precipitates of fine thread on the spool.
EXPERIMENT 2
STUDY OF POLLEN GERMINATION ON STIGMA
THROUGH PERMANENT SLIDE

OBJECTIVE
To study pollen germination on stigma through a permanent, slide.

REQUIREMENT
A Permanent slide of teased stigma with germinated pollens, A compound microscope.

PROCEDURE
() Take the prepared permanent slide and then mount on a
microscope placed in a well lightened area.
(i) Observe it carefully under the compound microscope and note observation.
your

0BSERVATIONS
() You will observe the pollen grain with pollen tube and pollen tube nucleus
alongwith two male gametes. Pollen
grains are seen germinating into style.
(ii) Exine and intine of the pollen grain can also be observed along with
germ pore.
(ii) Draw the diagram in your practical file and label it.

Pollen tube
Male gametes

Style

Fig.: Germinating pollen grain on style/stigma.

 PRECAUTIONS
i Carefully mount the slide on a microscope.
i Do not allow any student in front of the
microscope.
ii) Alwayshold the slide from its sides.

(iv) Handle the slide with care.

EXPERIMENT 4
OBJECTIVE
To study permanent slides of T.S. testis and T.S. ovary for identifying the stages of gamete development.

REQUIREMENT
ermanent slides of mammalian testis and ovary and a microscope.

OBSERVATIONS
T.S. testis of mammal
ldentifying Characteristics
1. Testis is composed of large number of seminiferous tubules
2. Each seminiferous tubule is lined by germinal epithelium and contains several layers of cells in the following sequence:
(i) Spermatogonia along the periphery of the tubule
(i) Primary spermatocytes
(i) Secondary spermatocytes
(iv) Spermatids
() Spermatozoa sperms in the centre
or

3. Special large Sertoli cells are present on which sperms are attached in clusters.
4. Each sperm has a head and a long tail.

Seminiferous
tubule

Sertoli cell

-Interstitial
cells

Blood capillary

Mature sperms

Spermatocytes
at ditterent
stages oft
developnment
Connective
tlssue
Fig.:1.S. of Mamnn.alian Testis
T.S. of mammalian ovary
Identifying Characteristics
1. Ovary is bounded
by germinal epithelium and filled with stroma.
2. Stroma has Graafian follicles in different stages of development. These include :
(i) Growing follicles
(i) Primary follicles
(iii) Mature Graafian follicles
(iv) Ruptured Graafian follicles
(v) Corpus luteum
3. Mature Graafian follicle consists of a central ovum surrounded by follicular cells.
4. Corpus luteum is formed after the rupture of Graafian follicle.
- Germinal epitheliumn

- Oogonials

Corpus luteum

Growing follicles

Antrum of Graafian follicle

Oocyte in Graafian folicle

Ovarian stroma

Follicle cut near its surface

Developing follicle in cortex

Primary follicle in cortex

Blood vessels in medulla

Mesovarium

Fig.:T.S. of Mammalian ovary

EXPERIMENT 6
OBJECTIVE
To study T.S. of blastula through permanent slide.

REQUIREMENT
Permanent slide of T.S. blastula of
frog and a
microscope.

OBSERVATIONS
Main characters
Comments
1. It is round bal1-like structure.
2. Micromeres and macromeres are distinct.
3. Micromeres are small cells present in the upper animal hemisphere. Macromeres are
vegetal hemisphere. large cells present in the lower
4. A cavity called blastocoel is
present in the animal hemisphere and is roofed by micromeres. It is filled with a fluid.
Blastocoel Micromerees
Trophoblast
(each cell is blastomere)

Blastocoel
Macromeres
Inner cell mass

Fig. A: T.S. of Blastula

Fig.B: Human Blastocyst
EXPERIMENT8A
OBJECTIVE
To study and analyse the given pedigree chart for genetic trait of blood group.

REQUIREMENT
Pedigree chart for genetic trait of blood group.

EXPLANATION
1. Squares indicate male members and circles indicate female members. Parents are joined by horizontal lines a
offsprings are joined by vertical lines.
2. Solid symbols represent the member having blood group 'A' and open symbol denotes individuals with any other
blood group.

OBSERVATION
1. The given pedigree chart shows that a male having blood group 'A' marries a normal female with any other blood
group. They have four children - three sons and one daughter. Onily daughter is born having blood group 'A.

2. Marriage between a female having blood group 'A" with a male without blood group 'A' produces three sons and
one daughter. None of the offsprings is having blood group 'A'.

CONCLUSIONS

(a) Inheritance of blood group is not related to sex.

(b) Male parent with blood group 'A' is heterozygous (1T°).
() Daughter with blood group 'A" is also heterozygous(1T)

Fig.: Blood Group Pedigree Chart

XPERIMENT 8D
OBJECTIVE
Study and analyse the given pedigree chart for genetic trait Widow's peak.

REQUIREMENT
Pedigree chart for genetic trait of Widow's peak.

EXPLANATION
1. Squares indicate male members and circles indicate female members. Parents joined by horizontal lines and their
offsprings are joined by vertical lines.
2. Solid symbols represents the member carrying the trait under investigation, i.e., Widow's peak.

OBSERVATION
1. In the given pedigree chart a female having widow's peak marries a normal man.
2. Out of four children produced by the parernts, only one son is born with widow's peak.
3. In next generation, marriage between widow peak male with normal female produces children with both the
characters.

CONCLUSIONS

Widow's peak-"'V'-shaped hairline across the forehead is an autosomal dominant trait. The gene of this trait is present on

any one of the autosomes.

 aa AA

aa Ad Aa

aa Aa aa Aa
Fig.:Widow's Peak Pedigree Chart

Fig.:Widow's peak vs. straight hairline.

 EXPERIMENT 9
EXERCISE ON CONTROLLED POLLINATION

OBJECTIVE
study the process of controlled pollination, emasculation, tagging and
bagging
REQUIREMENT
Pea seeds, Pots,
Polythene, Thread, Brush.

EXPLANATION
1. Select five round seeds and five
wrinkled seeds of pea.
2. Sow them in and let them
separate pots grow until buds appear.
3. Label the pots immediately after
sowing the seeds.
4. Remove the immature stamens of floral buds of
wrinkled seed plant with the help of forceps. This is called
Emasculation.
5. Select at least 10 flowers the
on
plant for emasculation.
6. Cover the emasculated flower (A) with a polythene bag
pollination is avoided. This is known as Bagging.
immediately so that self-pollination and undesired cross

7. Once the flower becomes fully matured, take

out pollens from anther of second
parent
plant (B) and artificially transfer them to
stigma of emasculated flower (A).
8. Collect the pods and seeds by the
(i) Pea plant raised from round seeds.
(i) Emasculated flowers from wrinkled
Emasculation Plant A Plant B
seed. Bagging
(iil) Other flowers from wrinkled seed.

OBSERVATION

Round seed pea plant (Pisun sativum) produced both round and wrinkled seeds in
ratio of 3: 1.

CONCLUSIONS
(i) Shape in pea seed has two contrasting factors-Wrinkled and Round.
 () Wnklei sei shape is a messive character and round serd shape is a dominant character.
( Wrinklead shape exprasees itselt oniy when both the recessive genes are present.

PRECAUTIONS
Only healthy seeis are to be taken.
() Emascuiation is to be done betore the onset of maturation of anthers
EXPERIMENT 10
OBJECTIVE
Dorsal lip
To identify disease causing organisms like Ascaris, Entamoeba, Plasmodium, Ringworm
of diseases
through permanent slides or specimens and comment on symptoms
that they cause.
Excretory pore

REQUIREMENT
Fermanent slides or specimens of the organisms and microscope/hand-lens.
-Gonopore Mouth
Dorsal lip
OBSERVATION
Excretory pore
MAIN CHARACTERISTICS Lateral line

I. ASCARIS (ROUNDWORM)
Comments Female Male
1. It is found in human intestine, specially of children. Laterai line
2. The body is elongated, cylindrical with pointed ends.
3. In male, the body is shorter and posterior end is curved having penial
setae.

is straight.
4. In female, the body is much elongated and posterior end
Penial setae
three lips at anterior end. Anus (in female) or cloacal
5. Mouth is bounded by Tail
lies just in front of posterior end.
aperture (in male) Anus
side just behind anterior end.
6. Excretory pore is present on ventral
of intestine and abdominal pain.
7. Heavy infection of Ascaris causes blockage Fig.: Ascaris
It may also cause Appendicitis, Enteritis and Pneumonia

Classification
Phylum Nematoda
Genus Ascaris
Iumbricoides
Species
 Pseudopodium
II. ENTAMOEBA HISTOLYTICA
Comments Ectoplasm
1. It is found as parasite in the human intestine. ana
inner endoplasm
2. Its body is divisible into an outer ectoplasm and oO Endoplasm
covered by plasmalemma.
Witn
and food vacuoles
.
The endoplasm has a single large nucleus Ingested
ingested red blood corpuscles. R.B.C.
4. It has lobe like pseudopodium. Nucleus
5. Entamoeba causes a disease called amoebic dysentery or amoebiasis.
and
6. Symptoms of amoebiasis include constipation, abdominal pain Nucleolus
stools with excess mucous and blood.
Classification
Phylum Protozoa Fig.:Entamoeba histolytica
Genus Entamoeba
Species histolytica
I1. PLASMODIUM (MALARIAL PARASITE)
Comments
1. Malarial parasite enters human body as sporozoite by the bite of female Anopheles mosquito.
2. Sporozoite is spindle shaped and uninucleate organism covered
by pellicle.
3. Sporozoites multiply within the liver cells and then attack RBCs.
4. In RBCs the parasite passes through trophozoite, signet ring and amoeboid
stage.
5. The rupture of RBCs is associated with the release of toxic substances
causing chill and high recurring fever every
three to four days.
When a female Anopheles mosquito bites an infected person, these
parasites enter into the mosquitoes body and
mutliply to form sporozoites.

Pollicle

-Nucleus

Cytoplasm

Fig.:Sporozoites of Plasmodium
Iv. RINGWORMs

COMMENTS
and Epidermophyton are responsible for the ringworms.
1. Fungi belonging to genera Microsporum, Trichophyton
2. It is one of the most common infectious diseases in man.

skin, nails and scalp are the main symptoms

3. Appearance of dry, scaly lesions on various parts of the body such as

of the disease.
such in the groin or between in toes.
help these fungi to grow, in skin folds
as
4. Heat and moisture
or by using towels and clothes of infected person.
5. Ringworms are acquired from soil
EXPERIMENT 3A
0BJECTIVE
To study the flowers adapted to pollination by wind.

REQUIREMENT
Specimens of flowers like wheat and Acacia etc., forceps, needle, etc.

OBSERVATIONS
(a) Wheat
i) Wheat flowers are composed of spikelets which are made up of bract-like structure glumes.
(i) The flower is very small having perianth in the form of two small lodicules which offer least resistance to the
movement of pollen.
(ii) The flower has three exerted stamens with versatile fixation. They yield pollens to the air easily.
(iv) The stigma are two and feathery to catch the wind-borne pollens easily.
(b) Acacia
(i) Individual Acacia flowers are arranged in inflorescence usually in the form of globular heads.
(i) The flower is small with a small corolla tube.
(ii) Stamens are numerous with long filaments exposed to air.
Enormous quantity of pollen is yielded.

Stamen

Corolla
Calyx
Loaflets A flowor

Anthor
Loaf

ESS Styl
Fllamont-
Inflorescence
Corolla
Ovary
Placenta Sepal
Stem- Thalamu8-
Stipule
(Spino) L.S. of flower
A flowering twlg
Ovule
Loculo
T.S. of ovary Wall
Flg.:Acaia
EXPERIMENT 3B
0BJECTIVE
To
study the flowers adapted to pollination byinsects.

REQUIREMENT
rlowers of Brassica and Petunia.
 OBSERVATIONS
(a) Brassica:
() The flower is of bright yellow colour to attract the insects.
(ii) Stamens have different lengths i.e., two outer smaller and four inner bigger.
(in) There are four prominent nectaries which are sought by bees and insects.
(a) Petunia:
) The flowers are
complete, showy and have variously coloured corollas.
(ii) Stamens a fused with corolla tube so that insects rupture the anthers when they go inside the flower to seek
nectaries.
in) Bright nectaries occur at the base of stamens which are
sought after by the insects.

Petal
Petal
Stamen Stigma
Stamen

Sepal -
Sepal Pedicel-
Pedicel
A flower A flower

Petal Stigma
Petal
Stigma
style
Stamen Anther

Ovary Filamept
Ovay Style
Sepal Sepal
Pedicel
Thalamas
Thalamus Pedicel
LS. of flower
LS. of flower
Fig.: Brassica
Fig.:Petunia