PERTEMUAN- 12

Application of
Thermodynamic To
Flow Processes

Termodinamika Teknik Kimia

 The discipline
• Principles: “Fluid mechanics” and “Thermodynamics”
• Contrast
– Flow process inevitably result from pressure gradients within the
fluid. Moreover, temperature, velocity, and even concentration
gradients may exist within the flowing fluid.
– Uniform conditions that prevail at equilibrium in closed system.
• Local state
– An equation of state applied locally and instantaneously at any point in a
fluid system, and that one may invoke a concept of local state,
independent of the concept of equilibrium.
FLUIDA
Materi yang bisa mengalir, gas atau cairan

Akspansivitas volume  = V1  V
T

 P
1 V
Kompresibilitas Isotermal  = − V  P 
 T

Fluida kompresibel : volume berubah karena tekanan atau perubahan

suhu; mis. gas   0;   0
Fluida inkompresibel : volume tidak berubah karena tekanan atau
perubahan suhu; suatu idealisasi ; cairan hampir bisa dianggap
sebagai fluida inkompresibel.  = 0;  = 0
 Duct flow of compressible fluids
• Equations interrelate the changes occurring in
pressure, velocity, cross-sectional area, enthalpy,
entropy, and specific volume of the flowing system.
• Consider a adiabatic, steady-state, one dimensional
flow of a compressible fluid:
u 2
H + =0 dH = −udu
2
dV du dA
• The continuity equation: d (uA /V ) = 0 − − =0
V u A
 V   V  dP
dV = 
dV du dA
 dS +   − − =0
 S P  P S V u A
 V  = − V  V  =  V   T  dV T V dH = −udu
= dS − 2 dP
2

       
 P S c2  S P  T P  S P V CP c dH = TdS +VdP
1 V  S  = CP   u 2 
From physics,   V  T     u 2 
1−   VdP + 1+
u2
TdS − dA = 0
c is the speed  P  T P T  c 
   CP  A
of sound in a VT
 V 
  =
M =   The Mach number
fluid u
 S  P CP
c
dV T V  u2 
V
=
CP
dS − 2 dP
c ( )
1 − M VdP + 1+
2 u2
TdS − dA = 0
 CP  A

dH = TdS +VdP

 u 2 + M 2 
  u 2
udu −  P TdS + 
C 1
Relates du to dS and dA   dA = 0

1− M 2
  1− M  A
2

 
Pipe flow
 u2   u2 
 + M2  ( )
1−M VdP + 1+
2 u2
TdS − dA = 0
 CP  1 u
2
udu −  TdS +  dA = 0  CP  A
 2 
 1− M  A
2
1− M
 
 

 u 2 2   u2 
 +M  1+ 
  =−   dS
du CP dS dP T CP
u = T
dx 1− M 2  dx dx V  1− M 2  dx
   
   

du dP
0 0
For subsonic flow, M2 < 1, dx dx, the pressure decreases
and the velocity increases in the direction of flow. For subsonic
flow, the maximum fluid velocity obtained in a pipe of constant
cross section is the speed of sound, and this value is reached at the
exit of the pipe.
Consider the steady-state, adiabatic, irreversible flow of an incompressible liquid in a
horizontal pipe of constant cross-sectional area. Show that (a) the velocity is constant.
(b) the temperature increases in the direction of flow. (c) the pressure decreases in the
direction of flow.
Control volume: a finite length of horizontal pipe, with entrance (1) and exit (2)
u1 A1 u2 A2 incompressible V1 = V2
The continuity equation: = u1 = u 2
V1 V2 const. cross-sectional area A = A
1 2

Entropy balance (irreversible): SG = S 2 − S1  0

incompressible liquid with heat capacity C
T2 dT
S G = S 2 − S1 =  C 0 T2  T1
T1 T
T2
Energy balance with (u1 = u2): H 1 = H 2 H 2 − H 1 =  CdT + V (P2 − P1 ) = 0
T1

T2  T1
P2  P1
If reversible adiabatic: T2 = T1; P2 = P1. The temperature and pressure change
originates from flow irreversibility.
 Nozzles and Diffusers
A diffuser converts high
speed, low pressure
flow to low speed, high
pressure flow

A nozzle converts high

pressure, low speed
flow to low pressure,
high speed flow
Nozzles:
 u2 
  u + M 2  ( ) u2
2
1 − M VdP + 1+
2
TdS − dA = 0
 1 u
2

udu − 
CP TdS +   dA = 0  CP  A
1− M 2   1− M 2
 A
 
  Reversible flow
2
Reversible flow
(1 − M )V dP
2
−
u dA
=0
du  1  u 2 dA dx A dx
u + 2 
=0
dx  1− M  A dx
Subsonic: M <1 Supersonic: M >1
Converging Diverging Converging Diverging
dA
- + - +
dx
dP
- + + -
dx
du
+ - - +
dx

For subsonic flow in a converging nozzle, the velocity increases as the cross-sectional
area diminishes. The maximum value is the speed of sound, reached at the throat.
 du  1  u 2 dA
u + 2 
=0
dx  1− M  A dx isentropic
2 udu = −VdP
(1 − M )V dP
2
−
u dA
dx A dx
=0
P
u22 − u12 = −2  2 VdP
P1

PV  = const.

 P 
 −1

2PV
1 1 


u 2 − u12 =
2
1−  2 
−1   P1  
 
P 
u2 = c c 2 = −V 2  
 V S
u1 = 0 PV  = const.
 P  = − P
 
 V S V

P2 =  2   −1

P1   +1 
A high-velocity nozzle is designed to operate with steam at 700 kPa and 300°C. At the
nozzle inlet the velocity is 30 m/s. Calculate values of the ratio A/A1 (where A1 is the
cross-sectional area of the nozzle inlet) for the sections where the pressure is 600,
500, 400, 300, and 200 kPa. Assume the nozzle operates isentropically.
kJ kJ cm3
Initial values from the steam table: S 1 = 7.2997 H1 = 3059.8 V = 371.39
kg  K kg 1 g

A u1V
= A  30  V
The continuity equation: = 
A1 V1u A1  371.39  u

Energy balance: u 2 = u 2 − 2(H − H ) u 2 = 900 − 2(H − 3059.8103 )

1 1

Since it is an isentropic process, S = S1. From the steam table:

kJ kJ cm 3 A
600 kPa: S = 7.2997 H = 3020.4 V = 418.25 u = 282.3 m = 0.120
kg  K kg g s A1
P (kPa) V (cm3/g) U (m/s) A/A1
Similar for other pressures 700 371.39 30 1.0
600 418.25 282.3 0.120
500 481.26 411.2 0.095
400 571.23 523.0 0.088
300 711.93 633.0 0.091
200 970.04 752.2 0.104
Consider again the nozzle of the previous example, assuming now that steam behaves
as an ideal gas. Calculate (a) the critical pressure ratio and the velocity at the throat.
(b) the discharge pressure if a Mach number of 2.0 is required at the nozzle exhaust.
(a)
The ratio of specific heats for steam,  = 1.3

 = 1.3 P2
P2  2   −1
= 0.55
= 
P1   +1  P1

 P 
 −1

2 PV  We have u 1, P 1, V 1, P 2/P 1, γ
u 2 − u12 =
2 1 1 
1−  2   u 2 = 544.35
m
 −1   P1   s
 
(b) m
M=2 u 2 = 2 544.35 = 1088.7
s

 P 
 −1

2 PV
1 1 


u2 − u12 =
2
1−  2  P2 = 30.0 kPa
 −1   P1  
 
 Throttling Process
When a fluid flows through a restriction,
such as an orifice, a partly closed valve, or a
porous plug, without any appreciable
change in kinetic or potential energy, the
primary result of the process is a pressure Throttling
drop in the fluid. Valve

Q&= 0
  
H = 0
d (mU ) cv 1
+   H + u 2 + zg m& = Q&+ W&
dt  2   fs W& = 0
Constant enthalpy

For ideal gas: H = 0 H 2 = H1 T2 = T1

Throttling Process (continued)

For most real gas at moderate conditions of temperature

and pressure, a reduction in pressure at constant
enthalpy results in a decrease in temperature.

If a saturated liquid is throttled to a lower pressure,

some of the liquid vaporizes or flashes, producing a
mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapor at the
lower pressure. The large temperature drop results from
evaporation of liquid. Throttling processes find frequent
application in refrigeration.
Propane gas at 20 bar and 400 K is throttled in a steady-state flow process to 1 bar.
Estimate the final temperature of the propane and its entropy change. Properties of
propane can be found from suitable generalized correlations.
Constant enthalpy process:
H = C Pig (T2 − T1 ) + H 2R − H 1R = 0
H

Final state at 1 bar: assumed to be ideal gas and H 2R = S 2R = 0

H1R
T2 = ig + T1 Tr1 = 1.082 Pr1 = 0.471
CP And based on 2nd virial coefficients correlation
H

CigP
H
= ?? H 1R ( )
 HR 0 H ( )
R 1
=  1 +  1  = HRB(TR, PR,OMEGA)
RTc  RTc RTc 
= HRB(1.082,0.471,0.152) = −0.452
J
C igP = 1.213 + 28.78510 −3 T − 8.82410 −6 T 2 C Pig = 94.07
T = 400K mol  K
T2 = 385.2K ???
J
T = 0.5 385.2 + 0.5 400 = 392.6K CigP  C Pig = 92.73
H mol  K
T2 = 385.0K SR 1
= SRB(1.082,0.471,0.152) = −0.2934
T2 P R J
S = C igP ln − R ln 2 − S1R S = 23.80
S T1 P1 C Pig  C Pig mol  K
S H
Throttling a real gas from conditions of moderate temperature and pressure usually
results in a temperature decrease. Under what conditions would an increase in
temperature be expected.

   T 
Define the Joule/Thomson coefficient:   When will µ < 0 ???
 P  H

   T  = − T   H  = − 1  H   H 
Sign of   ???
 P  H  H  P  P T C P  P T  P T
Always negative
 H   V   H  RT 2  Z 
  = V −T     =−  
 P T  T P ZRT  P T P  T  P
V=
RT 2  Z  P
=  Z 
   
C P P  T  P  T  P
Always positive Same sign
 Z 
The condition   =0 may obtain locally for real gases. Such
 T  P
points define the Joule/Thomson inversion curve.
 µ=-

Tr
µ=+

Pr

Fig 7.2
 Turbine (Expanders)
• A turbine (or expander):
– Consists of alternate sets of nozzles and rotating
blades
– Vapor or gas flows in a steady-state expansion
process and overall effect is the efficient
conversion of the internal energy of a high-
pressure stream into shaft work.
Turbin
 Turbine W&S

 
+   H + u 2 + zg m& = Q&+W&S
d (mU )cv 1
W&S = m&H = m&(H 2 − H 1 )
dt  2   fs

WS = H = H 2 − H 1

The maximum shaft work: a reversible process (i.e., isentropic, S1 = S2)

WS (isentropic) = (H ) S
The turbine efficiency
WS H
 =
WS (isentropic) (H ) S Values for properly designed turbines: 0.7~ 0.8
H
 A steam turbine with rated capacity of 56400 kW operates with steam
at inlet conditions of 8600 kPa and 500°C, and discharge into a
condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa. Assuming a turbine efficiency of
0.75, determine the state of the steam at discharge and the mass rate of
flow of the steam.
P1 = 8600kPa T1 = 500 oC
H 1 = 3391.6 kJ kg S1 = 6.6858 kJ kg  K

(H )S = H 2 − H 1 = −1274.2 kJ kg
Turbine W&S
H =  (H )S = −955.6 kJ kg

H 2 = H 1 + H = 2436.0 kJ = (1− x v )H 2l + x v H 2v
kg P2 = 10kPa S 2 = 6.6858 kJ
kg  K
x = 0.9378 S 2 = (1− x )S + x S = 7.6846 kJ
v v l v v
2 2 kg  K
W&S = m&H = 56400 kJ s S 2 = (1− x )S 2 + x v S 2v = (1− x v )0.6493 + x v 8.1511 = 6.6858 kJ
v l

kg  K
m& = 59.02 kg s
H 2 = (1− x v )H 2l + x v H 2v = 2117.4 kJ x v = 0.8047
kg
A stream of ethylene gas at 300°C and 45 bar is expanded adiabatically
in a turbine to 2 bar. Calculate the isentropic work produced. Find the
properties of ethylene by: (a) equations for an ideal gas (b)appropriate
generalized correlations.
P1 = 45 bar P2 = 2 bar T1 = 573.15 K
H = C Pig (T2 − T1 ) + H 2R − H 1R S = C Pig ln
T2 P
− R ln 2 + S 2R − S1R S = 0
H S T1 P1
(a) Ideal gas
T2 P2 WS (isentropic) = (H ) S = C igP (T2 − T1 )
S = C ig
P S ln − R ln H
T1 P1 ig
CP
S = 0
H
R
= MCPH (573.15,370.18;1.424,14.394E − 3,−4.392E − 6,0.0)
 
 − 3.1135  = 7.224
T2 = exp ig + 6.3511
 CP  J
 S  W (isentropic) = 7.224 8.314  (370.8 − 573.15) = −12153

S
R  mol
C igP
iteration S = MCPS (573.15,T2;1.424,14.394E − 3,−4.392E − 6,0.0)
R

T2 = 370.8K
(b) General correlation
Tr1 = 2.030 Pr1 = 0.893

based on 2nd virial coefficients correlation

H1R
=
( )
 H1R 0
+
H1R 
1
( )
 = HRB(2.030,0.893,0.087) = −0.234
S1R
= SRB(2.030,0.893,0.087) = − 0.097
RTc  RTc RTc  R

Assuming T2 = 370.8 K
Tr 2 = 1.314 Pr 2 = 0.040
based on 2nd virial coefficients correlation
S 2R
= SRB(1.314,0.040,0.087) = −0.0139
R
T2 − R ln 2 − 0.116 + 0.806 = 0
iteration S = C igP ln
S 573.15 45

T2 = 365.8K
Tr 2 = 1.296 Pr 2 = 0.040 Ws (isentropic) = (H )S
J
H 2R
= HRB(1.296,0.040,0.087) = −0.20262 = C Pig (T2 − T1 ) + H 2R − H 1R = −11920
RTc H mol
 Compression process compressor
W&S

• Pressure increases: compressors, pumps, fans,

blowers, and vacuum pumps.
• Interested in the energy requirement

 
+   H + u 2 + zg m& = Q +WS
d (mU )cv 1
W&S = m&H = m&(H 2 − H 1 )
dt  2   fs

WS = H = H 2 − H 1
The minimum shaft work: a reversible process (i.e., isentropic, S1 = S2)
WS (isentropic) = (H ) S
The compressor efficiency   WS (isentropic) = (H ) S
WS H
Values for properly designed compressors: 0.7~ 0.8
H
 Saturated-vapor steam at 100 kPa (tsat = 99.63 °C ) is compressed
adiabatically to 300 kPa. If the compressor efficiency is 0.75, what is
the work required and what is the work required and what are the
properties of the discharge stream?

kJ kJ
For saturated steam at 100 kPa: S1 = 7.3598 H 1 = 2675.4
kg  K kg

Isentropic compression

S2 = S1 = 7.3598
kJ 300 kPa
H 2 = 2888.8
kJ
(H )S = 213.4 kJ
kg  K kg kg

T2 = 246.1oC 300 kPa H = H + H = 2959.9 kJ H =

(H )S = 284.5
kJ

2 1
kJ kg kg
S 2 = 7.5019
kg  K

kJ
WS = H = 284.5
kg
If methane (assumed to be an ideal gas) is compressed adiabatically
from 20°C and 140 kPa to 560 kPa, estimate the work requirement and
the discharge temperature of the methane. The compressor efficiency
is 0.75.
T2 P
S = C Pig ln − R ln 2 + S 2R − S1R
S T1 P1 T2 = 428.65K

S = 0 C igP
S = MCPS(293.15,T2;1.702,9.081E − 3,2.164E − 6,0.0)
R

R C igP Ws = H
 P2  C Pig H
T2 = T1   S
R
= C Pig (T2 − T1 )
 P2  = MCPH (293.15,T2 ;1.702,9.081E − 3,2.164E − 6,0.0) H

Ws (isentropic) J
P2 Ws = = 5288.3
iteration P1 = 4 T1 = 293.15K  mol

J
T2 = 397.37K Ws (isentropic) = 3966.2
Ws (isentropic) = (H )S mol

= C ig (T − T ) + H − H
R R
P H 2 1 2 1
 Pumps
• Liquids are usually moved by pumps. The same
equations apply to adiabatic pumps as to adiabatic
compressors.
• For an isentropic process: Ws (isentropic) = (H )S = P VdP
P
2

• With dH = C P dT + V (1− T )dP dS = C P dT − VdP

T
• For liquid,
– Ws (isentropic) = (H )S = V (P2 − P1 )
– H = C P T +V (1− T )P
– T2
S = CP ln − VP
T1
 Water at 45°C and 10 kPa enters an adiabatic pump and is discharged at a pres
8600 kPa. Assume the pump efficiency to be 0.75.
Calculate the work of the pump, the temperature change of the water,
and the entropy change of water.
= cm 3
1 C = 4.178 kJ
The saturated liquid water at 45°C: V 1010  = 42510 −6
kg  K
P
kg K

Ws (isentropic) = (H )S = V (P2 − P1 )

kPa cm 3 = 8.676 kJ
Ws (isentropic) = 1010  (8600 −10) = 8.676 10 6

kg kg

Ws (isentropic) kJ
Ws = = H = 11.57 H = C P T + V (1− T )P
 kg
T = 0.97K
T2
S = C P ln − VP
T1
kJ
S = 0.0090
kg  K