Module 3

SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY LABORATORY HIGH SCHOOL – SENIOR HIGH
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
EA
MODULE 3
STOICHIOMETRY
MOST ESSENTIAL LEARNING COMPETENCIES:
At the end of the module you should be able to:

1. Calculate the empirical formula from the percent composition of a compound;
2. Calculate molecular formula given molar mass;
3. Write and balance chemical equations;
4. Construct mole or mass ratios for a reaction in order to calculate the amount of reactant
needed or amount of product formed in terms of moles or mass;
5. Calculate percent yield and theoretical yield of the reaction;
6. Explain the concept of limiting reagent in a chemical reaction;
7. Identify the excess reagent(s);
8. LAB. Determine mass relationship in a chemical reaction.
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
EA
One of the essential parts of chemistry is stoichiometry. Stoichiometry is the branch of chemistry
which deals with the numerical relationships of elements and compounds and the mathematical
proportions of reactants and products in chemical transformations. The word stoichiometry comes from
the Greek words stoicheion (‘element”) and metron (“measure”). It is founded on the law of
conservation of mass where the total mass reactants is equal to the total mass of the products. The
quantities in stoichiometry problems are expressed as atoms, particles, moles and units of volume,
which means you, need to be comfortable with conversion unit and basic mathematics.
Stoichiometry is used in industry quite often to determine the amount of materials required to
produce the desired amount of products in a given useful equation. Stoichiometry calculations help
scientists and engineers working in industry to estimate the amount of products they will obtain from a
given procedure: it can also help decide whether the product is profitable to produce or not.
Companies make many chemical substances, through chemical reactions, that are helpful in our
lives. For example, addition of stannous fluoride, SnF2 , to tooth paste to prevent the tooth decay in
tooth paste industry; aspartame, a sugar substitute, in soft drinks in soft drink industry; preparation of
citric acid from the fermentation of sugars (sucrose) in air in food industry; synthesis of aspirin in
pharmaceutical industry; use of titanium metal and its alloys in aerospace industry; extraction of
titanium from its ore rutile, TiO2, in metallurgy; production of the bleaching agent, calcium hypochlorite,
from sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, and chlorine in detergent industry; manufacture of
polyethylene (which is found in some milk cartons) in polymer industry; removal of dangerous mercury
compounds from industrial waste in environmental chemistry. The list could go on. Each one of these
products requires stoichiometry.
This module deals with various kinds of measurements that will help students understand the
calculations involving chemical formulas and equations. It is also used in developing the concepts
empirical formula, molecular formula, limiting reactant and percentage yield.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through the lesson, you should be able to:

1. explain relative atomic mass and average atomic mass;
2. define a mole;
3. illustrate the Avogadro’s number with examples;
4. determine the molar mass of compounds;
5. calculate the mass of a given number of moles of an element or compound or vice versa;
6. calculate the mass of a given number of particles of an element or compound or vice versa;
7. calculate the percent composition of a compound from its formula;
8. calculate the empirical formula from the percent composition of a compound;
9. calculate the molecular formula given the molar mass;
10. construct mole or mass ratios for a reaction in order to calculate the amount of reactant needed
or amount of product formed in terms of moles or mass;
11. calculate the limiting reagent, the amount of excess reagent(s), and the theoretical yield in a
chemical reaction;
12. calculate the percent yield in a reaction if the actual yield is known.
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Recall the measurement skills that have been discussed during your junior high school level.
You should take note that conversion factors and proper use of are significant figures are necessary in
solving stoichiometry problems.
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
PRECISION AND ACCURACY

Precision: A measure of how closely individual measurements agree with one
another.
Accuracy: Refers to how closely individual measurements agree with the correct or
true value.
SIGNIFICANT DIGITS
The significant digits in a number are the number of digits that give reasonably reliable
information. The number of significant figures indicates the preciseness of a measurement
Significant digits are especially important any time experimental measurements are made and
used in calculations. The appropriate number of significant digits must be used to indicate how
accurately the measurement was made, and the final answer must not contain any more significant
digits than the least accurate measurement.
Guidelines in determining the number of significant figures/digits in a measured quantity:

1. All nonzero digits are significant - 1234 cm (four significant figures).
2. Zeros between nonzero digits are significant - 209 kg (three significant figures).
3. Zeros to the left of the first nonzero are not significant; they merely indicate the
position of the decimal point - 0.08 g ( one significant figure); 0.0056 cm( two
significant figures)..
4. Zeros that fall both at the end of a number of a number and to the right of the
decimal point are significant - 0.03150 lb. (4 significant figures); 9.00 ft. (three
significant figures)..
5. When a number ends in zeros but contain no decimal point, the zeros may or
may not be significant - 10,300 g (three, four, or five significant figures). We
Will describe how to remove this ambiguity below.
The use of exponential notation avoids the potential ambiguity of whether the
zeros at the end of a number are significant.
1.03 x 106 g (three significant figures)

1.030 x 106 g (four significant figures)
1.0300 X 106g (five significant figures)
In these numbers, all the zeros to the right of the decimal point are significant (rules 2 & 4).(All
significant figures come before the exponent; the exponential term does not ad to the number of
significant figures).
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DIMENSIONAL ANAYSIS
Once you begin writing measurements using both numbers and dimensions (units), applying the
technique of dimensional analysis follows almost naturally. Before we define what we mean by
dimensional, you should be aware that units, such as pounds, feet, and quarts can be treated as if they
are numbers in operations, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
Example: The area of a square is equal to the product of any two sides. Find the area
of a square that measures 2 in. on each side
Solution:
(2 in.) x ((2 in.) = (2 x 2) x (inches x inches)
= 22 x in.2
= 4 x in.2
= 4 in.2
N. B. Units can be treated like numbers.
We define dimensional analysis as the technique of treating units as numbers for the purpose of
solving problems. When using the dimensional analysis technique, we usually manipulate units
mathematically to get rid of unwanted units and to introduce units that are desired.
Example. If it takes 2.0 hr to walk to your friend’s house, how may days does this trip
require? Use dimensional analysis.
Solution:
The desired unit is introduced
The unwanted units cancels out
! #$%
(2.0 hr)! " = 0.083 day
&' ()
The trip to your friend’s house will take 0.083 day. Notice that 1 (day) and 24 (hours) each has
an infinite number of significant digit, as they are defined numbers. The number of significant digits in
our answer (0.083 is limited by the two significant digits in our given measurement (2.0 hr)
SOME CONVERSION TABLE

Metric System English System English to SI
1 cm = 10mm 1ft =12 in 1 gal = 3.78 L
1 m =100 cm 1 yd =3 ft 1 in = 2.54 cm
1 km = 1000 m 1 mi =1760 yd 1 km = 1094 yd
1 L = 1000 mL 1 lb = 16 oz 1 lb = 453.6 g
Practice Activity.
I. Determine the number of significant figures in each of the following numbers.
1. 978623
2. 484.00
3. 0.00700
4. 10005
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
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5. $80000
II. Carry out the following conversions: Use the proper significant figures
1. 24.8 dg to g
2. 250 mm3 = cm3
3. 7.7 μL to mL
4. 0.20 nm2 to ft2
5. 875 kg/m3 to g/mL
III. Solve the following problems. Use the proper significant figures in your final answer.
1. Several irregularity shaped pieces of zinc, weighing 30.0 g are dropped into a graduated
cylinder containing 20.0 mL of water. The water level rises to 24.2cm3 What is the density of the
zinc?
2. If a car is traveling at a rate of 1.5 km/min, how many hours will it take to travel 52 mi?
For this part of the module, prerequisite knowledge on the mole concept, Avogadro’s number,
molar mass is needed. You should remember how to determine the molar mass of elements and
compounds, given the chemical symbol and formula, respectively.
Let’s have a simple review of counting things.
1. Imagine that you are in Boracay beach and
wanted to build a castle. How can you measure
the amount of sand to be used?
Is it practical to count every single grain of sand?
Or is it better to weigh the sand?
2. When you buy eggs you ask usually for a

_______ eggs. You know that one dozen of any
item is _______. Paper is not packaged by a
dozen. Paper is packaged by a ream. A ream of
paper has ________ sheets.
Why is it important to use units like a dozen or a
ream?
What determines how many items should make up a particular unit?

____________________________________________________________________________
3. Ms. Lilia sells shelled peanuts in a store. But she meets customers asking for ten peanuts, for
750 peanuts and another for 2000 peanuts. Obviously, it will take Ms. Lilia a very long time to
count the peanuts. What would be another way to count them?
4. Can you count the number of cereal flakes inside the box?
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Do scientists count using the same procedure. Should there be a system to count atoms? Why?
In this section you will also recognize the quantitative relationships that exist between the
quantities of reactants and products in a balanced equation.
Let’s Check!
Burger Analogy Recipe. Show all necessary calculations.

for a bacon double cheeseburger is:
1 burger bun
2 slices of cheese
2 burger patties
4 strips of bacon
Based on this recipe;
1. If I have six bacon double cheeseburgers;
a) How many burger buns do I have? ________
b) How many burger patties do I have? ________
c) How many slices of cheese do I have? ________
d) How many strips of bacon do I have? ________
2. Consider the preparation of burger sandwiches. The equation is:

2 slices of bread + 1 burger patty one hamburger sandwich
Suppose Karen has 14 burger patties, how many slices of bread will she
need to consume all the patties? The ratio of the slices of bread to burger is
2:1
3. Suppose that instead of plain burger, Karen is to make double cheeseburgers.

Show the equation so Karen can shop for enough ingredients.
2 slices of bread + 1 hamburger patty + 2 slices of cheese → 1 double cheese burger
How many slices of cheese, burger patties, and slices of bread will Karen
need to make 25 double cheeseburgers?
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FORMULA STOICHIOMETRY
Atoms are very small. It is impossible to place single atom on any analytical balance and directly
determine it mass (weight).If it were possible, you would find that the mass of a single atom is about 1
x10-23 g, a figure that is somewhat clumsy to write. To help you avoid this, a carbon that is made up of
6 protons, 6 neutrons, and 6 electrons has been arbitrary defined to have an atomic mass of exactly 12
atomic mass units(12.0 amu). The symbol for such a carbon atom is 12C ( or carbon-12). It is read as
carbon twelve. From this comes the definition of 1 amu. One atomic mass unit is the amount of mass
that is exactly one-twelfth of a carbon with mass
6 protons, 6 neutrons, and 6 electrons; that is 1 amu = 1/12 mass of 12C atom. All elements on the
periodic table are given atomic masses in atomic mass unit.
Note: atomic mass unit (amu) = u
Atomic mass Unit (amu) = 1/12 atomic mass of C-12
1 amu = 1/6.0221415 x 1023
Carbon (12 amu) = 6.0221415 x 1023 particles (Avogadro’s number)
Carbon a(12 amu) = 1 mole
When we talk of relative masses of atoms, we mean how many times heavier one atom is than
another. Since an element’s isotopes have different atomic masses, scientists may also determine
the relative atomic mass—sometimes called the atomic weight—for an element. The relative atomic
mass is an average of the atomic masses of all the different isotopes in a sample, with each isotope's
contribution to the average determined by how big a fraction of the sample it makes up. The relative
atomic masses given in periodic table entries are calculated for all the naturally occurring isotopes of
each element, weighted by the abundance of those isotopes on earth.
Most elements occur in nature as mixtures of isotopes. We can determine the average atomic
mass of an element using the masses of its various isotopes, and their relative abundances. Isotopes
are atoms of the same element containing different number of neutrons and therefore having different
mass. Carbon 12 and Carbon 14 are isotopes of carbon, one with 6 neutrons and one with 8 neutrons
(both with 6 protons). Carbon-12 is a stable isotope, while carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope
(radioisotope).
The average atomic mass of an element can be found on the periodic table, typically under the
elemental symbol. When data are available regarding the natural abundance of various isotopes of an
element, it is simple to calculate the average atomic mass. Whenever we do mass calculations
involving elements or compounds (combinations of elements), we always use average atomic masses.
Sample Problem:
What is the average atomic mass of Mg? The element consists of 78.70% Mg-24
(mass = 23.99 u); 10.13% Mg-25 (mass= 24.99 u); and 11.17% Mg-26 (mass = 25.98 u).
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
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Note. To calculate the average mass, first convert the percentages into fractions
(divide them by 100).
Given:
Isotopes of Mg Percent Abundance Fractional Abundance Mass

Percent Abundance/100
Mg-24 78.70% 0.7870 23.99 u
Mg-25 10.13% 0.1013 24.99 u
Mg-26 11.17% 0.1117 25.98 u
Required: Average atomic mass of Mg
Solution:
Average atomic mass of Mg = ∑(𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠)
= (f.a Mg-24 x mass Mg-24) + (f.a Mg-25 x mass Mg-25) + (f.a Mg-26 x mass Mg-26)
= (0.7870 x 23.99 u) + (0.1013 x 24.99 u) + (0.1117 x 25.98 u)
= 24.31 u
One way to measure the amount of substance is to count the number of representative particles
of that substance. But counting atoms, or molecules, or the ions is not possible since they are relatively
very small and in infinitesimally large quantities. In order to cope with this large-number problem,
chemists have found it convenient to use a special unit when counting atoms and molecules. The
chemist’s counting unit is known as mole (abbreviated mol). It is equivalent to 6.02 x 1023 objects. This
very large number is called Avogadro’s number, in honor of Amedeo Avogadro, an Italian physicist
whose pioneering work on gases later proved valuable in determining the number of particles present in
given volumes of substances. When we solve problems dealing with the number of objects (atoms or
molecules) present in a given number of moles of a substance, Avogadro’s number becomes part of
the conversion factor used to relate the number of objects present to the number of moles present.
The word “mole” was introduced around the year 1896 by the German chemist Wilhelm
Ostwald, who derived the term from the Latin word moles meaning a ‘heap’ or ‘pile.It can be applied to
a wide variety of items- for atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, or particles. Hence one must be careful to
specify what is being measured when the term mole is employed.
For instance, a mole of ions, molecules, or anything else contains Avogadro’s number of these
objects:
1 mol 12C atoms = 6.02 x 1023 12C atoms
1 mol CO2 molecules = 6.02 x 1023 CO2 molecules
1 mol SO4-2 ions = 6.02 x 1023 SO4-2 ions
In the previous lesson, you learned that the symbols and subscripts in a formula tell the number
of atoms of each type of element. If no subscripts are present, you can assume there is only one atom
of that element.
The formula of sulfuric acid, H2SO4,once known as oil of vitriol and used to make fertilizers,
explosives, dye stuffs and other chemicals, indicates that one molecule of sulfuric acid is composed
of 2 atoms of H, 1 atom of S and 4 atoms of O. Also the formula of sulfuric acid shows that 1 mole of
H2SO4 contains of 2 moles of H, 1 mole of S and 4 moles of O.
Sample Problems.
1. How may nitrogen atoms are in 0.25 mole of Ca(NO3)2 , inorganic substance used in fertilizers,
explosives and pyrotechnics?
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
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N.B 1 mole Ca(NO3)2 = 6.02 x 1023 Ca(NO3)2 molecules
1 molecule Ca(NO3)2 = 2 N atoms
Solution:
N.B. Cancel out the unit that appears in both the numerator and the
denominator.
6.02 x !+!" Ca(N-" )! molecules & / $0123

N atoms = 0.25 mole Ca(NO3)2 x ( 1 mole Ca(N-" )!
) x(! 21456745 Ca(N- )
" )!
= 3.0 x 1023 N atoms
2. Calculate the no. of mole of glucose (C6H12O6) , otherwise known as blood sugar, that contains
2.36 x 1023 C6H12O6 particles.
N.B. 1 mole C6H12O6 = 6.02 x 1023 C6H12O6 particles
Solution:
! 2145 8# 9$! -#
mole of C6H12O6 = 2.36 x 1023 C6H12O6 particles x ( )
:.+& ;!+!" 8# 9$! -# <=>?@ABCD
= 0.392 mole C6H12O6
3. How many molecules of water (H2O), universal inorganic solvent, that contains 2.67 moles of
hydrogen?
N.B 1 mole H2O = 6.02 x 1023 H2O molecules
1 mole H2O = 2 moles H
Solution:
! 2145 E! F :.+& ; !+!" E! F 214567453
H2O molecules = 2.67 moles H x ( ) x( )
& 21453 E ! 2145 E! F
= 8.04 x 1023 H2O molecules
The molar mass (MM) is simply the sum of the total mass in grams of all the atoms that make
up a mole of a particular molecule. It is usually expressed in grams per mole. The molar mass is also
known as either molecular weight or formula weight. The molecular weight is particularly used for
molecular or covalent compounds like water (H2O) and formula weight is frequently used for non-
molecular/ionic compounds, such as table salt or sodium choride (NaCl). However, throughout our
discussion we will use molar mass to denote molecular weight or formula weight for any type of
compound.
In related terms, another unit of mass often used is Dalton (Da) or unified atomic mass unit (u)
when describing atomic masses and molar masses. It is defined to be 1/12 of the mass of one atom of
carbon-12 and in older works is also abbreviated as "amu".Different molecules of the same compound
may have different molar masses because they contain different isotopes of an element.
Sample Exercise:
Find the molar mass of each of the following compounds:
1. ascorbic acid, (C6H8O6), also known as vitamin C, is necessary for the growth,
development and repair of all body tissues
2. ferric sulfate , Fe2(SO4)3, used as an antibacterial agent
3. ammonium phosphate ,(NH4)3PO4, is a homogenous pelleted fertilizer
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 9
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
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Solution:
1. C6H8O6
Atomic wt.:
C =12 g/mol H= 1 g/mol O = 16 g/mol
Molar mass of C6H8O6 = (6 x 12 g/mol ) + (8 x 1 g/mol) + (6 x 16 g/mol)
= 176 g/mol or 176 amu or 176 u

2. Fe2(SO4)3
Atomic wt.:
Fe = 56 g/mol S = 32 g/mol O =16 g/mol
Molar mass of Fe2(SO4)3 = (2 x 56 g/mol) + (3 x 32 g/mol) + (12 x 16 g/mol)
= 400 g/mol
3. (NH4)3PO4
Atomic wt:
N =14g/mol H = 1 g/mol P =31 g/mol O =16 g/mol
Molar mass of (NH4)3PO4 = (3 x 14g/mol) + (12 x 1 g/mol ) + (1 x 31 g/mol)
+(4 x 16 g/mol)
= 149 g/mol
We will now combine the things we have learned about moles to produce a general approach to
problem solving that is applicable to a variety of chemical situations. In this unit, we learned that
Avogadro’s number provides a relationship between the number of particles of a substance and the
number of moles of that same substance:
Particles of Conversion factor

Moles of
substance substance
involving Avogadro’s number
The molar mass provides a relationship between the number of grams of a substance and the number
of moles of that substance:
Conversion factor
Grams of Involving molar mass Moles of
substance substance
The molar interpretation of chemical formula subscripts provides a relationship between the number of
moles of a substance and the number of moles of its components:
Moles of Conversion factor involving Moles of element

compound within compound
Chemical formula subscripts
The preceding three concepts can be combined into a single diagram that is useful in problems solving.
This diagram Figure 1, can be viewed as a road map from which conversion factor sequences
(pathways) may be obtained. It gives all the relationships we need for solving two general types of
problems:
1. Calculations where information (moles, particles, or grams) is given about a

particular substance, and additional information (moles, particles, or grams) is
needed concerning the same substance.
2. Calculations where information (moles, particles, or grams) is given about a
particular substance, and information is needed concerning a component of that
same substance.
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
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Avogadro’s Moles Formula Moles of Avogadro’s Particles
Particles
Number subscripts Number
/atoms of A B of B
.
of A
Molar Molar
mass mass
Grams of Grams of
A B
Figure 1. In solving chemical-formula-based problems, the only “transitions” allowed are those
between quantities(boxes) connected arrows. Associated with each arrow is the concept on which the
required conversion factor is based.
For the first type of problem, only the left side of Figure 1 (the “A” boxes) is needed. For problems of the
second type, both sides of the diagram (both “A” and “B” boxes) are used.
The thinking pattern needed to use Figure 1 is very simple.

1. Determine which box in the diagram represents the given quantity in the problem.
2. Locate the box that represents the desired quantity.
3. Follow the indicated pathway that takes you from the given quantity to the desired
quantity.This involves simply following the arrows. There will always be only one
pathway possible for the needed transition.
Sample Problems.
1. What is the mass, in grams, 5.36 mol of MgSO4 (used as a laxative to relieve
occasional constipation.)?
Given:
No of moles of MgSO4 = 5.36 mol
Required:
Mass of MgSO4
Solution:
The appropriate set of conversion for moles of MgSO4 to mass of MgSO4 is:
Moles of Molar Grams of

MgSO4 mass MgSO4
Molar mass of MgSO4 = (1 x 24 g/mol) + (1 x 32 g/mol) + (4 x 16g/mol)

= 120g/mol
!&+ G HGIF%
mass of MgSO4 = 5.36 mol MgSO4 x
! 214 HGIF%
= 643 g MgSO4
2. How many moles of NaHCO3, antacid used to relieve heartburn and acid indigestion, are
present in 11.7 g of this substance?
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
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Given:
Mass NaHCO3 = 11.7 g
Required:
No. of mol of NaHCO3
Solution:
The appropriate set of conversion for mass of NaHCO3 to no.of mol of NaHCO3 is:
Grams of Molar mass Moles of

NaHCO3 NaHCO3
Molar mass of NaHCO3 = (1 x 23 g/mol) + (1 x 1 g/mol) + (1 x 12) X (3 x 16 g/mol)
= 84 g/mole
! 2145 /$EJF"
No. of mole of NaHCO3 = 11.7 g NaHCO3 x
K' G /$EJF"
= 0.139 mol NaHCO3
3. Vitamin C has the formula C6H8O6. Calculate the number of vitamin C molecules present in a
0.250 g tablet of pure vitamin C.
Given:
mass of vitamin C tablet = 0.250 g
Required:
no. of vitamin C molecules
Solutio:
The outline of the procedure used to interconvert the mass of vitamin C in

grams and the number of molecules of vitamin C. The number of moles of
vitamin C is central to the calculation.
Grams of Molar Mole of Avogadro’s Molecules

Vitamin C Mass Vitamin C number of Vitamin
C
Molar mass of Vitamin C = (6 x 12 g/mol) + (8 x 1 g/mol) + (6 x 16 g/mol)

= 176 g/mol
! 2145 LM0$2MN J
No. of molecules of vitamin C= 250 g vitamin C x ( )
!O: G LM0$2N J
:.+& ;!+!" 8# 9$! -# <=>?@ABCD
x ( )
! 2145 LM0$2MN J
= 8.55 x 1023 molecules Vit C.
The word percent indicates parts per hundred or a fraction of one hundred. Thus, when a
student gets a score of 75% in a test, this means that he answered 75 items correctly out of 100 items.
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GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
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Likewise, if a compound contains 15 g of oxygen in 100 g of compound, the substance contains 15%
oxygen by mass. In general, percent is taken to mean by mass unless some other units are specified,
such as mole percent. So, how is the percent by mass of an element computed? The percent by mass
of an element in a compound is the mass in grams of the element divided by the mass in grams of the
compound multiplied by 100%.
This is the mathematical equation used to solve for the percent by mass of an element
010$4 2$33 1P 54525N0

% mass element = x 100%
2$33 1P ! 2145 1P 612Q17N#
However, it is also possible to calculate the % by mass of an element using the atomic weight of an
element and the molar mass of the compound.
$012M6 R5MG(0 1P 54525N0 ; 37S36)MQ0 1P 54525N0

% mass element = x 100%
214$) 2$33 1P 612Q17N#
Let’s take a real example. Water, the most abundant compound in our solar system, is composed of
hydrogen and oxygen. Calculate the mass percentage of each element in water.
Solution:
The molecular formula is H2O. One mole of water has two moles of hydrogen atoms and one mole of
oxygen atoms. The molar mass MMH2O of water is as follows:
MMH2O = (2 x at.wt H) + (1 x at.wt O)
= (2 x 1 g/mole) + (1 x16 g/mole)
= 18 g/mole
*** The molar mass of water indicates that 1mole of H2O weighs 18.015 g H2O
The percentage composition of hydrogen in water is calculated as follows:
2 x at.wt H
% composition of H = x 100
MM H2O
2 moles x 1 g/mole
= x 100%
18 g
= 11 %
Similarly, for oxygen,

! x at.wt -
% composition of O = x 100%
MM H2O
! mole x 1: g/mole
= x 100%
18 g
= 89 %
Note: Sum of % composition of each element is always equal to 100 %.

∑ % 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = % 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐻 + %𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑂
= 11 % + 89 %
= 100%
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Notice that you can also subtract hydrogen's percentage from 100%, giving the percent oxygen as the
answer. You can always do this with the last part of this type problem.
% composition of O = 100% - 11.%

= 89 %
If the sum is not 100%, an error has been made in calculations.
Take note that whatever the source of water; its composition is that of two atoms of hydrogen and one
atom of oxygen.
This figure shows that water, from any source, is always made up of two atoms of hydrogen and one
atom of oxygen. If we calculate the molecular weight of water, we come up with 18 g/mol. In 1 mole of
water, there are 2 grams of hydrogen and 16 grams of oxygen. By weight, we have a percentage of
11% hydrogen and 89% oxygen in one mole of water. This translates into a ratio of 1:8 of hydrogen to
oxygen in water. Water could never be created by combining a ratio of 20% hydrogen and 80% oxygen,
because the proportions are not correct; a different chemical compound would be created by mixing
this ratio.
The Law of Definite Proportions illustrates that whatever the amount of water, whether it be 2
moles or 54 grams, the ratio of the amount of hydrogen to oxygen by weight will always be the same.
The Law of Definite Proportion states that a chemical compound always contains the same elements
combined together in the same proportion by mass. This Law of Definite Proportions ensures that
chemical compounds are always created using the same proportions, regardless of the amount of the
compound which is being made.
Consider another example. Oil of wintergreen or methyl salicylate (C8H8O3) is used for temporary relief
of muscle or joint pain caused by strains, sprains, arthritis, bruising, or backaches.
Solution:
The molar mass, MMC8H8O3, of methyl salicylate is as follows:

MM C8H8O3= (8 x at.wt C) + (8 x at.wt H) + (3 x at.wt O)
= (8 x 12. g/mole) + (8 x 1 g/mol) + (3 x 16 g/mol)
= 152 g/mol
The percentage composition of carbon in acetyl salicylic acid is calculated as follows:
K x a?.wt 8
% composition of C = x 100
MM 8& 9& -&
14
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
EA
K moles x 1& g/mole
= x 100%
!U& g
= 63 %
K x a?.wt 9
% composition of H = x 100%
MM 8& 9& -&
K moles x 1 g/mole
= x 100%
!U& g
= 5%
V x a?.wt -
% composition of O = x 100
MM 8& 9& -&
V moles x 1: g/mole
= x 100%
!U& g
= 32 %
Note: Sum of % composition of each element is always equal to 100 %. ∑ % 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =

% 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 + %𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐻 + % 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑂
= 63 %+ 5 % + 32 %
= 100%
You can also determine oxygen’s percentage by subtracting the total percentages of carbon and
hydrogen from 100%.
% composition of O = 100% - (% composition of C + % composition of H)

= 100% - (63 + 5%)
= 32%
Let’s have one more example. Aluminum carbonate ,Al2(CO3)3 ], used as an anti-acid for acid reflux,
stomach inflammation, and ulcers. Calculate the mass percentage of each element in Al2(CO3)3.
Solution:
The molar mass,M Al2(CO3)3, is as follows:
M Al2(CO3)3 = (2 x at.wt Al) + (3 x at.wt C) + (9 x at.wt O)

= (2 x 27 g/mol) + (3 x 12 g/mol) + (9 x 16 g/mol)
= 234 g/mol
The percentage composition of aluminium carbonate acid is calculated as follows:

& x a?.wt WB
% composition of Al = x 100
MM WB! (8-" )"
& moles x &O g/mole

= x 100%
&V' g
= 23 %
V x a?.wt 8
% composition of C = x 100
MM WB! (8-" )"
15
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
EA
V moles x !& g/mole
= x 100%
&V' g
= 15 %
X x a?.wt -
% composition of O = x 100
MM WB! (8-" )"
X moles x !: g/mole
= x 100%
&V' g
= 62 %
Let’s think about this example. It is found that 8.250 g of a metal combined with oxygen to form 17.80 g
of metal oxide. Calculate the % mass of the metal and of the oxygen respectively, in the compound.
Given:
mass of metal = 8..250 g
mass of metal oxide = 17.80 g
Required:
a. mass % metal
b. mass % oxygen
Solution:
Equation: metal + oxygen → metal oxide

8.250 g 17.80 g
I. Compute the mass of oxygen

mass of oxygen = mass of metal oxide - mass of the metal
= 17.80 g – 8.250 g
= 9.55 g
II. Calculate the % mass of the metal and of the oxygen

2$33 1P 250$4
% mass of metal or % composition of metal = x 100%
2$33 1P 250$4 1;M#5
8.250 g
% mass of metal = x 100% = 46.35 %
17.80 g
2$33 1P 1;%G5N
% mass of oxygen or % composition of oxygen = x 100%
2$33 1P 250$4 1;M#5
X.UU G
% mass of oxygen = x 100% = = 53.65%
!O.K+ G
Alternative method of calculating the % mass of oxygen or % composition o oxygen
% mass of oxygen = 100% - % mass of metal

= 100% - 46.35%
= 53.65%
16
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
EA
Mole percentage composition is a mole percentage of each element in a compound. We only need the
molecular formula of a compound to determine it.
Total moles of an element per mole of the compound

% mole = x 100
Total moles of element in the compound
NM
= x 100
∑ NM
Note: n = no. of mole/s of element

ni = = Total moles of an element per mole of the compound
∑ 𝑛𝑖 = Total moles of element in the compound
Example: Carbon Dioxide is commonly called dry ice. The molecular formula of carbon dioxide is CO2.
Calculate the percent composition of CO2. Calculate the mass percentage of each element in CO2
Solution:
One mole of CO2 contains one mole of carbon and two moles of oxygen. Thus, the total number of
moles is nC+ nO = 1 + 2 = 3 mol.
The mole per cent of carbon in carbon dioxide is as follows:

nC
% mole of carbon = x 100
nC ZnO
!
= x 100
V
= 33.33%
Similarly for oxygen
[-
% mole of oxygen = x 100
nC ZnO
&
= x 100
V
= 66.67%
Historically chemical formulas were obtained by experimentally determining the masses of two
or more elements to form a compound. Such data give the percent composition by mass of a
compound and we can determine the formula of a compound from mass percent data. This depends on
the fact that the subscripts in a formula indicate how many moles of each element there are per mole of
the compound.
There are three main types of chemical formulas: empirical, molecular and structural. In our
discussion of chemical formulas, we will focus on the empirical formula and molecular formula. The
structural formula will be covered in more detail in the next module on organic compounds.
The empirical formula (also called the simplest formula) of a compound reflects the smallest
whole number ratio of atoms present in the compound. The empirical formula of a compound can be
derived from the percentages of the elements in a compound.
The molecular formula of a compound is the true formula and shows the actual number of
atoms of each element present in one molecule of the compound. The molecular formula of a
17
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
EA
compound can be determined from the empirical formula if the molar mass is known. Consider the
examples below to see the difference between empirical formula and molecular formula.
C2H4 ethylene (ethane) CH2

C3H6 propylene (propene) CH2
C6H12O6 glucose CH2O
H2O2 hydrogen peroxide HO
H2O water H2O
H2C2O4 oxalic acid HCO2
C8H10N4O2 caffeine C4H5N2O
Finding the empirical and molecular formula is basically the reverse process used to calculate
mass percent or mass percentage.
To calculate the empirical formula of a compound, the following steps are carried out:
1. Assume a 100 g sample of the compound so that the given percentages can be directly
converted into grams.
2. Use each element's molar mass to convert the grams of each element to moles.
3. In order to find a whole-number ratio, divide the moles of each element by whichever of the
moles from step 2 is the smallest.
4. If all the moles at this point are whole numbers (or very close), the empirical formula can be
written with the moles as the subscript of each element.
5. In some cases, one or more of the moles calculated in step 3 will not be whole numbers.
Multiply each of the moles by the smallest whole number that will convert each into a whole
number. Write the empirical formula.
If the number is too far to round (x.1 ~ x.9), then multiply each solution by the
same factor to get the lowest whole number multiple.
e.g. If one solution is 1.2, then multiply each solution in the problem by 5 to get 6
If one solution is 1.25,then multiply each solution in the problem by 4 to get 5.
If one solution is 1.3, then multiply each solution in the problem by 3 to get 4.
If one solution is 1.7, then multiply each solution in the problem by 3 to get 5
*** 1.1 ≈ 1
1.9 ≈ 2
Determination of the molecular formula

• Obtain the empirical formula (EF)
• Compute the empirical formula mass(EFM)
214$) 2$33
• n=
\]H
N.B. n should be whole number

• Molecular formula = (EF)n
Take note, finding the empirical and molecular formula is basically the reverse
process used to calculate mass percent or mass percentage.
18
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
EA
Sample problems:
1. Calculate the empirical formula for the compound containing 32.4 % Na, 22.6% S and 45.1% O.
Solution:
I. Assume 100 g of unknown compound so that the given percentage of each

element is the mass in grams of the element
2$33 1P /$
% composition of Na = x 100%
2$33 1P 7N^N1RN 612Q17N#
% composition of Na x mass of unknown compound

mass of Na =
!++ %
32.4% x 100 g
=
100%
= 32.4 g
2$33 1P I
% composition of S = x 100%
2$33 1P 7N^N1RN 612Q17N#
% composition of ` x mass of unknown compound

mass of S =
!++ %
&&.: % x 100 g
=
100%
= 22.6 g
2$33 1P F
% composition of O = x 100%
2$33 1P 7N^N1RN 612Q17N#
% composition of - x mass of unknown compound

mass of O =
!++ %
'U.! % x 100 g
=
100%
= 45.1 g
II. Calculate the number of moles of each element in100 g of unknown

compound.
Atomic wt: Na = 23 g/mole; S = 32 g/mole; O = 16 g/mol
! 2145 /$
Moles of Na = 32.4 g Na x
&V G /$
= 1.41 mols Na
! 2145 I
Moles of S = 22.6 g S x
V& G I
= 0.706 mols S
! 2145 F
Moles of O = 45.1 g O x
!: G F
= 2.82 mols O
19
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
EA
III. Get the ratio of the elements by dividing each number of moles by the
Smallest number of mole, 0.706:
!.'! 2143
Na = =2
+.O+: 2145
+.O+: 214
S = = 1
+.O+: 2145
&.K& 2143
O= = 4
+.O+: 2145
IV. Determine the Empirical formula (EF): Na2SO4
2. The insecticide DDT, dichloro-diphenyl-trichloro ethane, had the following composition by mass
47.5%C, 2.54% H, and 50.0% Cl. Determine the empirical formula of DDT.
Solution:
I. Assume 100 g of DDT so that the given percentage of each element is the
mass in grams of the element
2$33 J
% composition of C = x 100%
2$33 aab
% 612Q13M0M1N 1P J ; 2$33 aab

mass of C =
!++ %
'O.U % ; !++ G
=
!++ %
= 47.5 g
2$33 E
% composition of H = x 100%
2$33 aab
% 612Q13M0M1N 1P E ; 2$33 aab

mass of H =
!++ %
&.U' % ; !++ G
=
!++%
= 2.54 g
2$33 J4
% composition of Cl = x 100%
2$33 aab
% 612Q13M0M1N 1P J4 ; 2$33 aab

mass of Cl =
!++ %
U+.+ % ; !++ G
=
!++ %
= 50.0 g
II. Calculate the number of moles of each element in100 g of ascorbic acid.
Atomic wt: C = 12 g/mole; H = 1 g/mole; Cl = 35.45 g/mol
! 214 J
Moles C = 47.5 g C x
!& G J
= 3.95 mols C
20
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
EA
! 214 E
Moles H = 2.54 g H x
! G E
= 2.54 mols H
! 2145 J4
Moles Cl = 50.0 g Cl x
VU.'U J4
= 1.41 mols Cl
III. Get the ratio of the elements by dividing each number of moles by the
smallest number of mole, 1.41:
V.XU 2143
C= = 2.80
!.'! 2143
&.U' 2143
H= = 1.80
!.'! 2143
!.'! 2143
O= =1
!.'! 2143
Note: Multiply the ratio by 5 to make the subscript a whole number

C = 2.80 x 5 = 14
H = 1.80 x 5 = 9
O=1x 5 =5
IV. Derive the Empirical formula (EF): C14H9O5
3. Caffeine, a stimulant found in coffee, tea, chocolate and some medications, contains 49.48%
carbon, 5.15% hydrogen, and 28.87% nitrogen and 16.49% oxygen by mass and has a molar
mass of 194.2 g/mole. Determine the M.F of caffeine.
Atomic wt: C =12 g/mol; H = 1g/mol; N= 14 g/mol ; O = 16g/mol
Solution:
Calculate the empirical formula, as in the previous problems.

I. Assume 100 g of caffeine
Mass of C = 49.48 g
Mass of H = 5.15 g
Mass of N = 28.87 g
Mass of O = 16.49 g
II. Number of moles of each element:

! 214 J
Moles of C = 49.48 g C x
!& G J
= 4.123 mols C
! 214 E
Moles of H = 5.15 g H x
! G E
= 5.15 mols H
! 214 /
Moles of N = 28.87 g N x = 2.062 mols N
!' G /
21
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
EA
! 214 F
Moles of O = 16.49 g O x = 1.031 mols N
!: G F
III. Find the mole ratios of moles:

'.!&V 2143
C = =4
!.+V! 2143
U.!U 2143
H = =5
!.+V! 2143
&.+:& 2143
N = =2
!.+V! 2143
!.+V! 2143
O= =1
!.+V! 2143
IV. Determine Empirical formula (EF): C4H5N2O
V. Derive the Molecular formula

Empirical formula mass(EFM) of C4H5N2O:
= (4 x 12 g/mole)+(5 x 1 g/mol) + (2 x 14 g/mole) + (1 x 16 gmole)
= 97 g/mole
214$) 2$33 1P 6$PP5MN5 !X'.& G/2145

n= = = 2
\]H XO G/2145
Molecular formula: (EF)n = (C4H5N2O)2 = C4 x 2H5 x 2N2 x 2O1 x 2

MF = C8H10N4O2
4. A white powder was analyzed and found to contain 43.64% P and 56.36% O by mass. The
compound has a molar mass of 283.88 g/mole. What are the
compound’s EF and M.F
Atomic wt: P = 31 g/mole ; O = 16 g/mole
Solution:
I. Assume 100 g of a white powdery substance

Mass P = 43.64 g
Mass O = 56.36 g
II. Moles of each element

' )*+ ,
Moles of P = 43.64 g P x -' . ,
= 1.408 mols P
' )*+ /
Moles of O = 56.36 g O x '0 . /
= 3.523 mols O
III. Find the mole ratio

!.'+K 2143
P = =1
!.'+K 2143
22
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
EA
V.U&V 2143
O= = 2.5
!.'+K 2143
Multiply the ratio by 3 to make the subscript a whole number

P = 1 x 2 =2
O = 2.5 x 2 = 5
IV. Determine the Empirical formula: P2O5
V. Derive the Molecular formula

Empirical formula(EFM) of P2O5 = (2 x 31 g/mole) + (5 x 16 g/mole)
= 142 g/mole
Molar mass of white powdery substance &KV.KK G/2145

n= = =2
EFM !'& G/2145
Molecular formula: (EF)n = (P2O5)2

MF = P4O10
.
N.B You should NOT assume 100 g as the mass of the compound if you were given
the masses of the each element or the number of moles of each element.
Sample Problem.
0.545 g Aluminum burns completely in oxygen, producing 1.030 g of aluminum oxide. Find the
empirical formula of the oxide.
Atomic wt.: Al = 27 g/mole; O = 16 g/mole
Given:
Mass of Aluminum(Al) = 0.545 g
Mass of aluminium oxide = 1.030 g
Required:
Empirical formula of aluminum oxide
Solution:
Equation: aluminum + oxygen → aluminum oxide

0.545 g ? 1.030 g
I. Calculate the mass of oxygen
Mass of oxygen = mass of aluminum oxide – mass of aluminum
= 1.030 g – 0.545 g
= 0.485g
II. Calculate the number of moles of each element
Moles of Al = mass Al x at.wt Al
! 214 c4
= 0.545 g Al x
&O G c4
= 0.0202 mol Al
Moles of O = mass O x at.wt O

! 214 F
= 0.485 g O x
!: G F
= 0.0303 mol O
23
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
EA
III. Find the mole ratio
+.+&+& 214
Al = =1
+.+&+& 214
+.+V+V 214
O = = 1.5
+.+&+& 214
IV. Multiply the ratio by 2 to make the subscript a whole number

Al = 1 x 2 = 2
O = 1.5 x 2 = 3
V. Determine the Empirical formula: Al2O3
For further discussion, please refer to pages 88-101
EQUATION STOICHIOMETRY
The following are stoichiometric relationship:

I. Mole-Mole Relationship
The most important way of interpreting the balanced chemical equation in terms of moles. We
use the coefficients to get the reaction ratio (in moles) of any two substances we want to relate. Then
we apply it as
moles of moles of reaction ratio
desired = substance x from balanced
substance given chemical equation
It is important to include the substance formulas as part of the units; this can help to decide how to
set up the unit factors. In other words, do not just write mol ; write mol of something else, giving the
formulas of the two substances involved.
Problem solving tip: The first and most important step for all stoichiometry problems is the same no
matter what you are solving for - make sure your equation is balanced! If the equation is not balanced,
the mole ratios and answers will be incorrect.
Sample Problems.
1. Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) may be prepared by dissolving P4O10 in water according
to the equation: P4O10 + H2O → H3PO4
How many moles of H3PO4 are produced by use of 3.20 moles of water?
Given:
Moles of water = 3.20 moles
Required: moles of phosphoric acid
24
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
EA
Solution:
The balanced equation: P4O10 + 6H2O → 4 H3PO4

3.20 moles ?mols
relative moles(rel. mols): 6 moles rel. mol: 4 moles
Relative means compared to something.
The equation to solve for moles of desired substance (H3PO4) is:
moles of = given moles of x reaction ratio

desired substance substance from balanced chemical equation
The dimensional-analysis setup is:

' 21453 E" dF%
Moles of H3PO4 = 3.20 moles H2O x = 2.13 moles H3PO4
: 21453 E! F
***3.20 moles of water react with 1 mole of P4O10 to produce 2.13 moles of H3PO4
Alternatively we can solve the moles of H3PO4 by Ratio and Proportion
GML5N 21453 1P ^N1RN 612Q17N# 21453 1P 7N^N1RN 612Q17N#

=
)54$0ML5 21453 1P ^N1RN 612Q17N# )54$0ML5 21453 1P 7N^N1RN 612Q17N#
known compound = H2O

unknown compound = H3PO4
V.&+ 21453 E! F 21453 E dF%

: 21453 E! F
= ' 21453 E"
" dF%
V.&+ 21453 E! F ; ' 21453 E" dF%

moles H3PO4 = = 2.13 moles H3PO4
: 21453 E! F
2. Benzene, C6H6, is a known carcinogen that burns in air according to the following equation:
2C6H6(l) + 15 O2(g) → 12 CO2(g) + 6 H2O (g)
(a) What is the mole ratio of O2 to C6H6
(b) How many moles of O2 are required to react with each mole of C6H6?
(c) How many moles of O2 are required to react with 0.38 mole of C6H6?
Solution:
(a) Based from the balanced chemical equation, the relative moles of O2 and C6H6
15 moles and 2 moles respectively. Therefore, the mole ratio of O2 to C6H6 is:
!U 21453 F!
& 21453 J# E#
(b) Use dimensional-analysis method

!U 21453 F!
moles of O2 = 1 mole C6H6 x = 7.5 moles O2
& 21453 J# E#
You may solve the moles of O2 by Ratio & Proportion.
25
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
EA (c) Use Ratio and Proportion
GML5N 21453 J E# 21453 F!
)54$0ML5 21453 J# =
# E# )54$0ML5 21453 F!
+.VK 2145 J# E# 21453 F!

=
& 21453 21453 J# E# !U 21453 F!
+.VK 2145 J# E# ; !U 21453 F!

moles of O2 = = 2.9 moles O2
& 21453 J# E#
Try to solve this problem by dimensional-analysis method.
1. Automotive airbags inflate when sodium azide, NaN2, rapidly decomposes to its
Constituent elements. The equation for the reaction:
NaN2(s) → Na(s) + N2(g)
The gaseous N2 so generated inflates the airbag. How many moles of NaN2 would
have to decompose in order to generate 253 million (2.53 x 108) molecules of N2?
Solution:
The balanced equation: 2 NaN2(s) → 2 Na(s) + 3 N2(g)

? mole 2.53 x 108 molecules
The pathway used to solve this problem is:
Molecules N2 Avogadro’s equation

Moles N2 Moles NaN2
Number coefficients
Dimensional-analysis setup:
! 2145 & 21453 /$/!
moles of N2 = 2.53 x 108molecules of N2 x !"
:.+& ; !+ 214567453 /!
x
V 21453 /!
= 2.80 x 10-16 mole NaN2
II. Mass-Mass Relationship

When we measure the amount of a reactant or product, we do not measure moles because our
measuring devices, like triple beam balance and analytical balance, do not count moles. Instead, we
typically measure the mass of a reactant or product, but a chemical equation does not directly tell us
the mass relationship between reactants and products. It tells us the mole relationship. However, we
can convert from moles to mass unit (grams) using the molar mass of the substance, as you have
learned in Unit 1.
Sample Problems.
1. In the commercial preparation of hydrogen chloride gas what weight of HCl
in grams may be obtained by heating 234 g of NaCl with excess of H2SO4?
Equation for the reaction: NaCl + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + HCl
Atomic wt,: Na = 23 g/mole; Cl = 35.45 g/mole; H = 1 g/mole
Solution:
The balanced equation is: 2 NaCl + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2 HCl
234 g ? wt
26
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
EA The conversion sequence to solve this problem is:
Grams molar mass Moles equation Moles molar Grams

NaCl NaCl coefficients massHCl
NaCl HCl HCl
The dimensional-analysis setup is:

' )*+1 234+ 9 )*+1: ;4+ -0.85 . ;4+
weight HCl = 234 g NaCl x 56.85 . 234+ x 9 )*+1: 234+ x ' )*+1 ;4+
= 146 g HCl
*** 234 g NaCl reacts with 1 mole of H2SO2 to produce 146 g of HCl.
Let’s solve this problem by Ratio & Proportion
2$33/R5MG(0
molar mass =
N72S5) 1P 21453
Relative weight of NaCl:

= molar mass NaCl x number of moles NaCl (coefficient of NaCl)
UK.'U G /$J4
= x 2 moles NaCl = = 117 g NaCl
! 2145 /$J4
Relative weight HCl:

= molar mass HCl x number of moles HCl (coefficient of NaCl)
V:.'U G EJ4
= x 2 moles HCl = = 73 g HCl
! 2145 EJ4
GML5N R0. 1P ^N1RN 612Q17N# R0. 1P 7N^N1RN 612Q17N#

=
)54$0ML5 R0.1P ^N1RN 612Q17N# )54$0ML5 R0. 1P 7N^N1RN 612Q17N#
&V' G /$ J4 R5MG(0 EJ4
!!O G /$ J4
= OV G EJ4
&V' G /$ J4 ; OV G EJ4
weight HCl = = 146 g HCl
!!O G /$ J4
2. What weight of sulfur must combine with aluminum to prepare 3.5 grams of
aluminum sulfide?
Atomic w.: S = 32 g/mole; Al = 27 g/mole
Solution:
Equation: sulfur + aluminum → aluminum sulfide
Balanced equation: 3 S + 2 Al → Al2S3
? wt 3.5
Use dimensional-analysis method
! 2145 c!! I" V 21453I V& G
weight S = 3.5 g Al2S3 x
!U+ G c!! I"
x
! 2145 c!! I"
x
! 2145
= 2.2 g S
27
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
EA
III. Mass- Mole Relationship
In this type of problem, the mass of one substance is given, usually in grams. From this, you are
to determine the amount in moles of another substance that will either react with or be produced from
the given substance.
The mass of the given substance is converted into moles by use of the molar mass of that
substance. Then, the moles of the given substance are converted into moles of the unknown by using
the mole ratio from the balanced chemical equation
In Mole-Mass calculation, start with an amount in moles and then determine an amount of
another substance in grams. The steps are the same but are performed in reverse order.
Sample Problems
1. Propane, C3H8, is a common fuel used for cooking and home heating. What mole
of O2 is consumed in the combustion of 2.50 g of propane?
Atomic wt.: C = 12 g/mole; H = 1 g/mole; O = 16 g/mole
Solution:
Using the verbal description of the reaction, we can write the unbalanced
chemical equation:
C3H8 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
N.B. A combustion reaction always has oxygen as one reactant. Complete

combustion any hydrocarbon, like propane (C3H8), produces carbon
dioxide and water.
The balanced equation is: C3H8 + 5 O2 → 3 CO2 + 4 H2O

2.50 g ? mole
Conversion sequence:
Mass of C3H8 molar mass Mole of C3H8 equation Mole of O2

. coefficients
! 2145J" E& U 2145 F!
no. of mole O2 = 2.50 g C3H8 x x = 0.284 mole O2
''G J" E& ! 2145 J" E&
*** 0.284 mole O2 is consumed in the combustion of 2.50 g of C3H8.
2. What weight of arsenic acid (H3AsO4) should be used with lime (CaO) to prepare
3.50 moles of calcium arsenate ( Ca3(AsO4)2) insecticide material?
Equation : lime + arsenic oxide → calcium arsenate + water
Atomic wt.: H = 1 g/mole; As = 75 g/mole; O = 16g/mole
Solution:
Balanced equation: 3 CaO + 2 H3AsO4 → Ca3(AsO4)2 + 3 H2O
? wt. 3.50 moles
Conversion sequence:
Moles of Equation Moles of molar mass Grams of

Ca3(AsO4)2 coefficients H3AsO4 H3AsO4
28
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
EA
& 21453 E" c3F% !'& G E" c3F%
weight of H3AsO4 = 3.50 moles Ca3(AsO4)2 x x
!2145 J$" (c3F% )! !2145 E" c3F%
= 994 g H3AsO4
3. Calcium carbonate, CaCO3, is often used in commercial antacids. It acts to reduce
the acidity in the stomach by neutralizing stomach acid, HCl, by the following
reaction:
CaCO3(s) + HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
What mass of CaCO3 needed to neutralize 1.204 x 10 22 molecules HCl?
Atomic wt : Ca = 40 g/mole; C = 12 g/mole; O = 16 g/mole
Solution:
Balanced equation: CaCO3(s) + 2 HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

? mass 1.204 x 10 22 molecules
Conversion sequence :
Moleules Avogadro’s Moles

equation Moles of molar Grams of
of HCl Number of HCl
coefficients CaCO3 mass CaCO3
' )*+1 ;4+ ' )*+1 434/"
mass of CaCO3 = 1.204 x 1022molecules HCl x 𝑥
0.<9 = '<!" )*+1>?+1: ;4+ 9 )*+1: ;4+
'<< . 434/"
x
' )*+1 434/"
= 1.000 g CaCO3
The limiting reactant is the reactant that is completely consumed in a reaction because it
determines or limits, the amount of the product formed. The other reactants are sometimes called
excess reactant or excess reagents. When the limiting reactant is used up, the reaction will stop. Once
the reaction stops owing to the fact that the limiting reagent has been used, there will remain excess
reagent because there is nothing left with which it can react. Usually excess reagents are reactants
present in quantities greater than what is needed by the reaction.
Let’s consider the following example to illustrate the concept of limiting reactant:
Recall the preparation of the double cheeseburger. The equation is :
2 slices of bread + 1 hamburger patty + 2 slices of cheese 1 double cheeseburger
When Karen went shopping, she was able to buy 50 slices of cheese, 20 hamburger patties, and 50
slices of bread. How many double cheeseburgers can she make? What is the limiting material or
reagent? What are the excess reagents?
To find the limiting reagent, determine which reagent will give the smallest amount of product.
! #17S45 6(5535S7)G5)
50 slices of cheese x = 25 double cheeseburgers
& 34M653 1P 6(5535
! #17S45 6(5535S7)G5)
20 hamburger patties x = 20 double cheeseburgers
! ($2S7)G5) Q$00%
29
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
EA
! #17S45 6(5535S7)G5)
50 slices of bread x = 25 double cheeseburgers
& 34M653 1P S)5$#
Therefore, the limiting reagent is the hamburger patty.
40 slices of bread + 20 patties + 40 slices of cheese → 20 double cheeseburgers
Karen can only make 20 double cheeseburgers. The limiting reagent is the
hamburger patty.
There are 10 slices of bread and 10 cheese slices in excess. Karen cannot make more than 20
sandwiches because all the hamburger patties have been used up.
Sample Problems
1. A 65.0 g sample of calcium carbonate is reacted with 45.0 g of phosphoric acid. The equation for
the reaction is:
CaCO3 + H3PO4 → Ca3(PO4)2 + CO2 H2O
Calculate:
(a) The number of grams of calcium phosphate that could be formed
(b) The number of grams of excess reagent that will remain
Atomic wt.: Ca = 40 g/mole; C = 12 g/mole; O = 16 g/mole: H = 1g/mole;
P = 31 g/mole
Given:
Mass of calcium carbonate = 65.0 g
Mass phosphoric acid (H3PO4) = 45.0 g
Required: (a) mass calcium phosphate = Ca3(PO4)2

(b) mass excess reactant
Solution:
The balanced equation: 3 CaCO3 + 2 H3PO4 → Ca3(PO4)2 + 3 CO2 + 3 H2O
65.0 g 45.0 g ? mass
I. Identify the limiting reactant by calculating the amount of product formed from each
of the given amounts of reactants.
! 2145 J$JF" ! 2145 J$" (dF% )!
Moles of Ca3(PO4)2 = 65.0 g CaCO3 x x
!++ G J$JF" V 21453 J$JF"
= 0.217 mole Ca3(PO4)2
! 2145 E" dF% ! 2145 J$" (dF% )!

Moles of Ca3(PO4)2= 45.0 g H3PO4 x x
XK G E" dF% & 21453E" dF%
= 0.230 mole Ca3(PO4)2
65.0 g CaCO3 produces less Ca3(PO4)2 than 45.0 g H3PO4 , therefore, is the
limiting reactant.
*** CaCO3 = limiting reactant
H3PO4 = excess reactant
II. Using the value for the number of moles of the limiting reactant, calculate the mass
of Ca3(PO4)2 formed if its molar mass is 310 g/mole
30
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
EA
V!+ G J$" (dF% )!
Mass Ca3(PO4)2 = 0.217 mole Ca3(PO4)2 x = 67.3 g
! 2145 J$" (dF% )!
Mass of Ca3(PO4)2 that can be formed is 67.3 g Ca3(PO4)2. This is theoretical yield
III. To find the grams of excess reagent (H3PO4), we must find how much of the reagent that is in
excess (H3PO4) is used. Then we subtract this from the amount of H3PO4 present at he beginning,
to find how much excess reactant remains. We can either start with the theoretical yield [0.216
mole Ca3(PO4)2] and calculate how much H3PO4 it would take to produce or start with the limiting
reagent (65.0 g CaCO3) and find how muchH3PO4 will react with that. Either way, we find the
same result.
We shall start with the 0.216 mole Ca3(PO4)2
& 21453E" dF% XK G E" dF%
Mass H3PO4 = 0.217 mole Ca3(PO4)2 x x
! 2145 J$" (dF% )! ! 2145 E" dF%
= 42.5 g H3PO4
This is the amount of H3PO4 used: therefore, the amount remaining is:
45.0 g - 42.5 g = 2.50 g in excess
2. Hydrogen cyanide is produced industrially from the reaction of gaseous ammonia

(NH3), oxygen (O2), and methane (CH4)
NH3(g) + O2(g) + CH4(g) → HCN(g) + H2O(g
If 2000 g of each of NH3, O2, and CH4 are reacted, what is the mass of HCN and
water that will be produced? Determine the limiting reactant and the excess
reactants.
Atomic wt: N = 14 g/mole; H = 1g/mole; O = 16 g/mole; C = 12 g/mole
Solution:
Balanced equation: 2 NH3(g) + 3 O2(g) + 2 CH4(g) → 2 HCN(g) + 6 H2O(g)

2000 g 2000 g 2000 g ? mass
I. Determine the limiting reactant by calculating the amount of product formed

using each of the given values of the reactants
!2145 /E" & 2145 EJ/
Moles of HCN = 2000 g NH3 x x
!O G /E" & 21453 /E"
= 117.6 moles HCN
!2145 F! & 2145 EJ/
Moles of HCN = 2000 g O2 x x V 21453 F
V& G F! !
= 41.67 mole
')*+1 4; 9 )*+1 ;42
Moles of HCN = 2000 g CH4 x '0 . 4; # x 9 )*+1: 4;
# #
= 125.0 moles HCN
*** The limiting reactant is O2

Excess reactants are NH3 and CH4
II. Using the amount of the limiting of the limiting, O2, 41.67 moles, determine the
mass of HCN.
&O G EJ/
41.67 moles HCN x = 1125 g HCN (Theoretical yield)
! 2145 EJ/
III To find amount of H2O that can be formed, we can start either with the
theoretical yield (41.67 moles HCN) or start with limiting reagent (2000g O2).
31
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
EA
We will start with 41.67 mol HCN
: 21453 E! F !K G E! F
Mass of H2O = 41.67 moles HCN x x = 2250 g H2O
& 2145 EJ/ ! 2145E! F
This is the theoretical yield of water is 2250 g.
In chemical reaction, it is always assumed that the reaction goes to completion. However, in
reality, this seldom happens. The expected amount of product is not usually obtained. In the course of
an experiment, many things will contribute to the formation of less product than would be predicted.
Besides spills and other experimental errors, there are usually losses due to an incomplete reaction,
undesirable side reactions, etc. Chemists need a measurement that indicates how successful a
reaction has been. This measurement is called the percent yield.
To compute the percent yield, it is first necessary to determine how much of the product should
be formed based on stoichiometry. This is called the theoretical yield, the maximum amount of
product that could be produced by the complete reaction of the limiting reactant. The actual yield is the
amount of product that is actually formed when the reaction is carried out in the laboratory. The actual
yield is almost always less than (and can never be greater than) the theoretical yield. There are many
reasons for this difference. For example, part of the reactants may not, or they may react in a way
different from the desired (side reactions). In addition, it is not always possible to recover the entire
reaction product from the reaction mixture. The percent yield (PY) is the ratio of the actual yield to the
theoretical yield, expressed as a percentage.
=A?e=B f@CBg
Percent Yield =
?hCi>C?@A=B f@CBg
× 100%
Percent yields greater than100% are possible if the measured product of the reaction contains
impurities that cause its mass to be greater than it actually would be if the product was pure. When a
chemist synthesizes a desired chemical, he or she is always careful to purify the products of the
reaction.
Sample problems
1. Imagine that you are working on ways to improve the process by which iron ore containing Fe2O3 is
converted into iron. In your tests you carry out the following reaction on a small scale:
Fe2O3(s) + CO(g) → Fe (s) + CO2
(a) If you start with 150 g of Fe2O3 as the limiting reagent, what is the theoretical yield
of Fe?
(b) If the actual yield(AY) of Fe in your test was 87.9 g, what was the percent yield?
Atomic wt.: Fe = 55.845 g/mole; O = 15.999 g/mole;
Solution:
The balance equation is: Fe2O3(s) + 3 CO(g) → 2 Fe (s) + 3 CO2
150 g AY= 87.9 g
? TY
? PY
I. Determine the theoretical yield(TY) of Fe.
! 2145 ]5! F" &jiBC kC U: G ]5
Mass of Fe(TY) = 150 g Fe2O3 x x x ! 2145 ]5
!:+ G ]5! F" ! jiBC ]5! F"
= 105 g Fe
32
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
EA
II. Solve for percent yield (PY)

$607$4 %M54#
Percent yield = x 100
0(51)50M6$4 %M54#
KO.X G
= x 100 = 83.7%
!+U G
2. If 25.0 g of magnesium oxide (MgO) is treated with 32.6 g of phosphoric acid

(H3PO4) and 13.7 g of magnesium phosphate Mg3(PO4)2 is obtained, calculate the
theoretical yield and percent yield.
Equation: 3 MgO + 2 H3PO4 → Mg3(PO4)2 + 3 H2O
Atomic wt: Mg = 24 g/mole; O = 16 g/mole; H = 1g/mole; P = 31g/mole
Solution:
3 MgO + 2 H3PO4 → Mg3(PO4)2 + 3 H2O
25.0 g 32.6 g AY = 13.7 g
? TY
? PY
I. Determine the theoretical yield
! 2145 HG F ! 2145 HG" (dF% )!
Moles of Mg3(PO4)2 = 25.0 g MgO x x
'+ G HGF V 21453 HGF
= 0208 mole
!2145E" dF% ! 2145HG" (dF% )!
Mole of Mg3(PO4)2 = 32.6 g H3PO4 x x
XK G E" dF% & 21453 E" dF%
= 0.166 mole
Limiting reactant = H3PO4
XK GE" dF%
Mass H3PO4 = 0.166 mole H3PO4 x = 16.3 g H3PO4
! 2145 E" dF%
II. Calculate the percent yield = 13.7 g x 100

16.3 g
= 84.0 %
3. What is the percent yield of a reaction in which 45.5 g of tungsten (VI) oxide (WO3)
reacts with excess hydrogen gas to produce metallic tungsten and 9.60 mL of
water? Density of water =1.00 g/mL
Atomic wt.” W = 184 g/mole; O = 16 g/mole
Solution:
The balanced equation is: WO3 + 3 H2 → W + 3 H2O
45.5 g AY = 9.60 mL ≈ 9.60 grams
I. Calculate the mass of water.
Density = mass
Volume
33
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
EA
Mass of H2O = densityH2O x volume H2O
= 1.00 g/mL x 9.60 mL = 9.60 g
II. Determine the mass of the liming reactant (Theoretical Yield)
! 2145 lF" V 2145 E! F !K GE F
!
Mass of H2O = 45.5 g WO3 x x x ! 2145 E
&V& GlF" ! 2145 F" !F
= 10.6 g H2O
III. Solve for percent yield

cm X.:+ G
Percent Yield = x 100 = x 100 = 90.6%
bm !+.: G
For further discussion, please refer to pages113-120
In this part of the module you will now apply the skills and strategies that you have learned in
stoichiometry.
1. Copper reacts with sulfur to form copper (II) sulfide. Write the balanced chemical equation and
determine:
a) What is the maximum number of grams of Cu2S that can be formed when 80.0 grams of Cu
reacts with 25.0 grams of sulfur?
b) Which is the limiting reagent?
c) How much is left of the reactant in excess?
2. Insects metabolize to DDT(dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane),C14H9Cl5, to DDD

(dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane) whose mass composition is 52.5% C, 3.15% H and 44.4% Cl.
a) Calculate the empirical formula of DDD.
b) If its molecular weight is 320 g/mol, find its molecular formula.
c) Find a more accurate molecular weight of DDD.
3. For the equation below, if the reaction of 77.0 grams of CaCN2 produce 27.1 g of NH3,
what is the percent?
CaCN2 + water → calcium carbonate + ammonia
4. Solve the problems on your textbook:

a) pp. 99-100
b) pp. 116 to 117
34
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
EA
35

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SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY LABORATORY HIGH SCHOOL – SENIOR HIGH

MOST ESSENTIAL LEARNING COMPETENCIES:

At the end of the module you should be able to:

After going through the lesson, you should be able to:

PRECISION AND ACCURACY

Guidelines in determining the number of significant figures/digits in a measured quantity:

1.03 x 106 g (three significant figures)

The unwanted units cancels out

SOME CONVERSION TABLE

2. When you buy eggs you ask usually for a

What determines how many items should make up a particular unit?

Burger Analogy Recipe. Show all necessary calculations.

2. Consider the preparation of burger sandwiches. The equation is:

3. Suppose that instead of plain burger, Karen is to make double cheeseburgers.

Isotopes of Mg Percent Abundance Fractional Abundance Mass

Required: Average atomic mass of Mg

6.02 x !+!" Ca(N-" )! molecules & / $0123

= 0.392 mole C6H12O6

= 176 g/mol or 176 amu or 176 u

Particles of Conversion factor

Moles of Conversion factor involving Moles of element

1. Calculations where information (moles, particles, or grams) is given about a

The thinking pattern needed to use Figure 1 is very simple.

Moles of Molar Grams of

Molar mass of MgSO4 = (1 x 24 g/mol) + (1 x 32 g/mol) + (4 x 16g/mol)

Grams of Molar mass Moles of

The outline of the procedure used to interconvert the mass of vitamin C in

Grams of Molar Mole of Avogadro’s Molecules

Molar mass of Vitamin C = (6 x 12 g/mol) + (8 x 1 g/mol) + (6 x 16 g/mol)

= 8.55 x 1023 molecules Vit C.

010$4 2$33 1P 54525N0

$012M6 R5MG(0 1P 54525N0 ; 37S36)MQ0 1P 54525N0

Similarly, for oxygen,

Note: Sum of % composition of each element is always equal to 100 %.

% composition of O = 100% - 11.%

The molar mass, MMC8H8O3, of methyl salicylate is as follows:

The percentage composition of carbon in acetyl salicylic acid is calculated as follows:

Note: Sum of % composition of each element is always equal to 100 %. ∑ % 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =

% composition of O = 100% - (% composition of C + % composition of H)

The molar mass,M Al2(CO3)3, is as follows:

M Al2(CO3)3 = (2 x at.wt Al) + (3 x at.wt C) + (9 x at.wt O)

The percentage composition of aluminium carbonate acid is calculated as follows:

& moles x &O g/mole

Equation: metal + oxygen → metal oxide

I. Compute the mass of oxygen

II. Calculate the % mass of the metal and of the oxygen

Alternative method of calculating the % mass of oxygen or % composition o oxygen

% mass of oxygen = 100% - % mass of metal

Total moles of an element per mole of the compound

Note: n = no. of mole/s of element

The mole per cent of carbon in carbon dioxide is as follows:

C2H4 ethylene (ethane) CH2

Determination of the molecular formula

N.B. n should be whole number

I. Assume 100 g of unknown compound so that the given percentage of each

% composition of Na x mass of unknown compound

% composition of ` x mass of unknown compound

% composition of - x mass of unknown compound

II. Calculate the number of moles of each element in100 g of unknown

IV. Determine the Empirical formula (EF): Na2SO4

% 612Q13M0M1N 1P J ; 2$33 aab

% 612Q13M0M1N 1P E ; 2$33 aab

% 612Q13M0M1N 1P J4 ; 2$33 aab