Nineteenth C Civilization

Menoufiya University
Faculty of Arts
English Department
Until
‫الحـضـارة األروبـيـة حـتى الـقـرن الـتـاسـع عـشـر‬
Compiled and Edited

By
Dr. Radwan Gabr El-Sobky
‫ رضـوان جـبر السبكى‬/‫الدكتور‬
2022-2023
___________________ ____
♣ European Civilization in 19th C. ♣ Dr. Radwan El-Sobky ♣
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Copyright © 4th Edition 2022 - 2023
For European Civilization until the 19th Century
(Revised Edition with Some Additions)
All Rights reserved for the author

The Author: Radwan Gabr El-Sobky
The Title: European Civilization until the 19th Century
No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any

means, electronic or mechanical including photocopy and recording without
permission in writing from the author.
‫حقوق الطبع والنشر محفوظة للمؤلف وال يجوز طبع أو نقل أو تصوير أي جزء من هذا‬
‫ رضوان جبر السبكى‬/ ‫الكتاب إال بتصريح مكتوب من المؤلف الدكتور‬
Dar Alkotob
16321 -2014 ‫رقم اإليداع بدار الكتب المصرية‬
I. S. B. N. 977-17–2569-6 :‫الترقيم الدولي‬
Deposit Number in Dar Alkotob Almasreya: 2014 -16321
International Social Book Number (ISBN): 977-17–2569-6
___________________ ____
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----
Dr. Radwan El-Sobky
___________________ ____
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‫الرؤية‬
‫يسعى قسم اللغة اإلنـجليزية إلى أن يكون أحد المراكز البحثية والتعليمية المتقدمة في مجال اللغة اإلنـجليزية‬
‫وآدابها على الصعيدين القومي واإلقليمي‪ .‬ويعمل القسم على تحقيق التميز على مستوى كل من المرحلة‬
‫الجامعية األولى والدراسات العليا والمشاركة في التنمية المجتمعية والتواصل مع الثقافات األخرى‪.‬‬
‫الرسالة‬
‫يلتزم قسم اللغة اإلنـجليزية وآدابها بكلية اآلداب بجامعة المنوفية بتخريج مواطنين صالحين يساهمون بفعالية‬
‫في مجاالت البحث العلمي والتنمية المجتمعية‪ .‬ومن أجل تحقيق هذه الغاية فإن القسم يعمل جاهداً على‪:‬‬
‫• توفير مقررات متنوعة ومتكاملة من شأنها تعزيز المهارات األكاديمية والتواصلية والتكنولوجية والمهنية‬
‫للدارسين‬
‫• تنمية التفكير اإلبداعي والنقدي لدى الدارسين‬
‫• تعزيز الوعي الثقافي لدى الدارسين وكذلك الوعي باالختالف بين الثقافات بما يمكنهم من تحقيق النجاح‬
‫في عصر العولمة بتنوعه وتعقيده‬
‫‪Course Specification‬‬
‫‪Menoufiya University‬‬
‫‪Faculty of Arts‬‬
‫‪English Department‬‬
‫‪European Civilization until the 19th century‬‬
‫‪1. Course Data‬‬
‫‪Course Code:‬‬ ‫‪Course Title:‬‬ ‫‪Year/Level:‬‬
‫‪N 311‬‬ ‫‪European Civilization until‬‬ ‫‪Third Year‬‬
‫‪the 19th century‬‬
‫‪Specialization:‬‬ ‫‪Contact Hours:‬‬
‫‪English Language Lectures‬‬ ‫‪Practical sessions‬‬ ‫‪0‬‬
‫‪4‬‬
‫‪and Literature‬‬
‫‪-‬‬
‫‪2- Course‬‬
‫‪The course aims at enabling students to:‬‬
‫‪Objectives‬‬
‫‪(A) Know the European intellectual and cultural history of‬‬
‫‪Europe in the 19th century.‬‬
‫‪(B) Learn about the major trends and schools of politics,‬‬
‫‪thought, economy and culture in Europe.‬‬
‫‪(C) Develop a strong understanding of the effects of the‬‬
‫‪Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution all‬‬
‫‪over Europe.‬‬
‫___________________‬ ‫____‬
‫♣ ‪♣ European Civilization in 19th C. ♣ Dr. Radwan El-Sobky‬‬
‫‪-3-‬‬
(D) Know the European the major schools of philosophy in
the 19th
3 - Course Intended Learning Outcomes

A- Knowledge
By the end of the course the students will be able to
and
understanding A.1- Acquaint with two important events of the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries, namely the French Revolution and
the Industrial Revolution, and their impact on the
history of human civilization in general and Europe in
particular.
A.2- Know the concept of European intellectual, political,
scientific and economic trends until the 19th century.
A.3- Understand the political, economic, scientific and
philosophical ideas of the 18th and 19th centuries.
A.4- Derive the characteristics of intellectual life in the 18 th
and 19th centuries.
A.5- Identify some political, economic and social doctrines
such as liberalism, communism, Marxism, capitalism
and nationalism that emerged in the 18th to 19th
centuries.
B. Cognitive By the end of the course the students will have developed the
Skills
ability to:
B.1- Compare between European intellectual, political,
scientific and economic trends in the 18th to 19th
centuries.
B.2- Demonstrate the practical ability to link the different
intellectual trends and their impact on European
civilization.
B.3- Conclude the cultural and social values that have passed
through Europe in the 18th century.
C- Professional Upon completion of the course, students will be able to:
and
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Practical C.1- Organize a method of observation that shows the
skills relationship between the emergence of the French
Revolution and the industrial revolution and the
intellectual, political, scientific and economic trends of
Europe in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
C.2- Suggest a good reading method in the English language
of the texts.
C.3- Design a number of methods to analyze both cultural and
literary data.
D. General By the end of the course, students will have developed the
Skills
skills of:
D.1-Distinguishing between historical and cultural texts and
various literary methods.
D.2- Practicing historical, cultural and linguistic reading and
relate it to literature.
--
4- Course Topics Week

Contents Chapter 1: Intellectual Revolution in the New 1-2
German Philosophy in the 19th Century
Chapter 2: The French Revolution and its 3-4
Cultural and Civilizational Impact on
Europe and the Whole World
Chapter 3: Industrial Revolution (1760-1850) 5-6
Chapter 4: Romanticism: An Intellectual, 7-8
Cultural and Artistic Movement (1800-
1850)
Chapter 5: Science and Technology in 19th 9
Century Europe
Chapter 6: European Liberalism 10
Chapter 7: European Nationalism 11
Chapter 8: European Capitalism 12
Chapter 9: European Marxism 13
Chapter 10: European Communism 14
5. Teaching and learning methods Theoretical Lectures
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6. Teaching and Learning Methods None
-
for students with Special Needs.
7- Assessment of students
A- The Used Methods Written Exam
B- Timing 13th week at the end of Semester
C- Marks distribution 20 Marks for final Exam
-
8- List of textbooks and references:

A- Notes -------------------
B- Text books El-Sobky, Radwan. European Civilization in the 19th
Century, Al-Shams Printing Press,
Deposit No. 2014 -16321 I.S.B.N. 977-17–2569-6
C- Suggested 1. Ashton, Thomas S. The Industrial Revolution: 1760–1830,
References London: Oxford UP, 1948.
2. Barnard, F.M., J. G. Herder on Social and Political Culture,
Cambridge: UP, 1969.
3. Crafts, Nicholas F. R. British Economic Growth during the
Industrial Revolution. New York: Oxford UP, 1985.
4. Doyle, William. Origins of the French Revolution, Oxford: UP.
3rd ed. 1992.
5. Forster, M. N. J.G. Herder: Philosophical Writings,
Cambridge UP, 2002.
6. Hartwell, R. M. The Industrial Revolution and Economic
Growth, London: Methuen, 1971.
7. Losee, J. A Historical Introduction to the Philosophy of
Science, Oxford: Oxford UP, 1972.
8. Paxton, John. Companion to the French Revolution, New
York: Facts on File, c1988.
9. Stearns, Peter N. The Industrial Revolution in World History,
Boulder: Westview Press, 1998.
10. Thompson, J. M. The French Revolution, Oxford: UP. 1945.
11. -----------. The Impact of the Industrial Revolution, London:
Prentice-Hall, 1972.
D- Periodicals and Bulletins etc. None
Instructor: Dr. Radwan El-Sobky

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European Civilization in the 19th Century
Contents
Course Specification -------------------------------------------------- 3
Contents ------------------------------------------------------------------- 7
Introduction ------------------------------------------------------------- 17
Chapter One: The Intellectual Revolution in the New
German Philosophy in the 19th Century
Introduction ------------------------------------------------------------ 21
1. The Era of the German Philosophical Revolution -----– 22
2. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) ------------------------------------ 25
2.1. Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason --------------------------- 27
2.2. Kant’s Philosophy of Transcendental Idealism ------ 40
2.3. Kant’s Philosophy of Morality and Freedom ---------- 44
2.4. Kant’s Theory of Conscience and Moral
Consciousness ----------------------------------------------- 53
2.5. Kant’s Critique of Practical Reason ---------------------- 55
2.6. Kant’s Concept of the Highest Good, Virtue,
Happiness and Belief in God ----------------------------- 56
2.7. Kant’s Philosophy of Religion ---------------------------- 59
3. Johann Herder (1744 -1803) ------------------------------------ 61
3.1. Herder’s Moral Philosophy and Ethical Theory ----- 63
3.2. Herder’s Philosophy of Religion ------------------------ 66
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3.3. Herder's Philosophy of Language and Interpretation
---------------------------------------------------------------------- 68
3.4. Herder’s Philosophy of Mind ----------------------------- 78
Chapter Two: The French Revolution and its Cultural
Impact on Europe
Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------- 85
1. The Causes of the French Revolution --------------------- 87
1.1. Political and Social Inequalities ------------------------ 86
1.2. Bankruptcy of the Government ------------------------- 87
1.3. Absolutism and Privilege --------------------------------- 87
1.4. Economic Causes ------------------------------------------- 87
1.5. Food Scarcity ------------------------------------------------- 90
1.6. Fiscal Crisis --------------------------------------------------- 90
1.7. Social Causes ------------------------------------------------- 91
1.8. The Need for Political Reform --------------------------- 93
2. The Slogans of the French Revolution: Liberty,
Equality, Fraternity ------------------------------------------------ 93
3. The Ideology of the French Revolution -------------------- 96
4. The Social, Political and Religious Impact of the French
Revolution on France -------------------------------------------- 99
4.1. The Influence of the French Emerges led to a spread
of French culture outside France --------------------- 101
4.2. National identities began mixing together like never
before --------------------------------------------------------- 103
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4.3. Rule by divine right and absolute monarchy were
challenged --------------------------------------------------- 103
4.4. A hierarchical society was challenged ------------- 103
4.5. The Catholic Church as a confessional state was
displaced by the concept of the French nation --104
4.6. The Declaration of the Rights of Man was issued ----
--------------------------------------------------------------------104
4.7. Revolutionary Culture in Clothing -------------------- 106
4.8. Revolutionary Culture in Language and Address 107
5. The Cultural and Civilizational Impact of the French
Revolution on Europe and the Rest of the World --- 108
5.1. The Emergence of the Modern Political World
System based on Democracy ------------------------- 108
5.2. Inspiration to Other Revolutions -------------------- 111
5.3. The Social Impact of the French Revolution on
Europe ------------------------------------------------------ 111
5.4. The Political Impact of the French Revolution on
Europe ------------------------------------------------------ 112
5.5. The French Revolutionary Culture dominated
France and all over the World ------------------------ 113
5.6. The Liberation of the Economy from Royal Control -
-------------------------------------------------------------------114
5.7. The impact of the French Revolution on the Middle
East and Russia ------------------------------------------ 114
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5.8. The Development of New Ideologies ---------------- 115
5.9. The Revolution promoted nationalism all over
Europe ------------------------------------------------------- 117
Chapter Three: Industrial Revolution and its Impact
on the European Civilization (1760-1850)
Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------- 119
1. What is the Industrial Revolution? ------------------------ 120
2. Why the Change in Industry was called
a Revolution? ----------------------------------------------------- 121
3. The History and Concept of Industrial Revolution --- 122
4. Three Phases of the Industrial Revolution -------------- 124
5. The Causes of the Industrial Revolution ----------------- 127
5.1. The Agricultural Revolution --------------------------- 127
5.2. The Potato Revolution (1695 - 1845) --------------- 128
5.3. The Growth of the British Population -------------- 131
5.4. The Commercial Revolution --------------------------- 133
5.5. The Cottage Industry------------------------------------- 135
5.6. Enclosure of Land ----------------------------------------- 137
5.7. The Unique Conditions in Britain for the
Industrial Revolution --------------------------------------138
5.8. Improvement of Financial Situations ----------------139
5.9. The Enlightenment and the Scientific
Revolution --------------------------------------------------- 140
5.10. Navigable Rivers and Canals ------------------------ 141
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5.11. Abundance of Coal and Iron ------------------------- 141
5.12. Encouragement of Government Policies -------- 142
5.13. Increase of World Trade -------------------------------142
6. Britain: Birthplace of the Industrial Revolution --------143
7. Development of Transportation Industry during
Industrial Revolution ------------------------------------------- 144
8. The Rise of Capitalism and Free Market during
the Industrial Revolution -------------------------------------- 145
9. Communication and Banking during the
Industrial Revolution-------------------------------------------- 147
10. The Standard of Living during the Industrial
Revolution ------------------------------------------------------- 148
11. The Impact of the Industrial Revolution ----------------- 149
11.1. The Rise of Cities and Urbanization --------------- 152
11.2. Increase of Child Labour -------------------------------154
11.3. The Emergence of the Middle Class People ------ 156
11.4. More Development in Industry and Economy --158
11.5. Social and Cultural Changes ------------------------- 159
11.6. The Influence of the Industrial Revolution
on Culture and Civilization ---------------------------- 162
11.7. The Emergence of Romantic Movement --------- 164
11.8. The Emergence of Modernity ------------------------- 164
Chapter Four: Romanticism: An Intellectual, Cultural
and Artistic Movement (1800-1850)
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1. Cultural History of Romanticism ---------------------------- 167
2. What is Romanticism? ------------------------------------------ 168
3. Key Ideas and Themes of Romanticism ------------------- 174
3.1. An Emphasis on Imagination --------------------------- 174
3.2. Reverence for Nature -------------------------------------- 175
3.3. Focus on Individuality and Subjectivity -------------- 179
3.4. Veneration of Self ------------------------------------------- 180
3.5. Interest in Gothicism (Neo- Gothicism) ------------- 182
3.6. Privileging Emotion over Reason ---------------------- 188
3.7. Focus on Exoticism---------------------------------------- 190
3.8. Primacy of Aesthetics and Emphasis on beauty--193
3.9. Theme of Solitude, Isolation and Melancholy ---- 195
3.10. Celebration of the Simple Pastoral Life ----------- 197
3.11. Idealization of Women------------------------------------ 198
Chapter Five: Science and Technology in 19th Century
Europe
Introduction ------------------------------------------------------------201
1. Mechanizing production and combustion engines --- 204
2. The diffusion of Electricity revolutionized the world - 205
3. New Means of Transportation -------------------------------- 205
4. John Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1766-1844) --------------- 206
5. Michael Faraday’s Dynamo (1791-1867) ------------------ 209
6. Darwin’s Theory of Evolution (1809–1882) --------------- 211
7. Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) ------------------------------------- 214
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8. James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879):
Theory of Light is an Electromagnetic Wave ------------ 214
9. Henri Becquerel’s Discovery of Radioactivity
(1852-1908) ---------------------------------------------------------- 216
10. Revolutionizing Railways and Cars------------------------218
11. Discovery of Anesthetics ------------------------------------ 221
Chapter Six: European Liberalism
1. What is Liberalism? --------------------------------------------- 223
2. Liberalism as a Political Viewpoint ------------------------- 224
3. Forms of Liberalism --------------------------------------------- 224
3.1. Classical Liberalism -------------------------------------- 224
3.2. Social Liberalism ------------------------------------------ 226
3.3. Economic Liberalism ------------------------------------- 227
3.4. Neo Liberalism ---------------------------------------------- 230
4. Liberalism as an Ideology ------------------------------------- 232
Chapter Seven: European Nationalism
1. What is Nationalism? ------------------------------------------ 235
2. Principles of Nationalism -------------------------------------- 237
3. Forms of Nationalism ------------------------------------------- 240
3.1. Ethnic Nationalism ---------------------------------------- 240
3.2. Civil Nationalism ------------------------------------------- 240
3.3. Expansionist Nationalism ------------------------------- 242
3.4. Cultural Nationalism ------------------------------------- 243
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3.5. Third World Nationalism -------------------------------- 244
3.6. Religious Nationalism ------------------------------------ 244
4. Extremism and Nationalism ---------------------------------- 245
5. Nationalism and Racism -------------------------------------- 246
6. Opposition and Critique of Nationalism ----------------- 247
Chapter Eight: European Capitalism
1. What is Capitalism? --------------------------------------------- 249
2. The Basic Premise of Capitalism -------------------------- 250
3. The Basic Principles of Capitalism ------------------------ 252
3.1. Individual Rights ------------------------------------------ 252
3.2. Equal Justice under Law ------------------------------- 252
3.3. Spontaneous Order -------------------------------------- 253
3.4. Private Ownership ----------------------------------------- 253
3.5. Centralization ----------------------------------------------- 253
3.6. Enormous Capital ------------------------------------------ 254
3.7. Machinery ---------------------------------------------------- 254
3.8. Labour --------------------------------------------------------- 255
3.9. Organization ------------------------------------------------- 255
4. Capitalism as an Ideology ------------------------------------- 256
5. The Benefits of Capitalism ------------------------------------ 261
Chapter Nine: European Marxism

1. What is Marxism? ------------------------------------------------ 265
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2. Marxism and Materialism -------------------------------------- 267
3. Marxism and Religion ------------------------------------------ 268
4. Marxism as an Economic Ideology ------------------------ 270
Chapter Ten: European Communism
1. What is Communism? ------------------------------------------ 277
2. Who Founded Communism? --------------------------------- 279
3. The History of Communism ----------------------------------- 279
4. Principles of Communism ----------------------------------- 280
5. Joseph Stalin's Reign and Successive Dictators ------ 281
6. Forms of Communism ---------------------------------------- 281
6.1. Christian Communism ----------------------------------- 282
6.2. Leninism ----------------------------------------------------- 284
6.3. Trotskyism -------------------------------------------------- 285
6.4. Anarchist Communism ----------------------------------- 287
7. Communism as an Ideology -------------------------------- 288
Bibliography ------------------------------------------------------ 289
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Author’s Introduction
This book is a research work on the European thought

and civilization in the 19th century. I exerted a great effort
to make it as it is. Thanks to Allah who gave me time, effort
and force to finish this work in its fullest form.
This book is an opportunity to explore the major
thinkers and historic challenges that shaped the mind of
Europe in the 19th century. Intellectual history emphasizes
the exchanges of ideas and debates that went on among
people from other places and times. But it also stresses the
importance of a continuing dialogue between the present
and the past.
This book on European civilization in the 19th century
is presented in major points: The German philosophy and
its role in enlightening the European thought; the French
Revolution and its consequences; the Industrial
Revolution and its impact on European countries; the
emergence of new thinkers, philosophers and scientists;
the emergence of new ideologies in the 19th century.
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I am convinced that scholars, artists, philosophers and
other thinkers of every age, including a few historians,
have fashioned a world view for themselves. This world
view is what is meant by "prevailing spirit," or "mirror of
the age," or "climate of opinion” The ideas of the 19th
century are not constructed in a vacuum. We must
understand that these ideas -- whether scientific, moral,
religious, economic, artistic or whatever -- spring or are
fashioned out of real historical circumstances.
The point is that we cannot abstract ideas from the
historical epoch in which they appeared. Ideas are not
balloons floating in space: one is marked "freedom”
“Liberalism" or "Marxism" or “Communism”. The ideas
must be understood as grounded in the historical epoch in
which they first or later appear. A world view is the product
of an age which thinks - but this thinking is of a high order.
In this book I begin with an earlier period before the 19th
century, with some developments in the 18th century,
because these centuries are very closely related in many
ways, including the way intellectual life developed. There
is a reference to what is called the philosophical Revolution
throughout the study of two German philosophers:
Immanuel Kant and Johann Herder.
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This book includes a study of two important
revolutions in the history of Europe: the French Revolution
and the Industrial Revolution. The significance or
importance of the French Revolution has usually been
analyzed in two ways: as an "event" in French history that
had a great influence on the history of the whole world; and
as a decisive event in intellectual history that had a great
influence on the culture and civilization of all European
countries. As regards the Industrial Revolution the reader
is going to explore the effects of industrialization on
European society, on the daily living and the working
conditions of common people. There is a reference to
Science and Technology in 19th-Century Europe through
which I write, in brief, about the most important inventions
in the field of Science and Technology.
This book refers to some new ideologies that were
developed in the 19th century such as liberalism, Marxism,
communism, capitalism and nationalism.
The Author
Dr. Radwan Gabr El-Sobky
English Department
Faculty of Arts
Al- Menoufiya University
___________________ ____
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Chapter One
The Intellectual Revolution in the

New German Philosophy in the 19th
Century
Introduction
European politics, philosophy, science and
communications were radically reoriented during
the course of the 18 th century (1685-1815) as part
of a movement referred as the Age of Reason, or
simply the Enlightenment. Thinkers of
Enlightenment throughout Europe embraced the
notion that humanity could be improved through
rational change.
The Enlightenment –Age of Reason – is defined as the
period of rigorous scientific, political and
philosophical discourse that characterized European
society during the ‘long’ 18th century: from the late
17th century to the ending of the Napoleonic Wars in
1815. The Enlightenment’s emphasis on reason
___________________ ____
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shaped philosophical, political and scientific discourse
from the late 17th to the early 19th century. Central to
Enlightenment thought were the use and celebration
of reason, the power by which humans understand the
universe and improve their own condition. The goals
of rational humanity were considered to be
knowledge, freedom, and happiness.
In the second half of the eighteenth century, German
philosophy came for a while to dominate European
philosophy. It changed the way in which not only
Europeans, but people all over the world, conceived of
themselves and thought about nature, religion, human
history, politics, and the structure of the human mind.
1. The Era of the German Philosophical

Revolution
German philosophy stands at the center of
modern thought. The rise of the modern natural
sciences and the related decline of religion raise a
series of questions, which recur throughout German
philosophy, concerning the relationships between
knowledge and faith, reason and emotion, and
scientific, ethical, and artistic ways of seeing the
___________________ ____
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world. It examines Germany’s transition from a
traditional feudal society to a modern, industrialized
one, exploring how philosophy relates to social and
historical developments.
The second half of the 19th century saw a
revolution in both European politics and philosophy.
Philosophical fervor (excitement) reflected political
fervour. Five great critics dominated the European
intellectual scene: Ludwig Feuerbach, Karl Marx,
Soren Kierkegaard, Fyodor Dostoevsky, and
Friedrich Nietzsche. These philosophers succeeded in
revolutionizing theology (religious beliefs and
teachings), philosophy, psychology, and politics. If the
Enlightenment and the French Revolution influenced
intellectual culture of England and France, they also
affected the intellectual culture of Germany. In fact,
German theoretical critiques of 18th century French
thought would soon have a very wide influence in
other European countries.
The period between about 1780 and 1830, is often
referred to as the era of the German “philosophical
revolution.” Its intellectual significance has sometimes
been compared to the revolutionary upheaval of the
___________________ ____
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French Revolution. That is, it changed the way many
people thought about the world; much as the French
Revolution had altered the way people understood the
world in the earlier period of the 1790s.
The new German philosophy, in some way
challenged two of the central traditions of the
Enlightenment, and became the link to later forms of
Romanticism, and to a new emphasis on cultural
difference. The emphasis on the latter was at the heart
of new forms of nationalism. So, in these ways, the new
German philosophical response to the French
Revolution, which culminated in Hegel, helped to
shape the new 19th century interest in national history
and the ideas of nationalism. So, the German
philosophical revolution, when combined with the
French Revolution, led to a new kind of nationalism in
Europe.
The most famous German philosophers in the 19 th
century are:
1. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
2. Johann Herder (1744 -1803)
3. Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762- 1814)
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4. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1830)
5. Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling (1775- 1854)
6. Arthur Schopenhauer (1788 –1860)
7. Friedrich Engels (1820- 1895)
8. Ludwig Feuerbach (1804- 1872)
9. Karl Marx (1818 –1883)
10. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)
2. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

Immanuel Kant is the central figure in modern
philosophy. He combined early modern rationalism
and empiricism (the theory that all knowledge is based
on experience derived from the senses), set the terms
for much of nineteenth and twentieth century
philosophy, and continues to exercise a significant
influence today in metaphysics, epistemology
(philosophical theory of knowledge), ethics, political
philosophy, aesthetics, and other fields. The
fundamental idea of Kant’s “critical philosophy” can
be found in his three Critiques:
• The Critique of Pure Reason (1781, 1787),
• The Critique of Practical Reason (1788),
• The Critique of the Power of Judgment (1790)
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The idea of these books is human autonomy. He
argues that the human understanding is the source of
the general laws of nature that structure all our
experience; and that human reason gives itself the
moral law, which is our basis for belief in God,
freedom, and immortality. Therefore, scientific
knowledge, morality, and religious belief are mutually
consistent and secure because they all rest on the same
foundation of human autonomy (“Immanuel Kant”,
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy).
Immanuel Kant
___________________ ____
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2.1. Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason
The Critique of Pure Reason is a book by the
German philosopher Immanuel Kant, in which the
author seeks to determine the limits and scope of
metaphysics (the branch of philosophy that deals with
the first principles of things, including abstract
concepts such as being, knowing, identity, time, and
space). Kant published the Critique of Pure Reason in
1781. In the Critique of Pure Reason, Kant achieves a
combination between the competing traditions of
rationalism and empiricism (the doctrine that
knowledge derives from experience). From
rationalism, he draws the idea that pure reason is
capable of significant knowledge but rejects the idea
that pure reason can tell us anything about things-in-
themselves. The Critique of Pure Reason was a
critique of the pretensions (claims ‫ )مزاعم‬of pure
theoretical reason to attain metaphysical truths
beyond the range of applied theoretical reason. Its
conclusion was that pure theoretical reason must be
limited, because it produces confused arguments
when applied outside its sphere.
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Kant’s primary aim is to determine the limits and
range of pure reason. That is, he wants to know what
reason alone can determine without the help of the
senses or any other faculties. Metaphysicians make
grand claims about the nature of reality based on pure
reason alone, but these claims often conflict with one
another (Kant, The Critique of Pure Reason).
2.1.1. A Priori and a Posteriori Knowledge -
Analytic and Synthetic Judgments
‫ واألحكام التحليلية والتركيبية‬- ‫المعرفة المسبقة والالحقة‬
Kant draws two important distinctions: between a
priori and a posteriori knowledge and between
analytic and synthetic judgments. In the field of
philosophy, a priori knowledge is knowledge that a
person can have without needing experience of any
kind to justify it. The Latin term “A priori” which
means “from former” usually describes lines of
reasoning or arguments that move ahead from the
general to the particular, or from causes to effects.
The Latin term “a priori” means “from later”. “A
priori” and “a posteriori” refer primarily to how, or
on what basis, a proposition (suggestion) might be
known. In general terms, a proposition is knowable a
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priori if it is knowable independently of experience,
while a proposition knowable a posteriori is knowable
on the basis of experience.
• Distinctions between a Priori and a Posteriori
Knowledge
A posteriori knowledge is the particular
knowledge we gain from experience, and a priori
knowledge is the necessary and universal knowledge
we have independent of experience and independent
of the senses. For example, the proposition that all
bachelors are unmarried is a priori, and the
proposition that it is raining outside now is a
posteriori. The distinction between the two terms is
epistemological and immediately relates to the
justification for why a given item of knowledge is held.
For instance, a person who knows (a priori) that “All
bachelors are unmarried” need not have experienced
the unmarried status of all — or indeed any —
bachelors to justify this proposition. By contrast, if I
know that “It is raining outside,” knowledge of this
proposition must be justified by appealing to
someone’s experience of the weather (“A priori and a
posteriori” in Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy).
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• Distinctions between Analytic and Synthetic
Judgments
In an analytic judgment, a proposition is
analytic if the predicate concept of the proposition is
contained within the subject concept. The concept in
the predicate is contained in the concept in the subject,
as, for instance, in the judgment, “a bachelor is an
unmarried man.” (In this context, predicate refers to
whatever is being said about the subject of the
sentence—for instance, “is an unmarried man.”) By
contrast, in a synthetic judgment, the predicate
concept contains information not contained in the
subject concept, and so a synthetic judgment is
informative rather than just definitional. In synthetic
propositions, the predicate concept “amplifies” or
adds to the subject concept. The claim, for example,
that “the sun is approximately 93 million miles from the
earth” is synthetic because the concept of being located
a certain distance from the earth goes beyond or adds
to the concept of the sun itself. A related way of
drawing the distinction is to say that a proposition is
analytic if its truth depends entirely on the definition
of its terms (that is, it is true by definition), while the
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truth of a synthetic proposition depends not on mere
linguistic convention, but on how the world actually is
in some respect.
How can man believe in God? Especially God
cannot be realized by senses. Human beings cannot
see, hear or touch God. Therefore, saying: “there is
God” is a priori knowledge.
• A priori knowledge equates with analytic judgments
- a posteriori knowledge equates with synthetic
judgments
Some philosophers have equated the analytic

with the a priori and the synthetic with the a
posteriori. For instance, if the truth of a certain
proposition is, say, strictly a matter of the definition
of its terms, knowledge of this proposition is unlikely
to require experience (rational reflection alone will
likely suffice). On the other hand, if the truth of a
proposition depends on how the world actually is in
some respect, then knowledge of it would seem to
require empirical investigation (“Ibid.).
The mind, according to Kant, does not passively
receive information provided by the senses. Rather, it
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actively shapes and makes sense of that information.
If all the events in our experience take place in time,
that is because our mind arranges sensory experience
in a temporal progression; and if we perceive that
some events cause other events, that is because our
mind makes sense of events in terms of cause and
effect. Kant’s argument has a certain parallel to the
fact that a person wearing blue-coloured sunglasses
sees everything in a bluish light: according to Kant,
the mind wears unremovable time-coloured and
causation-coloured sunglasses, so that all our
experience necessarily takes place in time and obeys
the laws of causation.
2.1.2. Time and Space are Pure Intuitions of
Man’s Faculty of Sensibility
• What is meant by Intuition?
Intuition is the ability to understand something

instinctively, without the need for conscious
reasoning. Intuition is an immediate understanding or
knowing something without reasoning. An example of
intuition is love at first sight. Intuition is the first
impression you get when you first meet someone; the
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interaction between both of you begins and occurs
subconsciously. You can sense if a stranger is a
cheerful person, a sad person, or an angry person. In
philosophy, intuition is the power of obtaining
knowledge that cannot be acquired either by inference
or observation, by reason or experience.
• Two kinds of intuition concerning our concepts of
space and time: pure and empirical intuitions
There are two kinds of intuition: pure and
empirical intuitions. Our pure intuitions are our
concepts of space and time that we apply to everything
we perceive. Once we have applied our pure intuitions
of space and time to sensations they become empirical
intuitions, that is, sensations that exist in space and
time. Kant suggests that time, space, and causation
are not found in experience but are instead the form
the mind gives to experience. We can grasp the nature
of time, space, and causation not because pure reason
has some insight into the nature of reality but because
pure reason has some insight into the nature of our
own mental faculties. Kant says: “Space is not
something objective and real, nor a substance, nor an
accident, nor a relation; instead, it is subjective and
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ideal, and originates from the mind’s nature in accord
with a stable law as a scheme, as it were, for
coordinating everything sensed externally” (“Kant’s
Views on Space and Time” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy).
Kant denies the view that space is somehow

dependent upon empirical intuition. This framework
might suggest that if space and time are to exist, or to
characterize the physical world, they must be
considered either substances in their own right, or else
properties of some substance. Neither option seems
particularly attractive. Space and time seem distinct
from substances because they are causally inert
(unable to move), causally inaccessible (untouchable)
—their aspects or properties cannot be altered by
interacting with any other substance—and
imperceptible. To think of space and time as
properties of God is potentially to regard God as
spatiotemporal.
Time and space, Kant argues, are pure intuitions of
our faculty of sensibility, and concepts of physics such
as causation and inertia (inactiveness) are pure
intuitions of our faculty of understanding. Sensory
experience only makes sense because our faculty of
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sensibility processes it, organizing it according to our
intuitions of time and space. These intuitions are the
source of mathematics: our number sense comes from
our intuition of successive moments in time, and
geometry comes from our intuition of space. Events
that take place in space and time would still be a
meaningless jumble (confusion) if it were not for our
faculty of understanding, which organizes experience
according to the concepts, like causation, which form
the principles of natural science (Kant, Critique of Pure
Reason and Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics).
If time and space, among other things, are

constructs of the mind, we might wonder what is
actually “out there,” independent of our minds. Kant
answers that we cannot know for certain. Our senses
react to stimuli that come from outside the mind, but
we only have knowledge of how they appear to us once
they have been processed by our faculties of sensibility
and understanding. Kant calls the stimuli “things-in-
themselves” and says we can have no certain
knowledge about their nature. He distinguishes
sharply between the world of noumena, which is the
world of things-in-themselves, and the world of
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phenomena, which is the world as it appears to our
minds.
2.1.3. Metaphysics relies on the Faculty of
Reason beyond experience and expertise
‫الميتافيزيقا تعتمد على ملكة العـقل بمنأى عن الخبرة والتجربة‬
The main topic of the Critique of Pure Reason is
the possibility of metaphysics, understood in a
specific way. Kant defines metaphysics in terms of
“the cognitions after which reason might strive
independently of all experience,” and his goal in the
book is to reach a “decision about the possibility or
impossibility of a metaphysics in general, and the
determination of its sources, as well as its extent and
boundaries, all, however, from principles”. Thus
metaphysics for Kant concerns a priori knowledge, or
knowledge whose justification does not depend on
experience; and he associates a priori knowledge with
reason (Hebbeler, James C. The Principle of the First Critique).
Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that
deals with the first principles of things, including
abstract concepts such as being, knowing, identity,
time, and space. It is a type of philosophy or study that
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uses broad concepts to help define reality and our
understanding of it. ‘Meta’ in ancient Greek meant
‘after’. An example of metaphysics is “The existence
of God?” Just as physics deals with the laws that
govern the physical world (such as those of gravity or
the properties of waves), metaphysics describes what
is beyond physics—the nature and origin of reality
itself, the immortal soul, and the existence of a
supreme being. Metaphysics is a division of
philosophy that is concerned with the fundamental
nature of reality and being and that includes
ontology and cosmology. Metaphysics is the branch of
philosophy that studies, in a very general way, what
there is and how it is. Metaphysics is the study of
reality and existence, who we are, and what our
purpose is.
Metaphysics relies on the faculty of reason, which
does not shape our experience in the way that our
faculties of sensibility and understanding do, but
rather it helps us reason independent of experience.
The mistake metaphysicians typically make is to apply
reason to things in themselves and try to understand
matters beyond reason’s grasp. Such attempts tend to
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lead reason into contradiction and confusion. Kant
redefines the role of metaphysics as a critique of pure
reason. That is, the role of reason is to understand
itself, to explore the powers and the limits of reason.
We are incapable of knowing anything certain about
things-in-themselves, but we can develop a clearer
sense of what and how we can know by examining
intensively the various faculties and activities of the
mind (Kant, Critique of Pure Reason and Prolegomena to Any
Future Metaphysics).
From empiricism, Kant draws the idea that

knowledge is essentially knowledge from experience
but rejects the idea that we can infer no necessary and
universal truths from experience, which is Hume’s
conclusion. As a result, he avoids the metaphysical
speculations of the rationalists, for which any definite
proof seems unattainable but maintains the
rationalists’ ambitious agenda, which attempts to give
some answer to the sorts of questions that inevitably
occur when we think philosophically. By locating the
answers to metaphysical questions not in the external
world but in a critique of human reason, Kant
provides clear boundaries for metaphysical
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speculation and maintains a sensible, empirical
approach to our knowledge of the external world.
2.1.4. Kant’s Philosophy Performs a Critique of
Man’s Mental Faculties
Kant’s three major volumes are entitled critiques,
and his entire philosophy focuses on applying his
critical method to philosophical problems. The
correct method in philosophy, according to Kant, is
not to speculate on the nature of the world around us
but to perform a critique of our mental faculties,
investigating what we can know, defining the limits of
knowledge, and determining how the mental
processes by which we make sense of the world affect
what we know. This change in method represents
what Kant calls a Copernican revolution in
philosophy. Just as Copernicus turned astronomy on
its head in the sixteenth century by arguing that the
sun, not the earth, is the center of the solar system,
Kant turns philosophy on its head by arguing that we
will find the answers to our philosophical problems in
an examination of our mental faculties rather than in
metaphysical speculation about the universe around
us. One part of this revolution is the suggestion that
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the mind is not a passive receptor but that it actively
shapes our perception of reality. Another is a general
shift, which remains to this day, from metaphysics
toward epistemology. That is, the question of what
reality actually consists of has become less central
than the question of what we can know about reality
and how we can know it.
2.2. Kant’s Philosophy of Transcendental

Idealism ‫فلسفة كانط للمثالية المتعالية‬
‫الـفلسفة المثالية المتعالية عند كانط هى الواقعة وراء نطاق الخبرة‬
Perhaps the central and most controversial thesis
of the Critique of Pure Reason is that human beings
experience only appearances, not things in
themselves; and that space and time are only
subjective forms of human intuition that would not
exist in themselves if one were to abstract from all
subjective conditions of human intuition. Kant calls
this thesis transcendental idealism. Transcendental
idealism is the view that objects in space are “outer”
in the empirical sense but not in the transcendental
sense. Things in themselves are transcendentally
“outer” but appearances are not. Kant presents it as
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the point of view which holds that one’s experience of
things is about how they appear to that person, not
about those things as they are in and of themselves.
Scholars generally agree that for Kant transcendental
idealism encompasses at least the following claims:
• In some sense, human beings experience only
appearances, not things in themselves.
• Space and time are not things in themselves, or
determinations of things in themselves that would
remain if one abstracted from all subjective
conditions of human intuition.
• Space and time are nothing other than the
subjective forms of human sensible intuition.
• Space and time are empirically real, which means
that “everything that can come before us externally
as an object” is in both space and time, and that our
internal intuitions of ourselves are in time.
Kant’s emphasis on the role our mental faculties
play in shaping our experience implies a sharp
distinction between phenomena and noumena.
Phenomena are the appearances, which constitute our
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experience; Noumena are “things-in-themselves,” the
reality that exists independent of our mind. According
to Kant, we can never know with certainty what is
“out there.” Since all our knowledge of the external
world passed through our mental faculties, we can
know only the world that our mind presents to us.
That is, all our knowledge is only knowledge of
phenomena, and we must accept that noumena are
fundamentally unknowable. Idealism is the name
given to the various strands of philosophy that claim
the world is made up primarily of mental ideas, not of
physical things. Kant differs from many idealists in
that he does not deny the existence of an external
reality and does not even think that ideas are more
fundamental than things.
2.2.1. The two-aspect and two-object
interpretations of Things
‫التفسيرت الثنائية لألشياء من حيث الشكل والموضوع‬
Kant’s central claim concerning objects of experience
is that they are appearances, not things in themselves.
But there is a puzzle about how deep the distinction is
between appearances and things in themselves. While
Kant draws the distinction explicitly (e.g.
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“Appearances are not things in themselves”. The
traditional two-world interpretation holds that
appearances are mental constructs i.e. things in
themselves, by contrast, are mind-independent
entities.
According to the two-aspect and two-object
interpretations, transcendental idealism is essentially
a metaphysical thesis that distinguishes between two
classes of objects: appearances and things in
themselves. Another name for this view is the two-
world interpretation, since it can also be expressed by
saying that transcendental idealism essentially
distinguishes between a world of appearances and
another world of things in themselves.
Things in themselves, on this interpretation, are
absolutely real in the sense that they would exist and
have whatever properties they have even if no human
beings were around to perceive them. Appearances,
on the other hand, are not absolutely real in that sense,
because their existence and properties depend on
human perceivers. Moreover, whenever appearances
do exist, in some sense they exist in the mind of human
perceivers. So appearances are mental entities or
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mental representations. All of our experiences – all of
our perceptions of objects and events in space, even
those objects and events themselves, and all non-
spatial but still temporal thoughts and feelings – fall
into the class of appearances that exist in the mind of
human perceivers. Kant’s theory, on this
interpretation requires that things in themselves exist,
because they must transmit to us the sensory data
from which we construct appearances. In principle we
cannot know how things in themselves affect our
senses, because our experience and knowledge is
limited to the world of appearances constructed by
and in the mind. Things in themselves are therefore a
sort of theoretical posit (“Kant’s Transcendental Idealism”
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy).
2.3. Kant’s Philosophy of Morality and

Freedom
Kant is supposed to have asserted that we are morally
responsible for all of our actions because we have free
will, and that we have free will because we exist in a
neutral world in which we are uninfluenced by the
temptations of desire and inclination. At the heart of
Kant’s moral philosophy is a conception of reason
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whose reach in practical affairs goes well beyond that
of a ‘slave’ to the passions. The most basic aim of
moral philosophy is, in Kant’s view, to “seek out” the
foundational principle of a “metaphysics of morals,”
which Kant understands as a system of a priori moral
principles that apply the “Categorical Imperative”
(‫ )ضرورة حتمية‬to human persons in all times and
cultures.
2.3.1. Kant’s Ethics: The Morality or Immorality
of an Action depends on the motive behind it
Ethical theorists can be roughly divided into two
camps: those who consider an action moral or
immoral depending on the motive behind it and those
who consider an action moral or immoral depending
on the consequences it produces. Kant is firmly in the
former camp, making him a deontologist rather than
a consequentialist when it comes to ethics. (The word
deontology derives from the Greek roots deon, “duty,”
and logos, “science.”) Kant argues that we are subject
to moral judgment because we are able to deliberate
and give reasons for our actions, so moral judgment
should be directed at our reasons for acting. While we
can and should take some care to ensure that our
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actions produce good consequences, the consequences
of our actions are not themselves subject to our
reason, so our reason is not fully responsible for the
consequences of the actions it endorses. Reason can
only be held responsible for endorsing certain actions,
and so it is only the actions, and the motives behind
them, that are open to moral judgment.
2.3.2. Theoretical and Practical Autonomy
Kant’s moral philosophy is also based on the idea of
autonomy. “Autonomy” literally means giving the law
to oneself, and on Kant’s view our understanding
provides laws that constitute the a priori framework
of our experience. He holds that there is a single
fundamental principle of morality, on which all
specific moral duties are based. He calls this principle
moral law. The moral law is a product of reason, for
Kant, while the basic laws of nature are products of
our understanding. There are important differences
between the senses in which we are autonomous in
constructing our experience and in morality. For
example, Kant regards understanding and reason as
different cognitive faculties, although he sometimes
uses “reason” in a wide sense to cover both. The moral
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‫‪law does not depend on any qualities that are peculiar‬‬
‫‪to human nature but only on the nature of reason as‬‬
‫‪such (“Autonomy” Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy).‬‬
‫تستند فلسفة كانط األخالقية على فكرة االستقاللية‪ .‬و”االستقاللية“ تعني أن يكون القانون‬
‫األخالقى نابع من الذات ‪ ،‬ووفقًا لوجهة نظر كانط ‪ ،‬فإن فهمنا يوفر القوانين التي تشكل اإلطار‬
‫األولِي لتجربتنا‪ .‬وهو يرى أن هناك مبدأ أساس ًيا واحدًا لألخالق ‪ ،‬تقوم عليه جميع الواجبات‬
‫َّ‬
‫األخالقية المحددة‪ .‬ويسمي هذا المبدأ القانون األخالقي‪ .‬و القانون األخالقي هو نتاج العقل ‪،‬‬
‫بالنسبة لكانط ‪ ،‬بينما القوانين األساسية للطبيعة هي نتاج فهمنا‪ .‬هناك اختالفات مهمة بين‬
‫الحواس التي نتمتع فيها باالستقاللية في بناء تجربتنا وفي األخالق‪ .‬على سبيل المثال ‪ ،‬يعتبر‬
‫كانط الفهم والعقل قدرات ذهنية معرفية مختلفة ‪ ،‬على الرغم من أنه يستخدم أحيانًا” العقل“‬
‫بمعنى واسع لتغطية كليهما‪ .‬ال يعتمد القانون األخالقي على أي صفات خاصة بالطبيعة البشرية‬
‫ولكن فقط على طبيعة العقل على هذا النحو‪.‬‬
‫‪2.3.3. The law of duty for Kant is related to the‬‬

‫‪law of morality‬‬
‫قانون الواجب عند كانط يرتبط بقانون األخالق‬
‫‪The concept of duty is seen as one of the pillars in‬‬
‫‪Kant’s philosophy of morality. For Kant, the concept‬‬
‫‪of duty is fixed and rooted in the concept of the good‬‬
‫‪will; this is because acting out of the good will is the‬‬
‫‪true performance of our duty. In other words, it is our‬‬
‫‪duty to act out of the good will and not because of any‬‬
‫‪end to be achieved.‬‬
‫يُنظر إلى مفهوم الواجب على أنه أحد الركائز في فلسفة كانط األخالقية‪ .‬بالنسبة لكانط ‪ ،‬فإن‬
‫مفهوم الواجب ثابت ومتجذر في مفهوم النوايا الحسنة ؛ هذا ألن التصرف بحسن نية هو األداء‬
‫الحقيقي لواجبنا‪.‬‬
‫___________________‬ ‫____‬
‫♣ ‪♣ European Civilization in 19th C. ♣ Dr. Radwan El-Sobky‬‬
‫‪- 47 -‬‬
Kant’s view of duty is that we do a moral action due
to the decision alone, we do not do something because
we wish to get pleasure from it but because it is our
duty. Motivation by duty consists in bare respect for
the moral law.
‫ ال نفعل شيئ ًا ما ألننا‬، ‫وجهة نظر كانط للواجب هي أننا نقوم بعمل أخالقي بسبب القرار وحده‬
‫ الدافع الناتج عن الواجب يكمن فى االحترام‬.‫نرغب في االستمتاع به ولكن نفعله ألنه واجبنا‬
.‫الصريح للقانون األخالقي‬
Kant sees that morals must come not from authority
or tradition, not from religious commands, but from
reason. All humans have universal rational duties to
one another, centering on their duty to respect the
other’s humanity. To Kant, all humans must be seen
as inherently worthy of respect and dignity. He
argued that all morality must stem from such duties.
‫ ولكن‬، ‫ وليس من األوامر الدينية‬، ‫يرى كانط أن األخالق يجب أال تأتي من السلطة أو التقاليد‬
‫ جميع البشر لديهم واجبات عقالنية عالمية تجاه بعضهم البعض والتى تتمحور حول‬.‫من العقل‬
‫ يجب أن يُنظر إلى جميع البشر على أنهم‬، ‫ وبالنسبة إلى كانط‬.‫واجبهم في احترام إنسانية اآلخر‬
‫ ويقول كانط بأن كل األخالق يجب أن تنبع من مثل هذه‬.‫يستحقون بطبيعتهم االحترام والكرامة‬
.‫الواجبات‬
For example, if a shopkeeper offers consistent prices
to all of his customers because it’s good for his
business, this means that he does not act according to
duty. But if he does so because it is honest, he the acts
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according to duty. According to Kant’s claim, the
shopkeeper who charges consistent prices for his
goods because he wants to profit, this means that his
actions have no moral worth. An action must be done
according to duty in order to have any moral worth.
‫أسعارا متسقة لجميع عمالئه ألنها جيدة لنشاطه‬ً ‫ إذا قدم صاحب متجر‬،‫على سبيل المثال‬
،‫ ولكن إذا فعل ذلك من منطلق األمانة والصدق‬.‫ فهذا يعني أنه ال يتصرف وفقًا لواجبه‬،‫التجاري‬
‫أسعارا ثابتة‬
ً ‫ فإن صاحب المتجر الذي يتقاضى‬، ‫ ووفقًا إلدعاء كانط‬.‫فإنه يعمل وفقًا للواجب‬
‫ يجب القيام بعمل ما‬.‫ يعني هذا أن أفعاله ليس لها قيمة أخالقية‬، ‫مقابل بضاعته ألنه يريد الربح‬
.‫وفقًا للواجب من أجل الحصول على أي قيمة أخالقية‬
The law of duty reflects the fact that the human will is
not necessarily determined by pure reason but is also
influenced by other incentives rooted in our needs and
inclinations. Duty and reason often conflict for an
individual. An example that Kant uses is lying. When
you lie, you expect that other people will believe your
lie, you believe this because the universal law is that
you should be truthful. In this situation you have
expected that the universal law you should live by is to
be truthful, but you have also decided that you are
going to allow yourself to make an exception to this
universal law and lie.
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‫يعكس قانون الواجب حقيقة أن اإلرادة البشرية ال تتحدد بالضرورة من خالل العقل الخالص‬
‫ وغالبًا ما يتعارض الواجب‬.‫ولكنها تتأثر أيضًا بحوافز أخرى متجذرة في احتياجاتنا وميولنا‬
‫ تتوقع أن اآلخرين‬، ‫ عندما تكذب‬.‫ المثال الذي يستخدمه كا نط هو الكذب‬.‫والعقل عند االنسان‬
‫ في هذه‬.‫ فأنت تعتقد ذلك ألن القانون العالمي هو أنك يجب أن تكون صادقًا‬، ‫سيصدقون كذبتك‬
‫ لكنك قررت‬، ‫الحالة أنت توقعت أن القانون العالمي الذي يجب أن تحيا به هو أن تكون صادقًا‬
.‫أيضًا أنك ستسمح لنفسك باالستثناء من هذا القانون العالمي والكذب‬
2.3.4. The Importance of Freedom to Morality

Freedom is important in morality because, on Kant’s
view, moral evaluation presupposes that we are free in
the sense that we have the ability to do otherwise. To
see why, consider Kant’s example of a man who
commits a theft. Kant holds that in order for this
man’s action to be morally wrong, it must have been
within his control in the sense that it was within his
power at the time not to have committed the theft. If
this was not within his control at the time, then, while
it may be useful to punish him in order to shape his
behavior or to influence others, it nevertheless would
not be correct to say that his action was morally
wrong.
Moral rightness and wrongness apply only to free
agents who control their actions and have it in their
power, at the time of their actions, either to act rightly
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or not. According to Kant, this is just common sense.
On Kant’s view “I am free whenever the cause of my
action is within me. I am unfree only when something
external to me pushes or moves me.”
2.3.5. Morality is based on the Concept of
Freedom or Autonomy
‫األخالق مبنية على مفهوم الحرية أو اإلستقالل الذاتي‬
Morality is based in the concept of freedom, or
autonomy. Someone with a free or autonomous will
does not simply act but is able to reflect and decide
whether to act in a given way. This act of deliberation
‫ الترو‬- ‫ التأنى‬distinguishes an autonomous will from a
heteronymous will. In deliberating, we act according
to a law we ourselves dictate, not according to the
dictates of passion or impulse. We can claim to have
an autonomous will even if we act always according to
universal moral laws or maxims because we submit to
these laws upon rational reflection.
‫ الشخص الذي لديه إرادة حرة أو مستقلة ال‬.‫ أو االستقاللية‬، ‫تستند األخالق إلى مفهوم الحرية‬
‫ هذا العمل‬.‫يتصرف ببساطة ولكنه قادر على التفكير ويقرر ما إذا كان سيتصرف بطريقة معينة‬
‫ في‬.)‫المبنى على التأنى أو الترو يميز اإلرادة المستقلة عن اإلرادة المغايرة (األتية من الغير‬
‫ وليس وفقًا لما تمليه العاطفة‬، ‫ نتصرف وفقًا لقانون نُمليه ألنفسنا‬، ‫األعمال التى نتأنى فيها‬
‫ يمكننا أن ندعي أن لدينا إرادة مستقلة حتى لو تصرفنا دائ ًما وفقًا للقوانين أو‬.‫أو االندفاع‬
.‫القواعد األخالقية العالمية ألننا نخضع لهذه القوانين بنا ًء على التفكير العقالني‬
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Kant answers the tricky question of free will and
determinism—how can we at once assert that we have
a free will and that we live in a world that functions
according to necessary physical laws?—by drawing
on his distinction from the Critique of Pure Reason
between the phenomenal world of appearances and
the noumenal world of things-in-themselves. Physical
laws apply only to appearances, whereas the will is a
thing-in-itself about which we have no direct
knowledge. Whether the will is actually free we can
never know, but we still act in accordance with the
idea of freedom.
Free will is the power of acting without the
constraint of necessity or fate; the ability to act at
one’s own discretion. If you believe in free will, you
believe that people have a choice in what they do and
that their actions have not been decided in advance by
God or by any other power. Free will is every person’s
natural right to make their own decisions and choose
their own path. Freedom is the physical and mental
ability to exercise that free will, and is also a person’s
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right. You can be physically free, but not mentally free
(from stress, worry, anxiety, etc).
2.4. Kant’s Theory of Conscience and

Moral Consciousness
‫العقل ونظرية الضمير والوعى األخالقى‬
For Kant, consciousness being unified is a central
feature of the mind. Kant calls our consciousness
of the moral law, our awareness that the moral law
binds us or has authority over us, the “fact of reason”.
So, on his view, the fact of reason is the practical basis
for our belief or practical knowledge that we are free.
Kant insists that this moral consciousness is
“undeniable,” “a priori,” and “unavoidable”.
Every human being has a conscience, a common sense
grasp of morality, and a firm conviction that he or she
is morally accountable. Conscience can also be
conceived as our sense of duty. According to this
understanding, conscience motivates us to act
according to moral principles or beliefs we already
possess (D’Arcy 1963; Childress 1979; McGuire 1963; Fuss 1964).
In the Metaphysics of Morals, Kant treats conscience
under two main headings: (1) as one of the moral
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feelings presupposed by our susceptibility to duty ([13],
pp.:400-401), and (2) as a crucial aspect of a fundamental
duty to ourselves, the duty of self-examination and
self-knowledge as our own moral judge ([13] pp. 437- 442).
Conscience so understood “establishes a general
sense of moral obligation in the individual’s
consciousness” (Fuss 1964: 116). The subjective
character of conscience implies that the motivational
force must come entirely from within the individual,
as opposed to punishments from an external
authority. In Kant, for example, the theory of
conscience can be seen as “a motivation theory set in
the context of a reflection theory” (Wood, Kantian Ethics
183): As Wood interprets the Kantian notion of
conscience, “conscience is a feeling of pleasure or
displeasure associated with myself” that arises when I
comply or don’t comply with moral principles and
that motivates me to act in one sense rather than the
other when the feeling accompanies the contemplation
of a certain course of action (Wood, Kantian Ethics 183–
184). Conscience for Kant is therefore not only an
inner court, but also the source of our sense of duty in
that it takes the judgments of the inner court as
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motivation to act morally (Kant, The Metaphysic of Morals
161).
We may have different beliefs about the source of

morality’s authority – God, social convention,
human reason. We may arrive at different conclusions
about what morality requires in specific situations.
And we may violate our own sense of duty. But we all
have a conscience, and an unshakeable belief that
morality applies to us.
2.5. Kant’s Critique of Practical Reason

In Immanuel Kant’s moral philosophy, practical
reason is defined as the capacity of a rational being to
act according to principles (i.e., according to the
conception of laws). In Kantian ethics, reason is not
only the source of morality but it is also the measure
of the moral worth of an action. Kant recognizes that
our status as moral beings follows from our status as
rational beings. Kantian ethics rely on a Universalist
conception of reason and morality that is
characteristic of the Enlightenment. Kant is quite
clear that his ethics apply equally to all people. Once
we recognize the universality of moral law, we must
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also recognize that it applies equally to all people.
Acting morally, then, requires that we recognize other
people as moral agents and always treat them as ends
in themselves, not as means by which we can achieve
our own ends. We must also ensure that our actions
do not prevent other people from acting in accordance
with moral law. Kant envisions an ideal society as a
“kingdom of ends,” in which people are at once both
the authors and the subjects of the laws they obey
(Kant, Critique of Practical Reason and Groundwork for the
Metaphysic of Morals).
2.6. The Highest Good resides in Virtue

and Happiness and in belief in God
‫الخير األعظم يكمن في الفضيلة والسعادة واإليمان بالل‬
For Kant virtue and happiness together constitute
possession of the highest good in a person. Kant holds
that reason unavoidably produces not only
consciousness of the moral law but also the idea of a
world in which there is both complete virtue and
complete happiness, which he calls the highest good.
Our duty to promote the highest good, on Kant’s view,
is the sum of all moral duties, and we can fulfill this
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duty only if we believe that the highest good is a
possible state of affairs. Furthermore, we can believe
that the highest good is possible only if we also believe
in the immortality of the soul and the existence of God,
according to Kant. On this basis, he claims that it is
morally necessary to believe in the immortality of the
soul and the existence of God (Beiser, “Moral Faith and the
Highest Good” 588–629).
In Kant’s words, “virtue and happiness together

constitute possession of the highest good in a person,
and happiness distributed in exact proportion to
morality (as the worth of a person and his worthiness
to be happy) constitutes the highest good of a possible
world”. The duty to promote the highest good is not a
particular duty at all, but the sum of all our duties
derived from the moral law. We can fulfill our duty of
promoting the highest good only by choosing to
conceive of the highest good as possible, because we
cannot promote any end without believing that it is
possible to achieve that end.
The highest good, as we have seen, would be a world
of complete morality and happiness. But Kant holds
that it is impossible for “a rational being of the
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sensible world” to exhibit “complete conformity of
dispositions with the moral law,” which he calls
“holiness,” because we can never extirpate the
propensity of our reason to give priority to the
incentives of inclination over the incentive of duty,
which propensity Kant calls radical evil (Engstrom, The
Concept of the Highest Good in Kant's Moral Theory).
2.6.1. No happiness without virtue and there is

neither happiness nor virtue without
belief in One God
‫ال توجد سعادة بدون فضيلة وال سعادة وال فضيلة بدون اإليمان بإله واحد‬
Having been reared in a distinctively religious
environment, he remained concerned about the place
of religious belief in human thought and action. In
the Critique of Practical Reason Kant’s moral
argument consists in three topics: happiness, virtue
and belief in God. If all these three are achieved, man
can reach the highest degree of goodness. Kant
believes that there is no happiness without virtue. He
also believes that there is neither happiness nor virtue
without belief in God. Kant holds that virtue and
happiness are not just combined but necessarily
combined in the idea of the highest good, because only
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possessing virtue makes one worthy of happiness – a
claim that Kant seems to regard as part of the content
of the moral law. But we can represent virtue and
happiness as necessarily combined only by
representing virtue as the efficient cause of
happiness (Fugate, “The Highest Good and Kant’s Proof of
God’s Existence” 137–58).
2.7. Immanuel Kant’s Philosophy of

Religion
Immanuel Kant focused on elements of the philosophy
of religion for about half a century ─ from the mid ─
1750s, when he started teaching philosophy, until
after his retirement from academia. Having been
reared in a distinctively religious environment, he
remained concerned about the place of religious belief
in human thought and action. His discussions of God
and religion represent a measure of the evolution of
his philosophical worldview.
The Idea of God in Kant’s Philosophy
For Kant, the ultimate goal of the nature created by
God is man as a moral being: the world was created
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according to man’s moral needs. In his New
Exposition of the First Principles of Metaphysical
Knowledge, Kant points to God’s existence as the
necessary condition of all possibility (Exposition, pp. 224-
225). He analyzes possible theoretical proofs of God
into four possible sorts. Two of these — the
Ontological proof (metaphysical study of the nature of
being and existence), which Kant rejects, and his own
proofs — are based on possibility; the other two — the
Cosmological proof and the Teleological proof are
empirical. The final sentence of the book maintains
that, though we must be convinced of God’s existence,
logically demonstrating it is not required (Kant, The One
Possible Basis, pp. 43, 45, 57, 69, 71, 79, 81, 83, 87, 223, 225, 229,
231, and 239).
In a work published the year he died, Kant analyzes

the core of his theological doctrine into three articles
of faith:
(1) Kant believes in one God, who is the causal source
of all good in the world.
(2) Kant believes in the possibility of harmonizing
God’s purposes with our greatest good.
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(3) Kant believes in human immortality as the
necessary condition of our continued approach to
the highest good possible (Metaphysics, p. 131).
Kant’s Argument for God’s Existence
Kant’s own argument for God’s existence is closely
connected to his conception of God as all-sufficient
and the ground of all real possibility. In The Only
Possible Argument, Kant claims that the thought of
God as the all-sufficient is “of all thoughts the most
sublime, [but] is still widely neglected, and mostly not
considered at all”.
3. Johann Herder (1744-1803)

Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744-1803) is a
philosopher of the first importance. He studied at the
University of Königsberg with Kant who accorded
him special privileges because of his unusual
intellectual abilities. This claim depends largely on
the intrinsic quality of his ideas. But another aspect of
it is his intellectual influence. This has been immense
both within philosophy and beyond it. For example:
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Hegel, Goethe and Nietzsche are deeply influenced by
Herder's ideas.
Johann Herder
___________________ ____
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3.1. Herder’s Moral Philosophy and
Ethical Theory
Three interrelated elements of Herder’s moral
position are explored in detail:
1. His perfectionism, or theory of the human good;
2. His sentimentalism, which includes moral
epistemology and a theory of moral education; and
3. His theism, which deepens and justifies these other
elements.
3.1.1. Herder’s Sentimentalism
Herder develops a powerful and historically
influential moral philosophy. This includes positions
in both meta-ethics and first-order morality. Herder
in particular holds a sentimentalist position
concerning the nature of morality. Morality is
fundamentally an expression of human
sentiments. Moral judgment must fundamentally
consist of sentiments. Herder’s moral sentiments in
question vary deeply from one historical period to
another, one culture to another, and even one
individual to another. What one period, culture, or
individual found morally praiseworthy ‫يستحق الثناء‬
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another finds morally reprehensible ‫ مستهجن‬or vice
versa.
Herder tries to show - in This Too a Philosophy of
History - that the moral values of each of the major
period/cultures that he considers in the work can be
explained in terms of their suitability to the character
of the particular society and way of life to which they
belonged. For example, the ancient Egyptians’
morality of diligence and civic faithfulness to their
agricultural, industrial, and urban society and mode
of life; the Romans’ morality of courage, prudence,
and patriotism to their imperialistic, war-based
society and mode of life; and so on.
‫ أخالق المصريين القدماء المتمثلة في االجتهاد واإلخالص المدني‬، ‫على سبيل المثال‬
‫لمجتمعهم الزراعي والصناعي والحضري ونمط حياتهم ؛ وأخالق الرومان المتمثلة‬
‫في الشجاعة والحصافة والوطنية تجاه مجتمعهم اإلمبريالي القائم على الحرب ونمط‬
.‫الحياة ؛ وهلم جرا‬
Moral attitudes are explicable in terms of their social
function without recourse ‫ اإلستعانة بـ‬to moral facts.
Rome developed a richer set of values that included
courage, faith, honesty, humanity, chastity, and
knightly honor; and then finally the (professed)
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- 64 -
morality of modern Europe emerged as a result of this
whole tradition.
One very fundamental, original, and attractive moral
principle that he develops here is what might be
called pluralist cosmopolitanism, in contradistinction
to the homogenizing cosmopolitanism of the
tradition.
‫أحد المبادئ األخالقية الجوهرية واألصلية والجذابة التي طورها هيردر هنا هو ما‬
‫ والتى تتناقض مع الكوزموبوليتانية‬، ‫يمكن أن يسمى الكوزموبوليتانية التعددية‬
.‫المتجانسة مع للتقاليد‬
The homogenizing cosmopolitanism is a form that

grants equal ethical respect to all human beings only
on the basis of an assumption that they all share much
in common psychologically, especially ins their moral
values. This homogenizing cosmopolitanism is
problematic and false. Instead, Herder developed a
distinctive pluralist form of cosmopolitanism: a
commitment to equal moral respect for all human
beings despite, or even in part because of, the diversity
of their psychologies, and in particular their moral
values.
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- 65 -
A second moral principle of Herder’s that deserves
mention here is the closely related principle
of humanity. This principle has both descriptive and
normative aspects. Descriptively, it includes an
implication of the unity of the human species and of
the mere superficiality of racial differences.
Normatively, it includes an implication of
cosmopolitanism; implications of specific standards of
decent treatment (e.g., not killing, physically abusing,
or deceiving people).
3.2. Herder’s Philosophy of Religion

Herder’s philosophy of religion was generally very
enlightened and progressive in both his early and his
late periods. He fell into the sort of religious
irrationalism (a position that essentially rejects reason
and instead bases religious views on belief alone).
Herder made important contributions to the
philosophy of religion—that is, important in terms of
their intrinsic value, their influence, or both.
3.2.1. Herder’s Neo-Spinozism
One of Herder’s contributions lies in his neo-
Spinozism. Herder shares with Spinoza the basic
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- 66 -
thesis of monism ‫الوحدوية‬, and like Spinoza equates the
single, all-encompassing principle in question with
God. But whereas Spinoza had characterized this
single, all-encompassing principle as substance,
Herder instead characterizes it as force, or primal
force. Herder’s own conception of God as a force is
designed to overcome this alleged residual dualism.
Herder also sketches a more detailed account of
nature as a system of living forces based in the primal
force, God.
Spinozism is the monist philosophical system of
Baruch Spinoza that defines “God” as a singular self-
subsistent substance, with both matter and thought
being attributes of such. Baruch (de) Spinoza (1632-
1677) is one of the foremost exponents of 17 th-century
Rationalism and one of the early and seminal thinkers
of the Enlightenment.
Spinoza believed that God is “the sum of the natural
and physical laws of the universe and certainly not an
individual entity or creator”. Spinoza believed in a
“Philosophy of tolerance and benevolence” and
actually lived the life which he preached. Spinoza
disagreed fundamentally with Christianity. He did not
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comprehend the meaning of Christ’s incarnation
(Baruch Spinoza, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy).
3.2.2. Herder’s Secularism

Herder’s most intrinsically valuable contribution
to the philosophy of religion concerns the
interpretation of the Bible. He sees that the Bible must
be interpreted as the work of human beings, and by
means of the same sorts of rigorous hermeneutic
methods that are employed for interpreting other
ancient texts. The principle that the Bible should be
interpreted in the same way as other texts was not the
commonplace in Herder’s day. Herder’s actual
interpretations of the Bible admirably conform to this
theoretical position, not only refraining from any
reliance on divine inspiration and instead employing
normal interpretive methods, but also frequently
attributing false and even inconsistent positions to the
Bible (both to the Old Testament and to the New).
3.3. Herder's Philosophy of Language,
and Interpretation
There are three related theories which Herder
develops: a philosophy of language concerning the
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very nature of language, thought, and meaning; a
theory of interpretation; and a theory of translation.
These theories are found scattered through a large
number of Herder's works. The following are their
main features:
3.2.1. Herder's Philosophy of Language:
Nature of Language, Thought and Meaning
Already in the mid-1760s — for example, in On
Diligence in Several Learned Languages (1764) and the
Fragments (1767-8) — Herder began advancing three
fundamental theses in this area:
(1) Thought is essentially dependent on, and bounded
in scope by, language — i.e. one can only think if
one has a language, and one can only think what
one can express linguistically.
(2) Meanings or concepts are to be equated with
usages of words.
(3) Conceptualization is intimately bound up with
(perceptual and affective) sensation. More
precisely, according to what might be called
Herder's quasi-empiricist theory of concepts,
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sensation is the source and basis of all our
concepts, but we are able to achieve non-empirical
concepts by means of a sort of metaphorical
extension from the empirical ones — so that all of
our concepts ultimately depend in one way or
another on sensation.
The first two of these theses dramatically
overturned the sort of dualistic picture of the relation
between language and thought/meaning that had
predominated during the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries, and thereby essentially founded the
philosophy of language as we still know it today. The
third thesis, quasi-empiricism, would be far less
widely accepted by philosophers today. In addition to
making a fundamental contribution to the philosophy
of language, these three theses also underpin Herder's
theories of interpretation and translation.
3.2.2. Herder's Theory of Interpretation
Herder's theory of interpretation rests on (and
also in a way supports) a certain epoch-making
insight:
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(1) Whereas such eminent Enlightenment
philosopher-historians as Hume and Voltaire had
still believed that, as Hume put it, “mankind are so
much the same in all times and places that history
informs us of nothing new or strange,” Herder
discovered, or at least saw more clearly than anyone
before him, that this was false, that peoples from
different historical periods and cultures often vary
tremendously in their concepts, beliefs, (perceptual
and affective) sensations, and so forth. He also
noted that similar, albeit usually less dramatic,
variations occur even between individuals within a
single period and culture.
(2) Given this principle of radical difference, and the
gulf that consequently often initially divides an
interpreter's own thought from that of the person
he wants to interpret, interpretation is often an
extremely difficult task, requiring extraordinary
efforts on the part of the interpreter. (Note that, to
his credit, Herder does not draw the more extreme
— and misguided — conclusion to which some
recent philosophers have been tempted that it
would be impossible.)
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(3) In particular, the interpreter often faces, and needs
to resist, a temptation falsely to assimilate the
thought which he is interpreting to someone else's,
especially his own.
How is the interpreter supposed to achieve
accurate interpretation? Herder makes several points
in this connection:
It is an implication of his thesis that all thought is
essentially dependent on and bounded by language
that an interpreted subject's language is in a certain
sense bound to be a reliable indicator of the nature of
his thought, so that the interpreter need not have
worries about the interpreted subject entertaining
ineffable thoughts or thoughts whose character is
systematically distorted by his expression of them in
language. It is an implication of Herder's thesis that
meaning consists in word-usage that interpretation
essentially and fundamentally requires pinning down
an interpreted subject's word-usages, and thereby his
meanings. Finally, it is an implication of Herder's
quasi-empiricist thesis concerning concepts that an
interpreter’s understanding of an interpreted
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subject's concepts must involve somehow recapturing
their basis in the interpreted subject's sensation.
▪ Herder’s Basic Principles in Interpretation
Theory
1. The Principle of Secularism in Interpretation:
Contrary to a practice that was still common in
Herder's day in relation to the Bible, the
interpretation of texts must never rely on religious
assumptions or means, even when the texts are
sacred ones, but must instead rely only on secular
ones. (Herder already advances this principle
forcefully in works from the 1760's.)
2. The Principle of Generic Interpretation: In
addition to the nature of a work's meanings,
interpretation must also pay close attention to the
nature of its genre (i.e. roughly, a set of general
purposes and rules which it aims to realize). As in
the case of meanings, genres vary from age to age,
culture to culture, and even individual to
individual, and the interpreter therefore faces, and
needs to resist, constant temptations falsely to
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assimilate a work's genre to other ones with which
he is more familiar.
3. The Principle of Methodological Empiricism in
Interpretation: interpretation must always be
based on, and kept strictly faithful to, exact
observations of relevant linguistic (and other)
evidence.
Beyond this, though, Herder also advances a further
set of interpretive principles which are liable to sound
much more “touchy-feely” at first hearing but which
are in fact on the contrary quite “hard-nosed”.
4. The Principle of Einfühlung (feeling one's way
in): Herder proposes that the way to bridge radical
difference when interpreting is through
Einfühlung, “feeling one’s way in.” This proposal
has often been thought (e.g. by Meinecke) to mean
that the interpreter should perform some sort of
psychological self-projection onto texts.
5. The Principle of Holism in Interpretation: In
addition, Herder insists on a principle of holism in
interpretation. This principle rests on several
motives, including the following:
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(a) Pieces of text taken in isolation are typically
ambiguous in various ways (in relation to
background linguistic possibilities). In order to
resolve such ambiguities, one needs the guidance
provided by surrounding text.
(b) That problem arises once a range of possible
linguistic meanings, etc. is established for a piece of
text. But in the case of a text separated from the
interpreter by radical difference, knowledge of
such a range itself presents a problem. How, for
example, is he to pin down the range of possible
meanings, i.e. possible usages, for a word? This
requires a collation of the word's actual uses and
an inference from these to the rules that govern
them.
(c) Authors typically write a work as a whole,
conveying ideas not only in its particular parts but
also through the way in which these fit together to
make up a whole (whether in instantiation of a
general genre or in a manner more specific to the
particular work). Consequently, readings which
fail to interpret the work as a whole will miss
essential aspects of its meaning — both the ideas in
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question themselves and meanings of the particular
parts on which they shed important light.
6. The Principle of word-usage with attention to
authorial psychology: Herder makes one of his
most important innovations: interpretation must
supplement its focus on word-usage with attention
to authorial psychology. Herder implies several
reasons for this:
(a) As already mentioned, he embraces a quasi-
empiricist theory of concepts which implies that in
order to understand an author's concepts an
interpreter must imaginatively recapture his
relevant sensations.
(b) As Quentin Skinner has recently emphasized,
understanding the linguistic meaning of an
utterance or text is only a necessary, not a
sufficient, condition for understanding it tout court
— one needs, in addition, to establish the author's
illocutionary intentions. For example, I meet a
stranger by a frozen lake who tells me, “The ice is
thin over there”; I understand his linguistic
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meaning perfectly; but is he simply informing me?,
warning me?, threatening me?, joking? …
(c) Skinner tends to imply that one can determine
linguistic meanings prior to establishing authorial
intentions. That may sometimes be so (e.g. in the
example just given). But is it generally? Herder
implies not. And this seems right, because
commonly the linguistic meaning of a formula is
ambiguous (in terms of background linguistic
possibilities), and in order to identify the relevant
meaning one must turn, not only (as already
mentioned) to larger bodies of text, but also to
hypotheses, largely derived there from, concerning
the author's intentions (e.g. concerning the subject-
matter he intends to treat). This is a further reason
why interpreters must invoke psychology.
(d) Herder also (as already mentioned) implies that an
author often conveys ideas in his work, not
explicitly in its verbal expressions, but rather via
these and the way in which they are put together to
form a textual whole (whether in instantiation of a
general genre or in a manner more specific to the
particular text). It is necessary for the interpreter
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to capture these ideas, both for their own sakes and
because doing so is frequently essential for
resolving ambiguities at the level of particular
verbal expressions.
(e) Herder also refers to the second limb of his
doctrine of radical difference — individual
variations in mode of thought even within a single
period and culture — as a source of the need for
psychological interpretation. Why does any special
need arise here? Part of the answer seems to be that
when one is dealing, for example, with a concept
that is distinctive of a particular author rather than
common to a whole culture, one typically faces a
problem of relative paucity and lack of contextual
variety in the actual uses of the word available as
empirical evidence from which to infer the rule for
use, or usage, constitutive of its meaning. Hence
one needs extra help — and the author's general
psychology may provide this.
7. The Principle of the use of divination: Herder
also indicates that interpretation, especially in its
psychological aspect, requires the use of divination.
This is another principle which is liable to sound
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disturbingly “touchy-feely” at first hearing — in
particular, it can sound as though Herder means
some sort of prophetic process that has a religious
basis and is perhaps even infallible. However, what
he really has in mind here is (far more sensibly) a
process of hypothesis, based on meager empirical
evidence, but also going well beyond it, and
therefore vulnerable to subsequent falsification,
and abandonment or revision if falsified.
3.4. Herder’s Philosophy of Mind

In On the Cognition of 1778 and elsewhere
Herder also develops an extremely interesting and
influential position in the philosophy of mind. The
following are some of its central features.
Herder’s position is uncompromisingly
naturalistic and anti-dualistic in intent. In On the
Cognition he tries to erase the traditional sharp
division between the mental and the physical in two
specific ways: First, he advances a theory that minds
consist in forces [Kräfte] which manifest themselves in
people's bodily behavior — just as physical nature
contains forces which manifest themselves in the
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behavior of bodies. He is officially agnostic on the
question of what force is, except for conceiving it as
something apt to produce a type of bodily behavior,
and as a real source thereof. This, strictly speaking,
frees his theory from some common characterizations
and objections.
The Features of Herder’s Theory of Philosophy
of Mind:
(1) The theory ties mental states conceptually to
corresponding types of bodily behavior — which
seems correct, and therefore marks a point of
superiority over dualistic theories, and indeed
over mind-brain identity theories as well.
(2) On the other hand, the theory also avoids reducing
mental states to bodily behavior — which again
seems correct, in view of such obvious facts as that
we can be, and indeed often are, in particular
mental states that happen to receive no behavioral
manifestation, and which hence marks a point of
superiority over outright behaviorist theories.
(3) Herder also tries to explain the mind in terms of
the phenomenon of irritation, a phenomenon
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which had recently been identified by Haller, and
which is paradigmatically exemplified by muscle
fibers contracting in response to direct physical
stimuli and relaxing upon their removal — in
other words, a phenomenon which, while basically
physiological, also seems to exhibit a transition to
mental characteristics
(4) Herder’s philosophy of mind also advances a thesis
that the mind is a unity, that there is no sharp
division between its faculties.
Herder’s overall thesis of the mind’s unity rests
on three more specific doctrines concerning intimate
mutual involvements between mental faculties, and
malfunctions that arise from striving against these,
doctrines which are in large part empirically
motivated and hence lend the overall thesis a sort of
empirical basis:
(5) For Herder the mind’s unity rests on the relation
between thought and language: Not only does
language of its very nature express thought (this is
an uncontroversial point), but also (as noted
earlier) for Herder thought is dependent on and
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bounded by language. Herder bases this further
claim largely on empirical grounds (e.g.
concerning how children's thought develops in
step with language acquisition). The normative
aspect of his position here is that attempts (in the
manner of some metaphysics, for example) to cut
language free from the constraints of thought or
vice versa lead to nonsense.
(6) For Herder the mind's unity rests on the relation
between Cognition and volition, or affects. The
claim that volition is and should be based on
cognition is not particularly controversial. But
Herder also argues the converse, which all
cognition is and should be based on volition, on
affects — and not only on such relatively anemic
ones as the impulse to know the truth, but also on
much less anemic ones.
(7) For Herder the mind’s unity rests on the relation
between thought and sensation. Conceptualization
and belief, on the one hand, and sensation, on the
other, are intimately connected according to
Herder. Thus, he advances the quasi-empiricist
theory of concepts mentioned earlier, which
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entails that all our concepts (and hence also all our
beliefs) ultimately depend in one way or another
on sensation. But conversely, he also argues that
there is a dependence in the other direction as well,
that the character of our sensations depends on
our concepts and beliefs.
(8) Herder also holds that (even within a single period
and culture) human minds are as a rule deeply
individual, deeply different from each other — so
that in addition to a generalizing psychology we
also need a psychology oriented to individuality. ,
and Manfred Frank).
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Chapter Two
The French Revolution (1789)
And its Cultural and Civilizational
Impact on Europe and the Whole World
Introduction
The French Revolution is the revolutionary
movement that shook France between 1787 and 1799
and reached its first climax there in 1789. The French
Revolution as a world-historical event transformed
the world-system. The French Revolution is the
revolution that began in 1789, overthrew the absolute
monarchy of the Bourbons (members of French royal
family that ruled in France 1589–1792, Spain 1700–
1931, and Naples 1735–1806, 1815–60) and the system
of aristocratic privileges, and ended with Napoleon's
overthrow of the Directory and seizure of power in
1799.
The significance or importance of the French
Revolution has usually been analyzed in one of two
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ways: as an "event" in French history which has its
course and consequences; or as a phenomenon that
had a specific influence on the history of other
countries. This chapter views the French Revolution
as a world-historical event in the very specific sense of
its significance and importance in the history of the
modern world system as a world system.
1. The Causes of the French Revolution

From the beginning of the 20th century until the
1970s, the French Revolution was most commonly
described as the result of the growing economic and
social importance of the bourgeoisie, or middle class.
The bourgeoisie, it was believed, overthrew the Old
Regime because that regime had given power and
privilege to other classes - the nobility and the clergy -
who prevented the bourgeoisie from advancing
socially and politically.
1.1. Political and Social Inequalities

France still practiced feudalism in the 18th century.
The nobles and clergy enjoyed special privileges. They
did not have to pay taxes. The common people did not
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have power and freedom in politics. They worked
hard and had to pay heavy taxes.
1.2. Bankruptcy of the Government

Louis XIV had spent too much. His successors did not
cut down expenses. Louis XVI also failed to improve
the financial situation. He dismissed ministers who
tried to introduce financial reforms. By 1789, the
government was bankrupt.
1.3. Absolutism and Privilege

France in 1789 was, at least in theory, an absolute
monarchy, an increasingly unpopular form of
government at the time. In practice, the king's ability
to act on his theoretically absolute power was hemmed
in by the (equally resented) power and prerogatives of
the nobility and the clergy, the remnants of
feudalism.
1.4. Economic Causes

France was suffering from economic crisis. Between
1715 and 1771, French commerce had increased
almost eight-fold. Transportation was improving. But
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the advance in commerce did not produce well-being
for the common people. The population of France had
grown to between 24 and 26 without a concomitant
growth in food production. Farmers around Paris
consumed over 80 percent of what they grew, so if a
harvest fell by around 10 percent, which was common,
people went hungry. There was insufficient
government planning and storage of grain for
emergency shortages. Agriculture was three-quarters
of the economy but it was backward compared to the
agricultures of Britain and the United Netherlands,
and it was still burdened by feudalistic arrangements.
The city of Paris had a population of roughly
650,000, many of them getting by without regular
jobs. Paris had many who stayed alive by petty
thievery or prostitution -- sometimes both. People
were being buried every day without ceremony in
pauper's graves. And many of the living were hungry,
in Paris and in other French cities.
• Taxation
Taxation relied on a system of internal tariffs
separating the regions of France, which prevented a
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unified market from developing in the country. The
system also excluded the nobles and the clergy from
having to pay taxes (with the exception of a modest
quit rent). The tax burden was thus paid by the
peasants, wage earners, and the professional and
business classes. These groups were also cut off from
most positions of power in the regime, causing unrest.
• Debts
Kings had managed their fiscal affairs by increasing
the burden of the ancient and unequal system of taxes,
by borrowing money, and sometimes by selling noble
titles and other privileges; however, because noble
titles exempted the holder from future taxes, the
purchasers of titles were effectively buying an
annuity.
This led to the long-running fiscal crisis of the French
government. On the eve of the revolution, France was
deeply indebted, so deeply as to be effectively
bankrupt. Extravagant expenditures by Louis XIV on
luxuries such as Versailles were compounded by
heavy expenditures on the Seven Years War and the
American War of Independence.
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1.5. Food Scarcity
These problems were all compounded by a great
scarcity of food in the 1780s. Different crop failures in
the 1780s caused these shortages, which of course led
to high prices for bread. Perhaps no cause more
motivated the Paris mob that was the engine of the
revolution more than the shortage of bread.
The poor conditions in the countryside had forced
rural residents to move into Paris, and the city was
overcrowded and filled with the hungry and
disaffected. The peasants suffered doubly from the
economic and agricultural problems.
1.6. Fiscal Crisis

The discontent of the French people might not have
brought about a political revolution if there had not
been a fiscal crisis in the late 1780s. The monarchy’s
financial system was inefficient and antiquated.
France had neither a national bank nor a centralized
national treasury. The nobility and clergy—many of
them very wealthy—paid substantially less in taxes
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than other groups, notably the much poorer
peasantry.
Furthermore, the monarchy almost always spent
more each year than it collected in taxes;
consequently, it was forced to borrow, which it did
increasingly during the 18th century. Debt grew in
part because France participated in a series of costly
wars—the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-
1748), the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763), and the
American Revolution (1775-1783).
1.7. The Social Causes of the French

Revolution
A leading cause of social stress in France during the
Revolution was its large population. At the beginning
of the eighteenth century, France had 20 million
people living within its borders. Over the course of the
century, that number increased by another 8 to 10
million.
Historians have estimated that in lean years 90
percent of the peasants lived at or below the
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subsistence level, earning only enough to feed their
families.
Bread constituted the staple of most urban diets, so
sharp price increases were felt quickly and were
loudly protested at grain markets or at local bakers'
shops.
In rural areas, social cleavages were as deeply
rooted as in the cities. Peasants, in their lists of
grievances of 1789, expressed hostility to noble
landlords. From July through September 1789, word
of the National Assembly's decisions and of the
popular revolts in Paris and other cities spread across
the French countryside. It was also rumored that
frightened nobles were sending groups of armed
"brigands" to burn fields, steal crops, and attack
villages in order to keep down the peasantry in this
moment of crisis. Propelled by what became known as
"the great fear," peasants in various regions of France
took matters into their own hands, forming armed
groups to defend their fields and their villages. Thus,
in both towns and countryside, it seemed that the
Revolution was not producing the hoped-for results.
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1.8. The Need for Political Reform
The Estates General convened as scheduled, in May,
1789, at Versailles (pronounced ver-seye, as in the
word eye), where the king and his court were
established.
In the meeting of the Estates General, delegates
of the Third Estate complained that they represented
97 percent of the nation's population and should have
more influence. They rebelled, breaking away and
creating their own convention, which they called the
"National Assembly." Louis XVI was gentle by
nature, but he mobilized his troops against the
National Assembly and its supporters, ordering his
army to surround Versailles and Paris.
2. The Slogans of the French Revolution
Summed up the Goals of the French
Revolution
1. Liberty: Liberty is the freedom from oppression
and the ability to make one's own choices in
life. This ties in with the revolution because that is
a major reason it was fought for which is the ability
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to self-govern without being told what to do by a
king and parliament that was across the ocean.
2. Equality: Equality is a tricky one because it is a
broad word. Equality sounds like it would mean
"for everyone" but that is not necessarily
true. Women and slaves, for example, were not
held to be equal. Men without property were not
necessarily equal. In the sense of the revolution, it is
probably taken to mean that men are "equal" to
each other and that no one should have a royal title
and think they are "better" than everyone else or
have special privileges. That was a goal of the
revolution, to take the monarchy out of the equation
and institute a semi-democracy.
3. Fraternity: Fraternity usually means
"brotherhood" or camaraderie. This occurs
between soldiers fighting in a war, but in the sense
of the revolution as a whole it more likely refers to
a fraternity between the colonies ... that the
separate colonies were now going to operate much
more closely and with a common interest in mind
instead of acting like a lot of different little
states. That was another goal of the revolution, to
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tie together the separate colonies and form one
stronger entity.
2.1. The Meaning beyond the Slogans of the
French Revolution
We will suggest that the different phases of the
revolution, reflected different parts of the slogan of
the revolution: Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity, and
hence, different aspects of the Enlightenment
tradition. Each one of these words in a sense
represents a different phase of the revolution, a
different aspect of Enlightenment thought. So, let's
turn now to these phases of the revolution.
The first phase lasted from about 1788-1792, the
era that historians call the period of the constitutional
monarchy. It was the most moderate phase of the
revolution, a phase in which the National Assembly
held a convention to create a constitution, and
implement policies with many of the classic goals of
the philosophes, the 18th century intellectuals. In these
years the revolution:
1. Abolished special legal privileges for the nobility
and church.
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2. Promoted freedom of speech and press, abolishing
censorship.
3. Promoted freedom of religion and free trade.
restricted the traditional power of the church and
reduced its role in the state
3. The Ideology of the French Revolution
What was ideology? It was and remains a system of
ideas that are usually goal- directed. Thus, it is a
theoretical explanation of the world's situation and a
prescription for improvement or radical change of
that situation. In this sense, ideology is rooted in
historical consciousness, in an awareness of
mankind's progress through time and how that
progress might be redirected toward an alternate
objective. Most ideologies are, therefore,
fundamentally political, bright descriptions of the
means and methods by which the instruments of
revolution, party, or government ought to be used for
the purpose of social change.
Political Ideology: Culturally, the French
Revolution provided the world with its first
meaningful experience with political ideology. It was
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Napoleon, a man who had no truck with idle thought,
who called the intellectual system-makers of the late
eighteenth century ideologues, abstractionists, or, as
we have heard in recent years, "eggheads.
The French Revolution did many things, unleashed
new forces, destroyed old ideas, offered new promises.
Not the Revolution itself, of course, but the people who
made it.
Ideology of Protest: Many historians have
described the French Revolution as the encounter of
competing classes. In such an appraisal the Revolution
is seen to begin with aristocratic protest against the
absolute monarchy bequeathed by Louis XIV, then to
enlarge in scope as a bourgeois movement seeking
fundamental political change, and, finally, to take on
popular dimensions with working-class participation,
particularly in Paris.
The Revolution of 1789 restored the harmony between
fact and law." The fact was that the bourgeoisie were
the most significant economic element within France.
Revolutionary ideology of the bourgeoisie:
Through revolutionary ideology and institutional
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change, the bourgeoisie gained a political authority
not known before in any European country. In this
sense, the French Revolution was a bourgeois
revolution. The abolition of aristocratic privileges, the
confiscation of church and aristocratic lands and their
purchase by the bourgeoisie, and the removal of
internal obstacles to trade and commerce allowed the
middle class greater economic and social mobility.
Liberal Ideology: In rhetoric and institution, the
French Revolution was a liberal revolution, in which
the liberty of the individual was proclaimed, private
property was respected. Later, when Napoleon
announced his doctrine of "careers open to talent," he
was following revolutionary thought. In truth, the
ideology of the Revolution amounted to extended
praise of the "self-made man."
The quality of spontaneity: Certainly, the French
Revolution had a quality of spontaneity, of accident,
that later revolutions would not have. There was no
clearly defined revolutionary party or conspiratorial
group that initially plotted the Revolution, and the
contending factions that followed after the Revolution
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had occurred never gained a firm grip on the nation's
imagination or its institutions.
4. The Social, Political and Religious Impact of
the French Revolution on France
The greatest impact came in France itself. France saw
the introduction of the principle of legal equality, and
the downgrading of the once powerful and rich
Catholic Church to just a bureau controlled by the
government. The changes in France were enormous;
some were widely accepted and others were bitterly
contested into the late 20th century. In France the
bourgeois and landowning classes emerged as the
dominant power. Feudalism was dead; social order
and contractual relations were consolidated by the
Code Napoléon. The Revolution unified France and
enhanced the power of the national state. The
Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars tore down the
ancient structure of Europe, hastened the advent of
nationalism, and inaugurated the era of modern, total
warfare.
Napoleon gave glory to France in fullest measure.
In the next few years, he overran the greater part of
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Europe, and fought battle after battle, nearly always
winning brilliant victories. He more than doubled the
territory over which France ruled, and both the
government of France, and the geography and
governments of all Europe, bear the impress of his
influence to this day. In 1802, a peace was made
between England and France. It was in this treaty that
the English King finally gave up the title "King of
France," which had been used by the English
sovereigns since Edward III.
This widespread acceptance of the normality of
change represented a fundamental cultural
transformation of the capitalist world-economy. It
meant that one was recognizing publicly, that is
expressively, the structural realities that had in fact
prevailed for several centuries already: that the
world-system was a capitalist system, that the world-
economy’s division of labor was bounded and framed
by an interstate system composed of hypothetically
sovereign states. Once this recognition became
widespread, which seems to me to have occurred more
or less in the period 1789–1815, once this discourse
prevailed, three new institutions emerged as
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expressions of and responses to this "normality of
change." These three "institutions" were the
ideologies, the social sciences, and the movements.
These three institutions comprise the great
intellectual/cultural synthesis of the "long" nineteenth
century, the institutional underpinnings of what is
sometimes inaptly called "modernity."
4.1. The Influence of the French émigrés led to
a spread of French culture outside France
Émigré, any of the Frenchmen, at first mostly
aristocrats, who fled France in the years following the
French Revolution. From their places of exile in other
countries, many émigrés plotted against the
Revolutionary government, seeking foreign help in
their goal of restoring the old regime. The
Revolutionary leaders in France, fearful of their
activity, took action against them: émigrés who did
not return by January 1792 were liable to death as
traitors; in the same year their property was
confiscated by the state.
French emigration from the years 1789 to 1815 refers
to the mass movement of citizens from France to
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neighboring countries, in reaction to the instability
and upheaval caused by the French Revolution and
the succeeding Napoleonic rule.
In the short-term, France lost thousands of her
countrymen in the form of émigrés, or emigrants who
wished to escape political tensions and save their lives.
A number of individuals settled in the neighboring
countries (chiefly Great Britain, Germany, Austria,
and Prussia), however quite a few also went to the
United States. The displacement of these Frenchmen
led to a spread of French culture, policies regulating
immigration, and a safe haven for Royalists and other
counterrevolutionaries to outlast the violence of the
French Revolution.
Many émigrés set up a court at Koblenz in Germany.
A great number of émigrés also took refuge in
England. Napoleon Bonaparte granted the great
majority of émigrés amnesty in 1802, and many
returned to France. The émigrés became an important
force in French politics, their views ranging from a
moderate to an extreme royalist position.
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4.2. National identities began mixing together
like never before. The many and fast
developing ideologies of the revolution were also
spread across Europe, helped by French being
the continental elite’s dominant language.
4.3. Rule by divine right and absolute monarchy
were challenged by the principle of national
sovereignty proclaimed by the Revolution. The
nation, not the king, was recognized as the
ultimate legitimate and legitimizing source of
authority in the French state. This became
explicit with the establishment of the republic in
1792. Written constitutions introduced a
representative assembly, a legislature elected by
popular suffrage.
4.4. A hierarchical society was challenged by the
inclusive concept of citizenship and equality
before the law. Offices of state were thrown
open, theoretically at least, to individual merit,
and the turmoil of events propelled new men into
positions of authority in France.
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4.5. The Catholic Church as a confessional state
was displaced by the concept of the French
nation
The Catholic Church as an estate of the realm in a
confessional state was displaced by the concept of the
French nation or people as a focus of common
allegiance in a secular state. Church and state,
identified for centuries, were separated. Freedom of
religion was established and non-Catholics achieved
civic equality. Civil marriage was introduced in 1792,
together with divorce and some measure of greater
equality between the sexes.
4.6. The Declaration of the Rights of Man was
issued (August 27, 1789):
The representative of the French people, organized as
a National Assembly, believing that the ignorance,
neglect or contempt of the rights of man are the sole
cause of public calamities and of the corruption of
governments, have determined to set forth in a solemn
declaration the natural, inalienable and sacred rights
of man. The Declaration of the Rights of Man came to
be regarded as the charter of democracy. The equality
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of all men in the eyes of the law is its essence. Property
was inviolable, for the chief supporters of the new
order owned property or desired to own it. The
Declaration of the Rights of Man included the
following points:
A. All men were born free with equal rights.
B. All citizens have the right to take part in electing
representatives to make the laws.
C. The amount of taxes which a person is called upon
to pay will be based on the amount of wealth that
he possesses.
D. The aim of all political association is the
preservation of the natural and imprescriptible
rights of man. These rights are liberty, property,
security and resistance to oppression.
E. The principle of all sovereignty resides essentially
in the nation. No body or individual may exercise
any authority which does not proceed directly from
the nation.
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F. Liberty consists in the freedom to do everything
which injures no one else.
G. Law is the expression of the general will. Every
citizen has a right to participate personally or
through his representative in its formation. All
citizens, being equal in the eyes of the law, are
equally eligible to all dignities and to all public
positions and occupations, according to their
abilities, and without distinction except that of
their virtues and talents.
H. No one shall be disquieted on account of his
opinions, including his religious views, provided
their manifestation does not disturb the public
order established by law.
I. All the citizens have a right to decide, either
personally or by their representatives, as to the
necessity of the public contribution.
4.7. Revolutionary Culture in Clothing
The revolution had an impact on the way that people
dressed. Shifts in fashion were a noticeable outcome
of the revolution. Women stopped wearing hooped
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skirts and large headdresses, while men abandoned
the use of powdered wigs. Simple and restrained dress
– muslin frocks or dresses, neatly cut suits and tunics,
modest wigs and hairstyles – became the order of the
day. The red, white and blue tricolour remained
popular as an expression of loyalty to the revolution;
these colours were worn as cockades, ribbons or
trimmings on a coat or tunic.
4.8. Revolutionary Culture in Language and
Address
The revolution also changed the way that individuals
communicated with each other. In Paris and other
cities and towns, traditional forms of address such as
“Sire“, “Monsieur” and “Madame” were largely
abandoned. The more egalitarian “Citoyen” ‫ مواطن‬and
“Citoyenne” ‫ مواطنة‬were used in their place.
Citizens abandoned the culture and formalities of pre-
revolutionary society, including bows, curtseys and
genuflection and the doffing of hats.
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5. The Cultural and Civilizational Impact of
the French Revolution on Europe and the
Rest of the World
The French Revolution was simply much more
than a transfer of political power from the French
monarchy to a republic, it was also a decisive event in
intellectual history. So, we need to talk about the
French Revolution, not so much as a turning point in
economic, political, or social life, but as one of the
turning points in the creation of modern intellectual
life and modern intellectual debates.
The revolution shaped a whole series of modern
intellectual debates about political theory, the nature
of historical change, the meaning of democracy, and
the effects of social equality. The revolution raised
questions that are still being debated today.
5.1. The Emergence of the Modern Political
World System based on Democracy
The French Revolution had a major impact on Europe
and the whole World. Historians widely regard the
Revolution as one of the most important events in
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human history. The French Revolution was one of the
most influential and significant events in world
history; it continues to fascinate people two centuries
after the people of France rebelled against their
rulers. The French Revolution embodied, in the eyes
of subsequent generations, the emergence of the
modern political world. It made possible a new
understanding of class politics, secular ideology and
revolutionary transformation which inspired the
whole world-wide communist experiment of the
twentieth century.
The French Revolution of 1789 AD was a landmark
in world history. The revolution swayed the socio-
economic and political life of France and affected the
rest of the world. Equality, Freedom, Democracy,
sovereignty, secularism, welfare state are the ideas of
the French Revolution that are still giving
momentum to the world.
The French Revolution abolished serfdom, slavery,
inherited privilege, and judicial torture. The majority
of Europeans and non-Europeans came to see the
Revolution as much more than a bloody tragedy.
These people were more impressed by what the
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Revolution accomplished than by what it failed to do.
They recalled the Revolution’s abolition of serfdom,
slavery, inherited privilege, and judicial torture; its
experiments with democracy; and its opening of
opportunities to those who, for reasons of social status
or religion, had been traditionally excluded.
The success of the French Revolution inspired people
all over the world, and especially in Europe. Mobilized
by the spirit of nationalism and the ideas of liberty,
equality and fraternity, people rose in revolt against
the absolutist autocratic State and strived to install
democracy as the new form of Government.
Civil disorder became a common scene after the
storming of the Bastille in 1789. After a few years the
French intellectuals who rode the banner of liberalism
as the forerunners of the revolution issued the
Declaration of the Rights of Man. Through this
document they aimed at shifting the authority of
issuing basic human rights from the Church, or God
so to say, to the state government.
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5.2. Inspiration to Other Revolutions
One of the most important contributions of the French
Revolution was to make revolution part of the world’s
political tradition. The French Revolution continued
to provide instruction for revolutionaries in the 19 th
and 20th centuries, as peoples in Europe and around
the world sought to realize their different versions of
freedom. The French Revolution continued to provide
instructions for revolutionaries in the 19th and 20th
centuries.
5.3. The Social Impact of the French
Revolution on Europe
As a result of the revolution, the feudal system of
France came to an end. This provided suitable social
space to ordinary people by establishing the just
principle of equality. The privileges of the elite ended.
Along with this, many movements in late and early
America took inspiration from the revolt. The
practice of French colonial slavery in America was
abolished and it was made the Republic of Haiti. The
French Revolution also influenced Belgium, Poland,
Venezuela, etc. to gain independence from
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Holland. The end of the feudal system in other
countries of Europe also became inevitable. Along
with Europe, the idea of equality inspired other
countries as well.
The success of the French Revolution provided the
middle class with legitimacy in the society and from
there they evolved a new social order where trade and
market became the driving force of the society. This
group believed that no class should be given the
privilege by birth and everyone should get a fair
chance of equal opportunity based on merit.
5.4. The Political Impact of the French
Revolution on Europe
The French Revolution propounded the principle of
democracy in the political field. It gave importance to
the doctrine of “popular sovereignty” by ending the
monarchy based on divine principles. Declaration of
human rights, principles of liberty, equality, and
fraternity made humans an important part of
history. The triumph of political greatness through
the French revolution provided power to the freedom
struggle in Europe and other countries like
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India. The ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity
mentioned in the Indian constitution were shaped by
the French constitution.
5.5. The French Revolutionary Culture
dominated France and all over the World
The French Revolution was not confined to
government, politics and policy. The French
Revolution was not only a political and ideological
movement. Its ideas and values were also expressed in
a variety of ways, including through symbolism, art,
fashion and music. French revolutionary culture was
dominated by ideas of nationalism, progress, social
unity and egalitarianism. French revolutionary
culture was dominated by ideas of nationalism,
progress, social unity and egalitarianism. These
cultural symbols were used both to express ideas or
values and demonstrate one’s loyalty to the
revolution.
The revolution developed its own culture that
reflected its ideas and values in the visual arts,
literature, music and dress. The culture of the French
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Revolution was not confined to high art. Its events also
changed how people lived, dressed and spoke.
5.6. The Liberation of the Economy from
Royal Control
The economic history of revolutionary France is still a
neglected area in studies of the revolution of 1789.
Some historians argue that revolutions pave the way
for capitalist market growth. As for economic
development, the liberation of the economy from royal
controls, the standardization of weights and measures,
and the development of a uniform civil law code
helped pave the way for the Industrial Revolution.
The Revolution opened new markets and new trade
relationships.
5.7. The impact of the French Revolution on
the Middle East and Russia
The impact of the French Revolution on the Middle
East came in terms of the political and military impact
of Napoleon’s invasions of Egypt and Syria; and in the
eventual influence of revolutionary and liberal ideas
and revolutionary movements or rebellions.
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In his book, The Holy Family, Karl Marx wrote, “the
French Revolution gave rise to ideas which led
beyond the ideas of the entire old world order. The
revolutionary movement which began in 1789… gave
rise to the communist idea… This idea, consistently
developed, is the idea of the new world order.” The
socialist revolution in Russia referred to as the
Russian revolution followed the ideals of equality,
democracy, and fraternity set during the French
revolution. The leader of the Russian revolution,
Vladimir Lenin was also inspired by the French
revolution. About French revolutions, Lenin
said, “Take the great French Revolution. It is with
good reason that it is called a great revolution.”
5.8. The Development of New Ideologies
As a result of this emphasis on the people as the
source of authority and sovereignty, entire modern
ideologies came into being, whose proponents argued
that their belief systems would serve the people best.
Among these modern ideologies, liberalism
emphasized individual freedoms, economically and
politically. Nationalism, the claim of belonging to a
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national community, would be very potent in the 19th
and 20th centuries. Karl Marx, harkening back to the
French Revolution as a necessary historical stage,
crafted socialism and communism.
Reacting against the French Revolution, Edmund
Burke launched modern conservatism. On the other
side of the political divide, the energies and dynamism
of the French Revolution provided a template for
radicals, to explore the possibilities of upheaval.
New ideologies were developed in the nineteenth
century such as conservatism, liberalism, Marxism,
communism, capitalism and nationalism. They were
all world-systemic ideologies. It is no accident that
conservatism was the first to emerge institutionally. It
is clear that the new recognition of the normality of
change posed urgent dilemmas to those of a
conservative bent. Edmund Burke and Joseph de
Maistre saw this clearly and quickly. They saw they
needed to make an intellectual case for the slowest
possible pace of change. But more importantly, they
realized that some kinds of change were more serious
than others. They gave priority therefore to
preserving the structures that in turn could serve as
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brakes on any and all precipitate reformers and
revolutionaries. These were of course the structures
whose merits conservatives lauded: the family, the
"community," the church, and of course the
monarchy. The central motif of conservative ideology
has always been "tradition." Traditions are presumed
to be there, and to have been there for an indefinitely
long time. It is argued that it is "natural" to preserve
traditional values because they incarnate wisdom.
The French Revolution did change the world-system
very much.
5.9. The Revolution promoted nationalism
all over Europe
Along with offering lessons about liberty and
democracy, the Revolution also promoted
nationalism. Napoleon’s occupation provoked
nationalist groups to organize in Italy and Germany.
Also influential was the revolutionaries’ belief that a
nation was not a group of royal subjects but a society
of equal citizens. The fact that most European
countries are or are becoming parliamentary
democracies, along the lines set out by the French
Revolution, suggests its enduring influence.
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Chapter Three
The Industrial Revolution
and its Impact on the European
Civilization (1760-1850)
Introduction
The Industrial Revolution, which took place from
the 18th to 19th centuries, was a period during which
predominantly agrarian, rural societies in Europe and
America became industrial and urban. Prior to the
Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain in the
late 1700s, manufacturing was often done in people’s
homes, using hand tools or basic machines.
Industrialization marked a shift to powered, special-
purpose machinery, factories and mass production.
The iron and textile industries, along with the
development of the steam engine, played central roles
in the Industrial Revolution, which also saw improved
systems of transportation, communication and
banking.
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1. What is the Industrial Revolution?
What exactly is the Industrial Revolution? An
Industrial Revolution at its core occurs when a society
shifts from using tools to make products to using new
sources of energy, such as coal, to power machines in
factories. It’s a shift from the home to the factory,
from the country to the city, from human or animal
power to engines powered by fossil fuels (coal and,
later, oil). The industrial process occurred gradually,
but the social and economic changes were so far
reaching over generations that it becomes clear that
they were nothing short of revolutionary.
The revolution started in England, with a series
of innovations to make labor more efficient and
productive. In the new industrial cities, advances in
technology and organization allowed the average
worker to produce much more than ever before. For
example, one low-skilled worker in a spinning factory
in Britain in 1820 could produce, with the help of a
steam-powered spinning machine, a hundred times
the spun thread of a pre-industrial worker. The
Industrial Revolution is an era that began in England
at the end of the 18th century.
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2. Why the Change in Industry was called
a Revolution ?
Industrial Revolution is the change from the use
of hand methods of manufacturing to machine
methods. This change, which began in England about
1750 and later spread to other countries, is called a
“revolution” because it brought vast changes in the
way people work and live. It created an industrialized
society—one in which large-scale mechanized
manufacturing replaced farming as the main source
of jobs. Instead of growing their own food and making
at home the products they use, a great many persons
in an industrialized society work for wages and buy
their food and other necessities. They live in towns and
cities rather than in the country.
Progress in technology and in industrial
development has been almost continuous since the
Industrial Revolution began. Since 1900, and
particularly since World War II, industry and
technology have advanced at an ever-increasing rate.
In a sense, the revolution that began around 1750 has
never ended.
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The term industrial revolution was originated by
J. A. Blanqui, a 19th-century French economist. The
term came into popular use after Arnold Toynbee, a
British economist, published the book The Industrial
Revolution in 1884.
3. The History and Concept of Industrial
Revolution
Industrial Revolution, in modern history, is the
process of change from an agrarian, handicraft
economy to one dominated by industry and machine
manufacture. This process began in England in the
18th century and from there spread to other parts of
the world. Although used earlier by French writers,
the term Industrial Revolution was first popularized
by the English economic historian Arnold Toynbee
(1852–83) to describe England’s economic
development from 1760 to 1840. Since Toynbee’s time,
the term has been more broadly applied.
The Industrial Revolution started in England
around 1733 with the first cotton mill. A more modern
world had begun. As new inventions were being
created, factories followed soon thereafter. England
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wanted to keep its industrialization a secret, so they
prohibited anyone who had worked in a factory to
leave the country. Meanwhile, Americans offered a
significant reward to anyone who could build a cotton-
spinning machine in the United States. Samuel Slater,
who had been an apprentice in an English cotton
factory, disguised himself and came to America. Once
here, he reconstructed a cotton-spinning machine
from memory. He then proceeded to build a factory of
his own. The Industrial Revolution had arrived in the
United States.
The Industrial Revolution brought severe
consequences to society. Factory owners, who were in
need to cheap and unskilled labor, profited greatly by
using children and women to run the machines. By the
age of 6, many children were already working 14
hours a day in factories! These kids had no free time
to do anything else and earned low wages. Some got
sick and died because of the toxic fumes, while others
were severely injured and sometimes killed working
at the dangerous machines in factories. Obviously, the
Industrial Revolution had both good and bad sides.
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4. Three Phases of the Industrial
Revolution
There are three phases of the Industrial Revolution in
modern world history, based on when various
countries and regions went through the process:
4.1. The First Phase (1790s to 1850s)

This phase started with Britain and then spread
to other countries in Northern and Western Europe—
especially France and Germany—and the United
States. Textile inventions led the way and steam power
became the dominant technology, culminating in
railroads. Coal, iron, and steel also became key
industries. This phase of industrialization resulted in
cheap manufactured goods from Europe flooding
world markets and bringing wealth back to the West.
The rest of the world, for the most part, became more
dependent on supplying raw materials, such as oil and
rubber, and export crops, such as sugar, coffee,
cotton, and fruit.
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4.2. The Second Phase (1860s to 1950s)
Additional countries, usually culturally
associated with Europe, began to industrialize,
including Russia, Japan, other nations in Eastern and
Southern Europe, Australia, and New Zealand.
Britain and the other previously industrialized
countries became highly urbanized. The last craft
industries, such as shoemaking and glassmaking,
became industrialized. The most developed countries,
such as the United States, mass-produced consumer
goods—such as dishwashers, furniture, and even
houses—for the growing middle classes. The service
sector grew and matured with jobs for teachers,
waiters, accountants, lawyers, police, and clerks. Key
inventions included the assembly line, the automobile,
and the airplane. Western countries and businesses
typically controlled world trade and took direct or
indirect control of key industries in less developed
countries, enriching themselves in the process.
4.3. The Third Phase (1960s to present)

The so-called “Asian Tigers” (Hong Kong,
Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea) rapidly appeared in
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the field of industrialization by taking advantage of
their educated and cheap labour to export inexpensive
manufactured goods to the West. Other countries in
Asia and the Americas—such as China, India, Brazil,
Chile, and Argentina—began to develop key economic
sectors for export in the global economy. The world
moved gradually toward global free trade. Western
countries in Europe and North America turned
increasingly to service and high technology economies
as manufacturing moved to the cheap labor markets
of developing countries. The key new inventions of
this phase were the computer and the Internet. This
era is now referred to as the “Post-Industrial age”—
since the most developed countries focus on service
jobs rather than manufacturing—or the “Information
Age.” With only a few exceptions, the poorest nations
have not become wealthy in the fiercely competitive
global market. There is an increasing wealth gap
between more developed and less developed countries
in the world. The Information Age we live in today is
defined by the development of the computer.
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5. Causes of the Industrial Revolution
5.1. The Agricultural Revolution
The Agricultural Revolution is traditionally seen
to precede Industrial Revolution - but it was
important in its own right. The agricultural revolution
was a period of agricultural development between the
18th century and the end of the 19th century, which
saw a massive and rapid increase in agricultural
productivity and vast improvements in farm
technology. There were many inventions that helped
the development of cultivating land such as: plow,
moldboard, machines of harvest (sickles, reapers, and
harvesters)
Britain in 1800 was well under way on its
Industrial Revolution and being ahead of most of the
rest of the world could make and sell some products
cheaper than anyone else. Initially this advantage was
in the textile industry but soon the British use of coal,
iron smelters and steam power for trains, ships,
factories, agriculture, etc. were rapidly increased and
very competitive. New agricultural implements were
invented at an increasing pace all through the 1800s
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allowing agricultural populations in Britain to
actually decrease. Some of this new capital generated
by the Industrial Revolution was plowed back into
agriculture to make the crop yields larger.
5.2. The Potato Revolution (1695 - 1845)

In Europe, the potato was originally an anti-
famine food but then became a staple. The potato has
been credited with fueling the Industrial Revolution in
eighteenth-century Europe but blamed for the mid—
nineteenth-century Irish famine. Over three
centuries, it also became a central and distinctive
element of European regional, and then national,
cuisines.
Potatoes did not become a staple until, during the
food shortages associated with the Revolutionary
Wars, the English government began to officially
encourage potato cultivation. In 1795, the Board of
Agriculture issued a pamphlet entitled "Hints
Respecting the Culture and Use of Potatoes"; this was
followed shortly by pro-potato editorials and potato
recipes in The Times. Gradually, the lower classes
began to follow the lead of the upper classes.
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Historians debate whether the potato was
primarily a cause or an effect of the huge population
boom in industrial-era England and Wales. Prior to
1800, the English diet had consisted primarily of meat,
supplemented by bread, butter and cheese. Few
vegetables were consumed, most vegetables being
regarded as nutritionally worthless and potentially
harmful. This view began to change gradually in the
late 1700s. At the same time as the populations of
London, Liverpool and Manchester were rapidly
increasing; the potato was enjoying unprecedented
popularity among farmers and urban workers.
The Industrial Revolution was drawing an ever
increasing percentage of the populace into crowded
cities, where only the richest could afford homes with
ovens or coal storage rooms, and people were working
12-16 hour days which left them with little time or
energy to prepare food. High yielding, easily prepared
potato crops were the obvious solution to England's
food problems. Not insignificantly, the English were
also rapidly acquiring a taste for potatoes, as is
evidenced by the tuber's increasing popularity in
recipe books from the time. Hot potato vendors and
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merchants selling fish and chips wrapped in paper
horns became ubiquitous features of city life. Between
1801 and 1851, England and Wales experienced an
unprecedented population explosion, their combined
population doubling to almost 18 million.
The fairly sudden shift towards potato cultivation
in the early years of the French Revolution allowed a
nation that had traditionally hovered on the brink of
starvation in times of stability and peace to expand its
population during a decades-long period of constant
political upheaval and warfare. The uncertainly of
food supply during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic
Wars, combined with the tendency of above-ground
crops to be destroyed by soldiers, encouraged
France's allies and enemies to embrace the tuber as
well; by the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, the
potato had become a staple food in the diets of most
Europeans.
The most dramatic example of the potato's
potential to alter population patterns occurred in
Ireland, where the potato had become a staple by
1800. The Irish population doubled to eight million
between 1780 and 1841 — this, without any significant
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expansion of industry or reform of agricultural
techniques beyond the widespread cultivation of the
potato. Though Irish landholding practices were
primitive in comparison with those of England, the
potato's high yields allowed even the poorest farmers
to produce more healthy food than they needed with
scarcely any investment or hard labor.
By the early 1840s, almost one-half of the Irish
population had become entirely dependent upon the
potato, specifically on just one or two high-yielding
varieties. Ireland experienced a famine in 1845 when
their main crop, potatoes, was destroyed by
disease. Irish farmers grew other food items, such as
wheat and oats, but Great Britain required them to
export those items to them, leaving nothing for the
Irish to live on. As a result, over 1 million Irish died
of starvation or disease, while millions of others
migrated to the United States.
5.3. The Growth of the British Population

The vast majority of the country's population
lives in the countryside, completely isolated or in small
communities. The British population in 1800 was
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about 8.7 million increasing to 16.7 million in 1851
and 41.6 million by 1901. This corresponds to a rate of
population increase from 1801 to 1851 of 1.84% per
year and a rate of population increase of 3.00% per
year from 1851 to 1901. Not only did the need for more
food increase but the need for more shoes, clothes,
carriages, horses, homes, furniture, etc. increased at
the same or a greater rate as more products became
available. The rate of population increase was much
faster than the rate of increased agricultural yield per
acre (hectare), which increased at about a rate of 0.5%
per year from 1800 to 1850 and 0.2% per year from
1850 to 1900. Increased food imports were critical in
feeding the rapidly growing urban population during
the industrial revolution.
The only solution to this problem of rapidly
increasing population and increased need for food and
other agricultural products was to add more acres
under cultivation and pasture.
5.4. The Commercial Revolution

The Commercial Revolution consisted of the creation
of a European economy based on trade, which began
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hundreds years earlier before the appearance of the
Industrial Revolution and lasted until it was
succeeded by the Industrial Revolution in the mid-18th
century. The Commercial Revolution is defined as a
massive economic and cultural shift that began in the
mid-Middle Ages and lasted until 19th century in
Europe. Beginning with the Crusades, Europeans
rediscovered spices, silks, and other commodities rare
in Europe. This development created a new desire for
trade.
The term itself was used by Karl Polanyi in his The
Great Transformation: “Politically, the centralized
state was a new creation called forth by the
Commercial Revolution” [Polanyi, Great Transformation].
Later the economic historian Roberto Sabatino Lopez
used it to shift focus away from the English Industrial
Revolution [Lopez, The Commercial Revolution].
The Commercial Revolution was a period of
European economic expansion, colonialism, and
mercantilism which lasted from approximately the
16th century until the early 18th century. It was
succeeded in the mid-18th century by the Industrial
Revolution. There were no definitive events that
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occurred during the Commercial Revolution. Rather,
it was a massive societal and economic process that
happened gradually with the development of new
ways of navigating the economy.
The main characteristics of the Commercial
Revolution were:
• Formation of new economic systems practices, such
as the proliferation of banks and the issuance of bills
of exchange.
• Elevation of craftsmen and tradesmen, who began to
specialize and industrialize. They also began to
engage in collective actions to better their economic
and political situation.
• New business practices.
Effects of the Commercial Revolution
The Commercial Revolution had many significant
impacts on the economic and social structure of
European cities and countries. It resulted in the
dominance of trade as a way of making money. This
elevated the status of the middle-class merchants and
craftsmen of Europe; and they took advantage of their
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new beneficial position to gain important concessions
from government administrators.
The Commercial Revolution also affected industry. In
a way, it caused the creation of industry. It influenced
merchants and craftsmen to specialize in certain
goods and services. As groups of individuals
specialized in the same trade, they banded together to
fight for their common interests. This caused the
formation of guilds, which introduced the concept of
industry standards and fought for representation and
rights with local, regional, and state governments.
Guilds, unlike mercantilism and trading companies,
survived past the end of the Commercial Revolution.
They gradually evolved into the labor unions of the
Industrial Revolution.
5.5. The Cottage Industry

At the dawn of the eighteenth century, farming
was the primary livelihood in England, with at least
75% of the population making its living off the land.
This meant that many English families had very little
to do during the winter months except sit around and
make careful use of the food and other supplies that
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they stored up during the rest of the year. The cottage
industry was developed to take advantage of the
farmers' free time and use it to produce quality
textiles for a reasonable price. The task of
transforming raw wool into cloth could be done
entirely by one household, or split between two or
more (ie. spinning in one home, weaving in another).
The cottage industry proved to be profitable for
the urban merchants, since they could sell the finished
cloth for far more than they paid the farmers to make
it. The cottage industry helped to prepare the country
for the Industrial Revolution by boosting the English
economy through the increase of trade that occurred
as the country became well-known overseas for its
high-quality and low-cost exports. The cottage
industry was also a good source of auxiliary funds for
the rural people.
5.6. Enclosure of Land
Enclosure is defined as “the process of inclosing
(with fences, ditches, hedges, or other barriers) land
formerly subject to common rights”. Most farms were
established on "common land" which local farmers
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typically leased from a wealthy proprietor who owned
large areas of land in a district. There were, however,
rules which prevented a landlord from expelling a
tenant without a reasonable cause, and so farms could
be passed down through a peasant family for
generations. Traditionally, the land was divided into
long narrow strips which grew smaller as the land was
split into more parts for each succeeding generation.
This meant that the land that peasants had been
cultivating on their own was returned to the control of
the landowners and redistributed. Although the
process was not standardized until the General
Enclosure Act of 1801, many private acts had been
passed since the 1750's and enclosure had been
common for well over a century before.
5.7. The Unique Conditions in Britain for the
Industrial Revolution
Why did the Industrial Revolution occur first in
England and not somewhere else in the world? Britain
was the first country to industrialize because
conditions were perfect in Britain for the Industrial
Revolution. Having used wood for heat instead of coal,
Britain was left with large deposits of coal remaining
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to fuel the new ideas. Cotton was a simple, cheap, and
easily made product that everyone could use. So,
between 1796 and 1830 cotton production tripled. The
new production was easily transported, because there
remained an old commercial fleet.
What set Britain apart from the others, however,
were three unique social elements: education,
“modern” work attitudes, and a “modern”
government. Great Britain had a larger educated
workforce to run the machines and create manuals.
The Enlightenment not only meant a larger educated
population but also more modern views on work. The
population in Great Britain was ready to move out of
the country and to the city to work. Britain also had
the large middle class and flexible mercantile class
necessary. English society, unlike many others, was
not opposed to "new money," and as such was eager
to accept the new wealthy and their new ideas. Lastly,
Britain's government, a long-time constitutional
monarchy, was just right for the situation. The
government was flexible enough to support the new
system. The government and the bank provided
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incredible backing to new ideas, which soon turned
into new wealth.
5.8. Improvement of Financial Situations
What were the financial situations necessary to
support the Industrial Revolution?
• A New Banking System
In Britain, expansion had led to new "private

banking," a new money economy, and trading
organizations. Modern credit facilities also appeared
such as the state bank, the bourse, the promissory
note, and other new media of exchange. This created
economic stimulus which in turn gave the people more
money to spend.
• A stable Environment
The steady economic systems present under the new
national monarchies created a reliable atmosphere for
the new Revolution. The most notable of these
governments were in Portugal, Spain, the
Netherlands, and England
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• A Large Amount of Capital for Investment
From the New World had come gold and silver, which
in less than a century more than doubled European
prices and stimulated economic activity, which in turn
gave the wealthy more money to spend on new ideas.
5.9. The Enlightenment and the Scientific
Revolution
The Enlightenment and the Scientific Revolution
encouraged scholars and craftspeople to apply new
scientific thinking to mechanical and technological
challenges. In the centuries before the Industrial
Revolution, Europeans gradually incorporated
science and reason into their worldview. Some
historians argue that these intellectual shifts made
English culture, in particular, highly receptive to new
mechanical and financial ideas.
5.10. Navigable Rivers and Canals and Cheap
Cost of Transportation
Navigable Rivers and Canals in Great Britain
quickened the pace and cheapened the cost of
transportation of raw materials and finished
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products. Adam Smith, the first modern economist,
believed this was a key reason for England’s early
success. In 1776, in his famous book An Inquiry into
the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, he
wrote that “Good roads, canals, and navigable rivers,
by diminishing the expense of carriage, put the remote
parts of the country more nearly upon a level with
those in the neighbourhood of the town. They are
upon that account the greatest of all improvements”
(Wightman 43).
5.11. Abundance of Coal and Iron
Coal and Iron deposits were plentiful in Great
Britain and proved essential to the development of all
new machines made of iron or steel and powered by
coal—such as the steam-powered machinery in textile
factories, and the locomotive.
5.12. Encouragement of Government Policies
Government Policies in England toward
property and commerce encouraged innovation and
the spread of global trade. The government created
patent laws that allowed inventors to benefit
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financially from the “intellectual property” of their
inventions. The British government also encouraged
global trade by expanding the Navy to protect trade
and granting monopolies or other financial incentives
to companies so they would explore the world to find
resources.
5.13. Increase of World Trade
World Trade gradually increased in the centuries
before the Industrial Revolution and provided
European countries access to raw materials and a
market for goods. It also increased wealth that could
then be loaned by banks to finance more industrial
expansion in an upward spiral of economic growth. By
1500, Europe had a technological supremacy over the
rest of the world in shipbuilding, navigation, and
metallurgy (metal working). In successive years,
European countries would use these advantages to
dominate world trade with Asia, Africa, and the
Americas.
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6. Britain is Birthplace of the Industrial
Revolution
Before the advent of the Industrial Revolution,
most people resided in small, rural communities
where their daily existences revolved around farming.
Life for the average person was difficult, as incomes
were meager, and malnourishment and disease were
common. People produced the bulk of their own food,
clothing, furniture and tools. Most manufacturing was
done in homes or small, rural shops, using hand tools
or simple machines.
A number of factors contributed to Britain’s role
as the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution. For one,
it had great deposits of coal and iron ore, which
proved essential for industrialization. Additionally,
Britain was a politically stable society, as well as the
world’s leading colonial power, which meant its
colonies could serve as a source for raw materials, as
well as a marketplace for manufactured goods.
As demand for British goods increased,
merchants needed more cost-effective methods of
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production, which led to the rise of mechanization and
the factory system.
7. Development of Transportation Industry
during the Industrial Revolution
The transportation industry also underwent
significant transformation during the Industrial
Revolution. Before the advent of the steam engine,
raw materials and finished goods were drawn and
distributed via horse-drawn wagons, and by boats
along canals and rivers. The development of the
railroad network served as an example for the setup
of a modern-day business structure. Railroads
required many different experts throughout every
level of set up.
Developing this new infrastructure required
personnel to figure out the logistics of every level,
maintain safety and oversee and organize the use and
maintenance of the railroads. Railways were not new
in pre-industrial Britain. There were over 1,000
railways by 1800, most of them connected to an iron
pit or a coal mine with a canal or river. But all of these
railways were drawn by horses.
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As steam-powered ships were making their
debut, the steam locomotive was also coming into use.
In the early 1800s, British engineer Richard
Trevithick (1771-1833) constructed the first railway
steam locomotive. In 1830, England’s Liverpool and
Manchester Railway became the first to offer regular,
timetabled passenger services. By 1850, Britain had
more than 6,000 miles of railroad track. The first full-
scale steam-powered locomotive took its maiden
voyage down the main street of Camborne, England
on Christmas Eve in 1801.
A young self-taught engineer, George
Stephenson, picked up where Trevithick left off. In
1825, Stephenson was commissioned to construct a 30-
mile railway line from Liverpool to Manchester.
Manchester was the largest industrial town in the
world and merchants needed to transport lots of
cotton and finished cloth.
8. The Rise of Capitalism and Free Market
during the Industrial Revolution
The innovations during the Industrial Revolution
accelerated the rise of an economic system called the
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free market, also known as capitalism (some people
use the French phrase “laissez faire,” meaning “let
them act”) All these terms imply pretty much the same
thing: in a pure free market, buyers and sellers
(private business owners) satisfy their own interests
by voluntarily agreeing to exchange money for a
product, without the interference of the government.
Business owners compete in a free market to
make the best product or service at a price that will
attract the most buyers. The successful businesses
grow larger and employ more workers, thereby
growing the economy. The government does not
intervene. Proponents of the free market believe that
this system encourages innovation, high quality goods,
and increases the wealth of countries.
The government does as little as possible in a free
market economic system. In its purest form,
governments should protect private property,
improve infrastructure such as roads, and maintain a
stable rule of law for trade. According to pure
capitalism, healthcare, education, retirement benefits
and other social services should be provided by
private businesses rather than the government.
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Adam Smith, a Scottish economist, wrote the
most influential and famous economics book ever,
entitled An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the
Wealth of Nations (1776). He argued that when
individuals pursue their self-interest in a free market,
they benefit society as a whole because the competition
keeps prices low while encouraging quality and
innovation.
9. Communication and Banking during the
Industrial Revolution
Communication became easier during the
Industrial Revolution with such inventions as the
telegraph. In 1837, two Brits, William Cooke (1806-
1879) and Charles Wheatstone (1802-1875), patented
(registered) the first commercial electrical telegraph.
By 1840, railways were a Cooke-Wheatstone system,
and in 1866, a telegraph cable was successfully laid
across the Atlantic.
Expansion of trade and the money economy
stimulated the development of new institutions of
finance and credit. The Industrial Revolution also saw
the rise of banks and industrial financiers, as well as a
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factory system dependent on owners and managers. A
stock exchange was established in London in the
1770s; the New York Stock Exchange was founded in
the early 1790s.
In 1776, Scottish social philosopher Adam Smith
(1723-1790), who is regarded as the founder of
modern economics, published “The Wealth of
Nations.” In it, Smith promoted an economic system
based on free enterprise, the private ownership of
means of production, and lack of government
interference.
10. The Standard of Living during Industrial
Revolution
What does “standard of living” mean? Economic
historians would like it to mean happiness. But the
impossibility of measuring happiness forces them to
equate the standard of living with monetary measures
such as real wages or real income. “Real income” is
usually defined as money income adjusted for the cost
of living, but not for effects of things such as health,
longevity, unemployment, pollution, the condition of
women and children, urban crowding, and the
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amount of leisure time. Although some new indexes
attempt to capture the various dimensions of well-
being, for most practical purposes real income per
person remains the most telling indicator ‫مؤشر قوى‬.
The standard-of-living debate today is not about
whether the industrial revolution made people better
off, but about when. The pessimists claim no marked
improvement in standards of living until the 1840s or
1850s. Most optimists, by contrast, believe that living
standards were rising by the 1810s or 1820s, or even
earlier.
The Industrial Revolution brought about a
greater volume and variety of factory-produced goods
and raised the standard of living for many people,
particularly for the middle and upper classes.
However, life for the poor and working classes
continued to be filled with challenges. Wages for those
who labored in factories were low and working
conditions could be dangerous and monotonous.
Unskilled workers had little job security and were
easily replaceable. Industrialization also meant that
some craftspeople were replaced by machines.
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Additionally, urban, industrialized areas were
unable to keep pace with the flow of arriving workers
from the countryside, resulting in inadequate,
overcrowded housing and polluted, unsanitary living
conditions in which disease was rampant. Conditions
for Britain’s working-class began to gradually
improve by the later part of the 19th century, as the
government instituted various labor reforms and
workers gained the right to form trade unions.
Between 1760 and 1860, technological progress,
education, and an increasing capital stock
transformed England into the workshop of the world.
The industrial revolution, as the transformation came
to be known, caused a sustained rise in real income
per person in England and, as its effects spread, in the
rest of the Western world.
Wages were higher in English cities than in the
countryside, but rents were higher and the quality of
life was lower. Most economic historians agree that
the distribution of income became more unequal
between 1790 and 1840. Moreover, if we add the
effects of unemployment, poor harvests, war,
pollution, urban crowding, and other social ills, the
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modest rise in average income could well have been
accompanied by a fall in the standard of living of the
working classes.
11. The Impact of the Industrial Revolution
We learned that industrial production increased
tremendously, bringing wealth and power to Great
Britain throughout the 19th century. But we have yet
to explore the effects of industrialization on society, on
the daily living and the working conditions of common
people. What was life like for the average industrial
worker? Was living in a new industrial city and
working in a factory an improvement over life in the
countryside? Did the new factory life change for the
better the roles of family members, including women
and children? Were people healthier? In general, did
the Industrial Revolution improve life for most
people?
11.1. The Rise of Cities and Urbanization
One of the defining and most lasting features of
the Industrial Revolution was the rise of cities. In pre-
industrial society, over 80% of people lived in rural
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areas. As migrants moved from the countryside, small
towns became large cities. The Industrial Revolution
brought rapid urbanization or the movement of
people to cities. Changes in farming, soaring
population growth, and an ever-increasing demand
for workers led masses of people to migrate from
farms to cities. Almost overnight, small towns around
coal or iron mines mushroomed into cities.
By 1850, for the first time in world history, more
people in a country—Great Britain—lived in cities
than in rural areas. As other countries in Europe and
North America industrialized, they too continued
along this path of urbanization. In England, this
process of urbanization continued at full strength
throughout the 19th century. The city of London grew
from a population of two million in 1840 to five million
forty years later (Hobsawm, Industry and Empire 159).
The small town of Manchester, England also
grew rapidly and famously to become the
quintessential industrial city. Its cool climate was ideal
for textile production. And it was located close to the
Atlantic port of Liverpool and the coalfields of
Lancashire. The first railroads in the world later
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connected the textile town to Liverpool. As a result,
Manchester quickly became the textile capital of the
world, drawing huge numbers of migrants to the city.
In 1771, the sleepy town had a population of 22,000.
Over the next fifty years, Manchester’s population
exploded and reached 180,000 (“A History of
Manchester”). Many of the migrants were destitute
farmers from Ireland who were being evicted from
their land by their English landlords. In Liverpool
and Manchester roughly 25 to 33 percent of the
workers were Irish. (Thompson 429).
This process of urbanization stimulated the
booming new industries by concentrating workers
and factories together. And the new industrial cities
became, as we read earlier, sources of wealth for the
nation.
Despite the growth in wealth and industry
urbanization also had some negative effects. On the
whole, working-class neighborhoods were bleak,
crowded, dirty, and polluted. Alexis de Tocqueville, a
French traveler and writer, visited Manchester in
1835 and commented on the environmental hazards.
“From this foul Drain ‫ مصرف مياه‬the greatest stream of
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human industry flows out to fertilize the whole world.
From this dirty sewer ‫ قناة مجارى‬pure gold flows. Here
humanity attains its most complete development and
its most brutish, here civilization works its miracles
and civilized man is turned almost into a savage.”
(Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution 44)
11.2. Increase of Child Labour

Factory owners used cheap, unskilled labour to
decrease the cost of production. And, child labour was
the cheapest labor of all. Some of the machines at that
time were so easy to operate that a small child could
perform the simple, repetitive tasks. And, children did
not try to join workers unions or go on strike. Best of
all, they were paid one tenth (1/10) of what men were
paid. It is not surprising, then, that children were
heavily employed in the first factories in history. In
1789, in Richard Arkwright’s new spinning factory,
two-thirds of 1,150 factory workers were children
(Ashton 93).
Children were part of the labor force and often

worked long hours and were used for such highly
dangerous tasks as cleaning the machinery. In the
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early 1860s, an estimated one-fifth of the workers in
Britain’s textile industry were younger than 15.
The tedious and dangerous factory work had
negative effects on the health of children. Doctor
Turner Thackrah described the children leaving the
Manchester cotton mills as “almost universally ill-
looking, small, sickly, barefoot and ill-clad. Many
appeared to be no older than seven. The men,
generally from sixteen to twenty-four, and none aged,
were almost as pallid and thin as the children”
(Thompson 329) Observations such as these slowly
made their way to the British government.
In the 1830s, the British Parliament began
investigating the conditions in factories for children.
One Member of Parliament, Michael Sadler, started a
committee, in 1832, to send investigators out to
factories to interview children and gather evidence
about their working conditions. Sadler sought to pass
a bill through Parliament to decrease child labor and
regulate all factories to have a 10-hour work day. The
transcripts from these investigations survive today as
some of the best primary source evidence of child
labor. Read the following accounts.
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11.3. The Emerging Middle Class People
Gradually, a middle class did emerge in
industrial cities, mostly toward the end of the 19 th
century. Until then, there had been only two major
classes in society: aristocrats born into their lives of
wealth and privilege, and low-income commoners
born in the working classes. The Industrial Revolution
created a new middle class along with the working
class. Those in the middle class owned and operated
the new factories, mines, and railroads, among other
industries. Their lifestyle was much more comfortable
than that of the industrial working class.
When farm families moved to the new industrial
cities, they became workers in mines or factories.
Many felt lost and bewildered. They faced tough
working conditions in uncomfortable environments.
In time, though, factory and mine workers developed
their own sense of community despite the terrible
working conditions.
However new urban industries gradually
required more of what we call today “white collar”
jobs, such as business people, shopkeepers, bank
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clerks, insurance agents, merchants, accountants,
managers, doctors, lawyers, and teachers. [Middle-
class people tended to have monthly or yearly salaries
rather than hourly wages.] One piece of evidence of
this emerging middle class was the rise of retail shops
‫ محالت تجزئة‬in England that increased from 300 shops in
1875 to 2,600 ones by 1890 (Ashton). Another mark of
distinction of the middle class was their ability to hire
servants to cook and clean the house from time to
time. Not surprisingly, from 1851 to 1871, the number
of domestic servants increased from 900,000 to 1.4
million (Ashton). This is proof of a small but rising
middle class that prided themselves on taking
responsibility for themselves and their families. They
viewed professional success as the result of a person’s
energy, perseverance, and hard work.
11.4. More Development in Industry and
Economy
The Industrial Revolution transformed economies
that had been based on agriculture and handicrafts
into economies based on large-scale industry,
mechanized manufacturing, and the factory system.
New machines, new power sources, and new ways of
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organizing work made existing industries more
productive and efficient.
The Industrial Revolution shifted from an agrarian
economy to a manufacturing economy where products
were no longer made solely by hand but by machines.
This led to increased production and efficiency, lower
prices, more goods, improved wages, and migration
from rural areas to urban areas.
The idea of economic progress became a permanent
theme in European thought, spreading all around the
world. So in our own time, the very notion of
modernization, a very common theme in the 20th
century, emerges out of this 19th century idea that
economic progress is a fundamental form of progress.
• The invention of steam power, which was used to
power factories and transport and allowed for
deeper mining.
• Improvement of iron making techniques allowing
for vastly higher production levels.
• The textile industry was transformed by new
machines – such as the Spinning Jenny - and
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factories, again allowing for much higher
production at a lower cost.
• Better machine tools allowed for more and better
machines.
• Developments in metallurgy and chemical
production.
• Creation of new and quicker transport networks
thanks to first canals and then railways.
11.5. Social and Cultural Changes
The Industrial Revolution created a great deal of
change in society. One major change was the shift
from work being done at home by hand in cottage
industries to work being done in factories.
• Labor Unions and Reforms
During the 1800s, working people began to demand
reforms. Workers joined together in voluntary labor
associations called unions. A union represented
workers in a particular trade. Unions engaged in
collective bargaining as well as negotiations between
workers and their employers. Unions would ask for
better working conditions, fewer hours, and higher
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pay. One of the greatest tools of labor unions was
worker-organized strikes, refusing to work if
demands were not met. Unions also lobbied for laws
to improve the lives of workers, including women and
children.
The Industrial Revolution had many positive effects.
Among those was an increase in wealth, the
production of goods, and the standard of living.
People had access to healthier diets, better housing,
and cheaper goods. In addition, education increased
during the Industrial Revolution.
• Changes for Women
The Industrial Revolution marked a dramatic change
for women as many of them entered the work force for
the first time. Women had to compete with men for
jobs. Female factory workers often made only one-
third as much as men. Women began leading reforms
to change this. As women became more involved in
politics, some began to demand suffrage, the right to
vote. By 1918, Great Britain granted women over 30
the right to vote.
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This social change in the organization of agriculture
was accompanied by new kinds of technology,
fertilizers and machinery; all of which enabled fewer
people to produce more food. This of course is the
basic pattern of modern agriculture, in all modern
societies.
The English economists became influential more
generally in European intellectual life. They were
somewhat like the German philosophers, since by the
early 19th century, people looked to Germany for the
most advanced philosophy, while at the same time
they looked to England for the most advanced
economic theorists.
The term socialism actually began to emerge and
became common by the 1830s. Some early socialists
were like the Romantics in attacking industry itself;
there were some socialists who dreamed of something
like pre-industrial, agrarian communes, a kind of
back-to-the-earth ideal. Yet most socialists argued
that industrialization itself was not the problem; the
problems emerged in the specific economic system
that was developing the new industries—the capitalist
market system.
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Yet the Socialists rejected doctrines that said
competition was the most “natural” form of human
behavior, as well as the private ownership of property
bringing the best to the most people. So Socialists
sought to develop plans that stressed cooperation over
competition. They believed that cooperation would
bring more benefits to the whole society, to the
majority of people.
11.6. The Influence of the Industrial
Revolution on Culture and Civilization
Industrial Revolution altered cultural norms and
values, as well. While in earlier times, it would be
unusual for an individual to travel much beyond the
county or state of his birth, with the appearance of
new forms of transportation technologies ̶ railroads,
steam ships, automobiles and airplanes ̶ whole new
horizons of travel, cultural exchange, and commerce
appeared. So, too, improvements in communications
technologies, from the early telegraph to the telephone
to radio and television and computers, have greatly
expanded the system of information sources accessible
to ordinary people, and have allowed huge
improvements in the coordination of very large
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organizations scattered over the entire face of the
globe.
Rapid improvements in transportation, warehousing,
shipping, and in record-keeping and bookkeeping led
to giant department store chains, supermarkets, and,
in the later years of this century, the flourishing
electronic catalogue market, all aimed at moving
goods as rapidly and efficiently from stores to
consumers. A great deal of what it means to be
modern ̶ both good and bad ̶ derives from the
Industrial Revolution and the technologies it
produced.
11.7. The Emergence of Romantic Movement
The Romantic poets and philosophers
complained that new industries and the cities that
grew up around them, were defacing nature; that
industry destroyed natural beauty. The Romantics
often stressed the spiritual elements of nature, as
we've seen earlier, but industrialization simply used
nature as a source of raw materials and created ugly
cities. It defaced the landscape, it took down trees, it
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covered over fields, and it seemed to be defacing the
beauty of the natural world.
Many of the Romantics said that such new
industrial cities, caused misery for people, as well as
problems for nature; and all of this was somehow
"unnatural." Recall an important theme of Romantic
thought was to celebrate the value and beauty of
nature.
So Romantic poets such as Shelley, a very
important critic of industrialization, condemned the
unnatural aspects of industry, which harmed nature,
but also harmed the workers as well. In fact, Shelley
could see nothing "natural" in the new industrial
system, and he wrote bitter poems about it. He was
one of the most socially and politically conscious
poetic leaders in the Romantic Movement. His poem
called "Song to the Men of England" later became a
kind of a socialist lyric. It reminds workers that they
are not benefiting from their own labour.
11.8. The Emergence of Modernity
It is worth noticing that there is no consensus
about where “modernity” starts. Some of the scholars
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argue that modernity is a change in consciousness
(here come the imaginary and representations again!),
in particular consciousness of time. Modernization
began in Europe, with the Industrial Revolution, the
French Revolution and the Revolutions of 1848 and
has long been regarded as reaching its most advanced
stage in Europe.
The shift toward modernity took place between
the 16th and 18th centuries, and it originated in the
countries of northwestern Europe—especially
England, the Netherlands, northern France, and
northern Germany. The whole emergence of
modernity takes place in a number of ways in the 50-
year period between 1780-1830/40. The political
revolution, the French Revolution, the Industrial
Revolution, the philosophical revolution, the
revolution in culture and Romanticism, all of these
things came together in various ways, to create what
we now call the modern world. Well, the Industrial
Revolution changed the social and economic relations
between people, very much as the French Revolution
had altered such relations.
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During the Industrial revolution workers became
more productive due to the fact that they had
advanced technology. The Industrial Revolution
changed the way many products including cloth and
textiles, were manufactured.
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Chapter Four
Romanticism
An Intellectual, Cultural and
Artistic Movement (1800- 1850)
1. Cultural History of Romanticism
The early period of the Romantic era was a time
of war, with the French Revolution (1789–1799)
followed by the Napoleonic Wars until 1815. These
wars, along with the political and social turmoil that
went along with them, served as the background for
Romanticism.
Historically, the Romantic era is sometimes
called “The Age of Revolution” from the French
Revolution (1789-99) and the American Revolution
(1775-83), the Haitian Revolution (1791-1804). The
Romantic period coincided with revolutionary
transformations of traditional political and human
rights discourses, as well as witnessing rapid advances
in technology and a primitivist return to nature.
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Historically, it is traditional to regard Romanticism as
a reaction against the Enlightenment or Age of
Reason. The Romantic Movement began in Europe,
particularly Germany, but became an international
movement and style dominant throughout Europe, in
Russia, the Americas, and beyond.
The Romantic “Age of Revolution” may also
refer to profound social and cultural changes that
radically transformed everyday life — urbanization,
early industrialization, movements for equality,
expanding markets and wealth for increasing
numbers of people following the Enlightenment’s
institutionalization of constitutional government, free
market economics, and advances in science, medicine,
hygiene and nutrition.
2. What is Romanticism?
• Romanticism was an artistic, intellectual, ideological and
cultural movement
Romanticism was an artistic, intellectual and

cultural movement which took place in Europe
between the late eighteenth and mid-nineteenth
centuries. Romanticism is a philosophy that focuses on
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the individual, the individual’s rights, imagination,
and emotions, and the value of nature. Understood
broadly as a break from the guiding principles of the
Enlightenment – which established reason as the
foundation of all knowledge – the Romantic
Movement emphasized the importance of emotional
sensitivity and individual subjectivity.
Romanticism is an artistic and ideological
movement in literature, art, and music and a world
view which arose toward the end of the 18 th century
in Germany, England, and France. In the
beginning of the 19 th century it spread to Russia,
Poland, and Austria, and in the mid-19th century
it encompassed other countries of Europe as well
as North and South America. Romanticism
appeared after the French Revolution in an
environment of growing absolutism at the turn of
the 19th century.
Romanticism can be seen as a rejection of the principles of
order, calm, harmony, balance, idealization, and rationality
The term ‘Romanticism’ was coined in the 1840s,

in England, but the movement had been around since
the late 18th century, primarily in Literature and Arts.
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- 169 -
Romanticism is an attitude or intellectual orientation
that characterized many works of literature, painting,
music, architecture, criticism, and historiography in
Western civilization over a period from the late 18th to
the mid-19th century. Romanticism can be seen as a
rejection of the principles of order, calm, harmony,
balance, idealization, and rationality that typified
Classicism in general and late 18th-century
Neoclassicism in particular. It was also to some extent
a reaction against the Enlightenment and against 18th-
century rationalism and physical materialism in
general. Romanticism emphasized the individual, the
subjective, the irrational, the imaginative, the
personal, the spontaneous, the emotional, the
visionary, and the transcendental.
• Romanticism was a Reaction against the Rationality of the
Enlightenment - the Romanticists see that Reason cannot
explain everything
Romanticism was a reaction against the

rationalism of the Enlightenment and the artificial
forms, theories, and principles of classicism and, at
times, sentimentalism. The basic idea in
Romanticism is that reason cannot explain
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- 170 -
everything. For the Romantics, imagination, rather
than reason, was the most important creative faculty.
The artists emphasized that sense and emotions - not
simply reason and order - were equally important
means of understanding and experiencing the world.
In reaction to the followers of rationality of the
Enlightenment, Romantics searched for deeper,
often subconscious appeals. This led the Romantics
to view things with a different view than the
Enlightenment thinkers. For example, the
Enlightenment thinkers condemned the Middle Ages
as “Dark Ages”, a period of ignorance and
irrationality. The Romantics, on the other hand,
idealized the Middle Ages as a time of spiritual depth
and adventure.
Romanticism in English literature started in the late
eighteenth century
Romanticism in English literature started in the

late eighteenth century, with the poets William
Blake, William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor
Coleridge. It continued into the nineteenth century
with the second generation Romantic poets, most
notably Percy Bysshe Shelley, John Keats and Lord
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Byron. In contrast to the reasoned detachment of the
Enlightenment, the poetic works of the Romantic
poets Blake, Wordsworth and Coleridge were
characterized by their emotional sensitivity and
reverence for nature. Romanticism in English
literature began in the 1790s with the publication of
the Lyrical Ballads of William Wordsworth and
Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Wordsworth’s “Preface”
to the second edition (1800) of Lyrical Ballads, in
which he described poetry as “the spontaneous
overflow of powerful feelings,” became the manifesto
of the English Romantic movement in poetry.
• Romanticism spread throughout Europe
At the end of the 18th century and well into the

19th, Romanticism quickly spread throughout Europe
and the United States to challenge the rational ideal
held so tightly during the Enlightenment.
Romanticism developed in Europe in response to the
Industrial revolution and the disillusionment of the
Enlightenment values of reason. Romanticism spread
throughout Europe and developed as an artistic,
literary and intellectual movement that embraced
various arts such as literature, painting, music and
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history. Romanticism was also expressed in
architecture through the imitation of older
architectural styles. In Germany and England the
medieval Gothic architecture was also influenced by
the fantasy and style of the movement and this
renewed interest led to the Gothic Revival.
• The Voices of Romanticists were in all genres, including
literature, music, art, and architecture
Romanticist practitioners found their voices

across all genres, including literature, music, art, and
architecture. Reacting against the sober style of
Neoclassicism preferred by most countries'
academies, the far reaching international movement
valued originality, inspiration, and imagination, thus
promoting a variety of styles within the movement.
Additionally, in an effort to stem the tide of increasing
industrialization, many of the Romanticists
emphasized the individual's connection to nature and
an idealized past.
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3. Key Ideas and Themes of Romanticism
3.1. An Emphasis on Imagination
During Romanticism the imagination was
elevated to a position as the supreme faculty of the
mind. Imagination acts as a source of creativity, and
allows us to see what is not immediately apparent. The
Romantics believed that we could discover the
imagination in nature, which often resulted in a
harmony of the two. This contrasted distinctly with the
traditional arguments for the supremacy of reason.
The Romantics wanted to bring imagination more
fully back into art, because they recognized it as part
of lived experience. The Romantics tended to define
and to present the imagination as man’s ultimate
“shaping” or creative power, the approximate human
equivalent of the creative powers of nature or even
deity. It is dynamic, an active, rather than passive
power, with many functions. Imagination is the
primary faculty for creating all art. On a broader
scale, it is also the faculty that helps humans to
constitute reality, for (as Wordsworth suggested), we
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not only perceive the world around us, but also in part
create it.
The Romantics believed that man’s highest, most
spiritual attribute was his imagination. For the
Romantics, it is through the imagination that man can
access not only his most creative thoughts, but also his
connection to the divine. Poetry and other literature
of the time encouraged the reader to use the words as
a way to access his own imaginative faculties, thereby
connecting with his own personal sense of the divine.
Imagination is one of the most prominent aspects of
Romantic poetry. Wordsworth defines imagination as
“the means of deep insight and sympathy, the power
to conceive and express images removed from normal
objective reality”. Imagination is a way of seeing the
world through a different lens. Artists and musicians
of the Romantic period also used the visual and aural
aspects of their works as an inducement to the viewer
or listener to access his personal imaginative powers.
3.2. Reverence for Nature

For the romantic writers, Nature was a healing power,
Nature was a source of subject and image, Nature was
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a refuge from the artificial constructs of civilization.
Romantic artists depicted nature to be not only
beautiful, but powerful, unpredictable and
destructive. This constituted a radical departure from
Enlightenment representations of the natural world as
orderly, nice, friendly, pleasant and beneficial.
According to the romantics, the solution was “back to
nature” because nature was seen as pure and a
spiritual source of renewal. It was also a way out of
the fumes of the growing industrial centres for the new
industrial rich.
There was an almost religious response to nature. The
Romantics were concerned that Nature should not
just be seen scientifically but as a living force made by
Allah the Creator. Nature is the expression of God in
the universe. Much of their poetry celebrated the
beauty of nature, or protested the ugliness of the
growing industrialization of the century: the
machines, factories, slum conditions, pollution and so
on. Nature became a main source of inspiration, a
stimulus to thought, a source of conform and joy and
a means to convey moral truths. Romantics relied on
nature mainly because for them, nature was their
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teacher, their guide, their source of inspiration and
their mother while nature for 18th century poets stood
for normal reality or universal law. Nature is a
dominant theme in Romantic poetry, understood to
represent the divine presence in the world and a
source of beauty, innocence, and solace to humankind.
The new romantic taste favored (relative) simplicity
and naturalness; and these were thought to flow most
clearly and abundantly from the “spontaneous”
outpourings of untutored rural people—or from the
meditative reveries of poets. For the romantic writers,
nature was imbued with the divine. Every day natural
elements such as flowers, stones, sunlight and the
weather were described as though they carried a bit
of God within them. In keeping with the move away
from rational thinking towards reliance upon the
imagination, Romanticism encouraged a view of
nature that encouraged artists of the time to use their
own subjective perception when rendering the sights
and sounds they found in the natural world.
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A burning Castel and Romantic Natural Landscape
A Painting by Nicolas Poussin
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3.3. Focus on Individuality and Subjectivity
Romanticism embraced individuality and
subjectivity to oppose or defeat the excessive
insistence on logical thought. During Romantic
period, the individual became the focus of
Romanticism, and was valued over society. Romantic
writers were optimists who believed in the ability for
humanity and the individual to achieve progress and
social reform. Artists began exploring various
emotional and psychological states as well as moods.
Artists became preoccupied with articulating the
personal experiences they become, in turn, a
representative one. The idea of man’s natural goodness
and the stress on emotion also contributed to the
development of Romantic individualism; they believed
that what is special in a man is to be valued over what
is representative (the latter is often connected with the
conventions imposed on man by civilized society).
The Romantic Movement focuses on the
individuality of the artist’s expression, a personal
relationship with nature, and a trust in emotion and
subjective experience. The Romantics asserted the
importance of the individual, the unique, even the
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eccentric. All romantic literature is subjective. It is an
expression of the inner urges of the soul of the artist.
The poet gives free expression to his feelings,
emotions, experiences, thoughts and ideas and does
not care for rules and regulations. The emphasis is
laid on inspiration and intuition.
The preoccupation with the hero and the genius
translated to new views of the artist as a brilliant
creator who was unburdened by academic dictate and
tastes. As the French poet Charles Baudelaire
described it, “Romanticism is precisely situated
neither in choice of subject nor in exact truth, but in a
way of feeling.” Romanticism emphasized the
individual, the subjective, the irrational, the
imaginative, the personal, the spontaneous, the
emotional, the visionary, and the transcendental.
3.4. Veneration of Self

The Romantics delighted in self-analysis. The
Romantic Movement in literature was a shift in
writing from an imitation of life to a reflection on the
self. For the Romantics, self-realization was the point
of life. For Romantics there was a turning in upon the
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self and a heightened examination of human
personality and its moods and mental potentialities; a
preoccupation with the genius, the hero, and the
exceptional figure in general, and a focus on his
passions and inner struggles.
The Romantic self therefore in its primal state is
a kind of seed: it was thought of as destined for
development, a process which it would launch under
its own initiative, as it were. The principles of the seed-
self were put to use again and again by Romantic
thinkers. The drive to development comes
from within. As Charles Taylor puts it, for Herder,
realizing the human self involves 'an inner force
imposing itself on external reality'
(Taylor, Hegel, Cambridge, 1975, 15). “The development of
the forces of our soul is the purpose of our existence
on earth”, Herder says.
Romantics venerated self-directed action and
stepping to the beat of one’s personal drummer. The
Romantic human ideal was the artist, creator or
thinker who took a stand for personal opinion and
belief at the risk of social ostracism. For Romantics,
the needs of the one outweigh the needs of the many.
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The notions of self-esteem and self-expression,
revered today as two of our most valuable human
birthrights, are handed down to us from the ideals of
the Romantic period. Romantics saw the human being
as born pure and divine -- a direct contrast to the
"born in sin" concept of many previous Christian
teachings.
3.5. Interest in Gothicism

(Neo- Gothicism in Romanticism)
The term ‘Gothic’ actually traces its origin in the
medieval architecture created by the Goths, a North
Germanic tribe of the Middle Ages. Gothicism means
the use or imitation of Gothic style, as in architecture
or a barbarous or crude manner or style.
The Gothic Architecture was dark, intricate, and
dismal in its appearance. The gothic style of
architecture originated in Europe’s Middle Ages. It is
characterized by vertical proportions, pointed arches,
external buttressing, and asymmetry. The medieval
Gothic style was re-imagined as the neo-Gothic, a
blending of medieval and modern designs that focused
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on the use of ornate spires and towers to create
complex, strong structures.
Romanticism’s Gothic Revival or Neo-Gothic style of
architecture developed and was most prominent in
England and France in the 18th through the 19 th
centuries. This style reflected the public's growing
desire for buildings inspired by and reminiscent of
medieval design. Interest in medieval architecture,
especially in England and France, was rooted in the
growing romantic literature of the 18th and 19th
centuries with their tales of heroism, nobility,
strength, freedom, and nationalism, including the
writings of Sir Walter Scott and Victor Hugo. The
depictions of landscapes with fanciful medieval ruins
further popularized the Gothic Revival architecture,
especially as citizens faced with soot-filled air and long
working hours in the industrializing cities of England
and France.
Gothicism in literature (Gothic fiction or Gothic
literature) is a style of writing characterized by
gloomy settings, grotesque action, supernatural
elements, romance and exoticism. The term Gothic
fiction refers to a style of writing that is characterized
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by elements of fear, horror, death, and gloom, as well
as romantic elements, such as nature, individuality,
and very high emotion. These emotions can include
fear and suspense.
Gothicism basically emerged as the subgenre of
Romanticism in 18th century’s England. The Gothic
writers mostly fabricate their narratives using
elements like horror, mystery, suspense, romance,
decay and degeneration. They use these Gothic
elements to tackle serious issues that require much
attention. For instance, social injustice, corruption,
the class system, gender norms, racism, and more.
Gothic fiction actually emerged as a subgenre of
Romanticism which was a reaction to the formal form
of the Enlightenment, a European intellectual
movement. The Romantics focused on the beauty of
nature, subjectivity, individualism, and the sublime.
Though Gothicism shared many features of
Romanticism, it mainly focused on the darker side of
humanity and its preoccupation with sin and evil.
As opposed to the Enlightenment that emphasized
reason and science over superstition and blind faith,
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the Gothic writers intended to thrill feelings and
emotions among the readers. They mainly focused on
human fallibility, the psychological effects of guilt and
sin, self-destruction, punishment, and judgement.
The most famous Gothic writers of the era were Horace
Walpole, Ann Radcliffe, Matthew Lewis, Mary Shelley,
Charles Robert Maturin, William Beckford, Edgar Allan
Poe, Bram Stoker, Robert Louis Stevenson and others.
Coleridge’s poetry frequently takes a Gothic turn, as, for
example, in the Rime of the Ancient Mariner and Christabel.
Neo-Gothic Architecture
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Neo-Gothic designation of “post office” 1898
Ghent / Belgium
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Neo-Gothic Manchester Town Hall
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3.6. Privileging Emotion over Reason
Emotionalism in Romanticism is valued because it
pushes forward the importance of individualism and
bringing society together on account of personal,
however, still shared opinions, judgments, mind states,
and views. Romanticism emphasized intense emotions
and feelings over reason and logic. Romantics were
obsessed with viewing things and situations with their
hearts rather than their minds.
The Romanticists were united by their determination
to use their art to convey emotion or provoke an
emotional response from audiences. A focus on
emotion is a key characteristic of nearly all writings of
the Romantic period. When you read work of this
period, you’ll see feelings described in all forms,
including romantic and filial love, fear, sorrow,
loneliness, and more. This focus on emotion offered a
counterpoint to the rational, and it also made
Romantic poetry and prose extremely readable and
relatable. By privileging emotion over reason,
Romantic poets cultivated physical and emotional
passion, individualism, idealism, reverence for nature,
and an interest in the supernatural.
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Romanticism focused on strong emotion as a source of
aesthetic experience, placing emphasis on such
emotions as trepidation, horror, and the awe
experienced in confronting the sublimity of nature.
The romantics believed that using emotion over
reason was the more valiant choice. They presented
this idea throughout the period in many of the works
of the time. One of the main characteristic attitudes of
the Romanticism period is the use of emotion over
reason in daily life. This is in part because of the
extreme opposition that the people of this time period
had to the Enlightenment attitudes. The writers of the
Enlightenment believed that all knowledge was
attainable through human reason.
As a reaction to the strict formality and cool
rationality of Enlightenment era emotion became the
subject of Romantic period art of all kinds. It is this
sometimes-sentimental feature of Romantic poetry
that is most foreign to modern tastes. Its tendency to
wallow in sorrow, to emphasize longing, and position
its narrators as occupying places of lonely alienation
occasionally crosses the line into the mawkish and
melodramatic. Romantic poetry and novels are
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characterized by sentimentality and characters in
thrall to powerful emotions and in search of sublime
experiences. A new form of poetry stressing on
intuition over reason was actively being created.
Proponents of this kind of poetry preferred the
pastoral over the urban life. Efforts were made to use
more colloquial language by repeatedly eschewing
consciously poetic language.
3.7. Focus on Exoticism

The word ‘exotic’ is rooted in the Greek word exo
(‘outside’) and means, literally, “from outside”.
Exoticism is a trend in European art and design,
whereby artists became fascinated with ideas and
styles from distant regions and drew inspiration from
them. Exoticism is concerned with the perception and
description of difference, or ‘otherness’. Exoticism, by
one definition, is “the charm of the unfamiliar”.
Scholar Alden Jones defines exoticism in art and
literature as the representation of one culture for
consumption by another (Alden Jones. “This is Not a
Cruise”. The Smart Set, August 6, 2007).
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During Romanticism there was a great interest in the
picturesque and exotic aspects of the past. Generally
speaking, Exoticism is a term that denotes a quality of
something/someone being unusual and exciting
because it/they come from, or seems to be from, a
faraway place. In earlier usage of the term,
“exoticism” and “exotic” referred to an inherent
quality or status of the non-Western other. More
recently, exoticism has been understood to require an
imaginative act of representing, perceiving, and
classifying on the part of the beholder. In this sense,
“exoticism” is most properly considered in its
predicate form: to exoticize, both through acts of
representation and perception. Exoticism (in culture)
describes a cultural phenomenon that projects
Western fantasies about profound cultural
differences. It adopts a cultural perspective that is
firmly entrenched in the conventions and belief
systems of Western civilization and therefore
constructs the East as the archetypical location of
otherness. Exoticism (in literature) is considered a
form of representation in which peoples, places, and
cultural practices are depicted as foreign from the
perspective of the composer and/or intended
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audience. Exoticism (in music) is the evocation of a
culture different from that of the composer. It occurs
anytime a composer tries to conjure up the music of a
country not his own. Exoticism became a concept in
the Romantic period that was clearly expressed in
works of Romantic-era music by directly using
structural features and melodic details of Eastern-
influenced folk music.
A further means by which the Romantics distanced
themselves from the emphatic empiricism of the
Enlightenment, was to imagine parallel worlds and
times through which to contemplate new ways of
approaching relationships, religion, and politics. The
Romantics often symbolized alternative modes of
living and thinking—as well as the authenticity and
naturalness of those living in pre-civilized states—
with images of foreign places. We see Spain, Italy, and
particularly the Near East and northern Africa as the
setting for a number of poems and novels of the
period.
Emphasis was placed on the exoticism of these places,
often through the use of endlessly repeated
stereotypes of the presumed decadence and
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strangeness of Africans and Arabs or the supposedly
relaxed, colorful, and sensual living of southern
Europeans. But the Romantic age was also a period
in which Europeans traveled more than ever to
examine at first hand the far-off lands of which they
had read. Several of the major Romantic poets
traveled extensively throughout Continental Europe
and lived abroad for extended periods.
3.8. The Primacy of Aesthetics and

Emphasis on beauty
Early and late, German, British and French romantics
advocated what may legitimately be called “the
primacy of the aesthetic”. Friedrich Schlegel, one of
the leading figures in Early German Romanticism,
put this idea in a few memorable phrases: “The
Romantic imperative demands [that] all nature and
science should become art [and] art should become
nature and science”; “poetry and philosophy should
be united” (“19th Century Romantic Aesthetics” in Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy).
The British romantics have taken up and developed

this view that the aesthetic is the foundation of
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knowledge and the pursuit of truth. Keats famously
declared in the Ode on a Grecian Urn ([1820]:
“Beauty is truth, truth beauty,’—that is all
Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know”,
Many of the core features of romantic aesthetics are
the relation between beauty, truth and goodness, the
pursuit of unity among variety and the significance of
the imagination and the sublime. The romantic
elevation of aesthetic feeling and the creative
imagination did not come at the price of their faith in
and respect for reason. Similarly, the British and
French romantics did not mean to dismiss reason and
replace it with passion and imagination, but strived
after “a conjunction of reason and passion”
(Wordsworth, “Essays on Epitaphs 1810” in The Prose Works of
William Wordsworth, ed. W. J. B. Owen and J. W. Smyser, Oxford:
Clarendon, 1974).
Romantic literature also explores the theme of

aesthetic beauty, not just of nature but of people as
well. This was especially true with descriptions of
female beauty. Writers praised women of the
Romantic era for their natural loveliness, rather than
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anything artificial or constrained. Lord Byron wrote
a poem about beauty:
She walks in beauty, like the night
Of cloudless climes and starry skies;
And all that’s best of dark and bright
Meet in her aspect and her eyes;
Thus mellowed to that tender light
Which heaven to gaudy day denies.
3.9. Theme of Solitude, Isolation and
Melancholy
Writers of the Romantic era believed that creative
inspiration came from solitary exploration. They
celebrated the feeling of being alone, whether that
meant loneliness or a much-needed quiet space to
think and create. Isolation was necessary for spiritual
and artistic development. Isolation and its
accompanying melancholy played a key role in the
experiences of romantic characters and, often, their
authors. This loneliness and estrangement from the
rest of humanity gives the character a way to express
the uniqueness of their experiences and thoughts.
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There are many solitary themes in many literary
works from this period. John Clare, often called the
quintessential romantic poet, wrote about the beauty
of isolation and nature on the farm where he spent his
life in the poem “I Am!”:
I am—yet what I am none cares or knows;
My friends forsake me like a memory lost:
I am the self-consumer of my woes—
They rise and vanish in oblivious host,
Like shadows in love’s frenzied stifled throes
And yet I am, and live…
Clare characterizes himself as a long-forgotten entity
who receives no regard except from himself. As such,
it’s almost as though he doesn’t even exist—his
emotions dissipating to nothing for no one is there to
experience them.
For the Romantics, the most urgent issue facing the
self — especially with the demise of faith — is Death.
To resolve the stark meaning of Death’s presence was
far more pressing than the empirical status of
scientific or technological objects. This requires
isolation and meditation. Keats writes:
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“When I have fears that I may cease to be
When I behold, upon the night’s starr’d face”
and
“My spirit is too weak — mortality
weighs heavily on me like unwilling sleep”
The perception of Death is the beginning of solitude.
Solitude is the renunciation of what is now perceived
as impermanent and injurious. Solitude is the true
condition of each consciousness, each individual.
3.10. Celebration of the Simple Pastoral

Life
Interest in the Rustic/Pastoral Life.
The Pastoral illustrates the simple way of life. It
serves an escape from the city life. It focuses on a more
peaceful and controlled lifestyle. The Romantic
Pastoral uses nostalgia to indicate a better time away
from the complications of city life. It focuses on the
move away from urban areas to a "simpler" lifestyle
while forgetting the hard work and struggle of people
in rural communities.
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Pastoral poetry is a genre or mode of poetry that
refers to works that idealize country life and the
landscape they take place in. Pastoral poems usually
make use of an idyllic setting, one that is completely,
or almost entirely, removed from society. A pastoral
lifestyle is that of shepherds herding livestock around
open areas of land according to seasons and the
changing availability of water and pasture. Pastoral
literature is class of literature that presents the
society of shepherds as free from the complexity and
corruption of city life.
3.11. Idealization of Women

Much Romantic literature is infused with the concept
of women being perfect innocent beings to be adored,
mourned, and respected—but never touched or relied
upon. In works such as Poe’s The Raven, women were
always presented as idealized love interests, pure and
beautiful, but usually without anything else to offer.
In Edgar Allan Poe’s “The Raven”, the
author delineates a man mourning the death of his
beloved.
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During the Romantic Period, women did not have any
voice on politics issues, were household wives, and had
no voting rights. But, what is the real role of the
women? A woman was treated as a piece of property
and their only jobs was to stay at home and take care
of the house chores and their children.
Many Romantic poets and novelists centered their
narratives on celebrating the purity and beauty of a
woman. Unfortunately, this idealization meant that
the Romantic Movement typically saw women as
objects for male admiration rather than as people
with their own dreams and ambitions. Female writers
such as Jane Austen, Mary Shelley, and the Bronte
sisters had to publish under male pseudonyms
because of these attitudes.
One example of the idealization of women is Edgar

Allan Poe’s poem “Annabel Lee” (1849). Edgar Allan
Poe's 'Annabel Lee' is a poem about the death of a
beautiful and beloved woman. The poem is about a
young man and a young woman who fall in love. Their
love is so pure that angels envy them and kill the
young woman out of spite.
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Chapter Five
Science and Technology
in 19th Century Europe
Introduction
During the 19th century science made great progress.
It has long been a commonsensical notion that the rise
of modern science and the Industrial Revolution were
closely connected. The Industrial Revolution had one
further important effect on the development of
modern science. The prospect of applying science to
the problems of industry served to stimulate public
support for science. If science and technology
contributed to the development of European
civilization, they also facilitated the exploration of the
world and the expansion of territories. The word
“civilization,” introduced into the French and English
languages implies the idea of social, political,
economic progress.
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The 19th century produced scientific and cultural
revolutions
The nineteenth century produced scientific and
cultural revolutions that forever transformed modern
European life. Although these critical developments
are often studied independently, Richard G. Olson's
Science and Scientism in Nineteenth-Century Europe
provides an integrated account of the history of
science and its impact on intellectual and social trends
of the day. Focusing on the natural scientific
foundations underlying liberalism, socialism,
positivism, communism, and social Darwinism, Olson
explores how these movements employed science to
clarify their own understanding of Enlightenment
ideals, as well as their understanding of progress,
religion, industry, imperialism, and racism.
The 19th century witnessed the rise of modern industry
and production of technology
The nineteenth century witnessed the rise of modern

industry. From Western Europe to Britain to North
America agriculture lost its preeminent role in
societal reproduction and yielded to industrial
manufacturing and technology-intensive services like
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railroads, steam navigation, and telecommunication,
to name but a few.
It is important to realize that industry had many more
users than producers of technology. The textile
industry, blast furnace works, gas works, sawmills,
breweries, and dairies all used technology to
transform raw materials into forms that were and are
not recognized to be “technologies.” This is still truer
in the case of service “industries” like railroads and
shipping companies which used complex technology to
transport things and people.
In the late 19th century, a series of scientific
discoveries and technological innovations caused a
transition from a pre-industrial to an industrial
society. This transition caused global transformations,
such as a demographic surge, cultural, economic,
political, and environmental changes.
Using fossil fuels such as coal and oil was pivotal for
technological innovations such as the internal
combustion engine, the electromotor, and jet engines.
Some countries were rich in energy sources.
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1. Mechanizing production and
combustion engines
Technological breakthroughs, such as the steam-
powered spinning mule and combustion engines,
allowed productivity to soar exponentially. Due to the
automation of production, the labour employed in
agricultural and industrial production was lower than
ever before. Combustion engines in particular were
used extensively in agricultural production, powering
tractors and harvesters. Later on, internal
combustion engines allowed the development of cars.
Internal Combustion Engine

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2. The diffusion of Electricity
revolutionized the world
In the late 19th century, the diffusion of electricity
revolutionized the world. Before the employment of
electricity in households, the world was a dark place
from twilight until dawn. Electricity generates light,
motion and heat, powering electric motors and
transportation. At first, steam generators powered
electricity production on a large scale.
The first electricity-generating power plant appeared
in London in 1882. In the drawing below, you can see
the Edison's Electric Lighting Station in New York
that was established in the same year.
3. New Means of Transportation

The late 19th century also brought new means of
transport, faster, more reliable and cheaper than ever
before, starting from trains and ships powered by the
steam engine.
Initially, steamships and steam-powered trains were
the main modes of transport. The arrival of electricity
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had a profound effect on transportation, powering
boats and trains. However, steam-powered ships
remained widely employed for their capacity to
transport heavy cargos. An example is the steam-
powered oil tanker in the picture.
Later on, automobiles and airplanes took the lead in
transportation.
Innovation is a continuous and dynamic process
which is difficult to measure easily and accurately.
4. John Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1766-
1844)
John Dalton is an English chemist, meteorologist and
physicist. Dalton’s atomic theory was a scientific
theory on the nature of matter put forward by the
English physicist and chemist John Dalton in the year
1808. It stated that all matter was made up of small,
indivisible particles known as ‘atoms’.
All substances, according to Dalton’s atomic theory,
are made up of atoms, which are indivisible and
indestructible building units. While an element’s
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atoms were all the same size and mass, various
elements possessed atoms of varying sizes and masses.
Postulates of Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1. All matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles
called atoms.
2. All atoms of a specific element are identical in mass,
size, and other properties. However, atoms of
different element exhibit different properties and
vary in mass and size.
3. Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed.
Furthermore, atoms cannot be divided into smaller
particles.
4. Atoms of different elements can combine with each
other in fixed whole-number ratios in order to form
compounds.
5. Atoms can be rearranged, combined, or separated
in chemical reactions.
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Atomic Theory
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5. Michael Faraday (1791-1867) invented
the Dynamo
The Englishman Michael Faraday (1791-1867)
invented the dynamo. In 1847 the German Hermann
von Helmholtz (1821-1894) formulated the law of the
Conservation of Energy, which states that energy is
never lost but just changes from one form to another.
In 1851 he invented the ophthalmoscope.
Discovery of Benzene and Other Experiments Once
back in England, Faraday developed as an analytical
and practical chemist. As his chemical capabilities
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increased, he was given more responsibility. In 1833
he was appointed to the Fullerian Professorship of
Chemistry—a special research chair created for him.
Among other achievements Faraday liquefied various
gases, including chlorine and carbon dioxide. His
investigation of heating and illuminating oils led to his
discovery of benzene and other hydrocarbons, and he
experimented at length with various steel alloys and
optical glasses.
Faraday’s Dynamo
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Faraday disk, the first electric generator
6. Darwin’s Theory of Evolution (1809–

1882)
Charles Darwin is English naturalist. Darwin at first
shocked religious Victorian society by suggesting that
animals and humans shared a common ancestry.
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Darwin formulated his bold theory in private in 1837–
39, after returning from a voyage around the world.
The theory of evolution by natural selection, first
formulated in Charles Darwin's book "On the Origin
of Species" in 1859, describes how organisms evolve
over generations through the inheritance of physical
or behavioral traits. The theory starts with the
premise that within a population, there is variation in
traits, such as beak shape in one of the Galapagos
finches Darwin studied. Individuals with traits that
allow them to adapt to their environments will help
them survive and have more offspring, which will
inherit those traits. Individuals with less adaptive
traits will less frequently survive to pass them on.
Over time, the traits that allow species to survive and
reproduce will become more frequent in the
population and the population will change, or evolve.
Through natural selection, Darwin suggested, a
diverse life-forms could arise from a common
ancestor.
Darwin chose the term "natural selection" to be in
contrast with "artificial selection," in which animal
breeders select for particular traits that they deem
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desirable. In natural selection, it's the natural
environment, rather than a human being, that does
the selecting.
The theory is sometimes described as "survival of the
fittest," but that characterization can be misleading,
Pobiner said. Here, "fitness" refers not to an
organism's strength or athleticism but rather its
ability to survive and reproduce.
Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection

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7. Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)
Louis Pasteur is a French chemist and microbiologist
who was one of the most important founders of
medical microbiology. Pasteur’s contributions to
science and technology and medicine are nearly
without precedent. He pioneered the study of
molecular asymmetry; discovered that
microorganisms cause fermentation and disease;
originated the process of Pasteurization; saved the
beer, wine, and silk industries in France; and
developed vaccines against anthrax and rabies.
8. James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879)

Theory of Light is an Electromagnetic Wave
James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) is a Scottish
mathematician and physicist. He is regarded as the
greatest theoretical physicist of the 19th century. He
is ranked with Sir Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein
for the fundamental nature of his contributions.
Although he died young, Maxwell not only formulated
a complete electromagnetic theory, represented by
Maxwell’s equations, he also developed the kinetic
theory of gases and made significant contributions to
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the understanding of color vision and the nature of
Saturn’s rings. James Clerk Maxwell synthesized
Faraday’s laws of electromagnetism into a coherent
mathematical theory, confirming Faraday’s intuition
that light consists of electromagnetic waves.
Maxwell’s equations encompass the major laws of
electricity and magnetism. What is not so apparent is
the symmetry that Maxwell introduced in his
mathematical framework. Especially important is his
addition of the hypothesis that changing electric fields
create magnetic fields. This is exactly analogous (and
symmetric) to Faraday’s law of induction and had
been suspected for some time, but fits beautifully into
Maxwell’s equations.
In the late 19th century physics made great strides. In
1873 James Clerk Maxwell showed that light is an
electromagnetic wave. He also predicted there were
other electromagnetic waves with longer and shorter
wavelengths than light. Then in 1888, Heinrich Hertz
(1857-1894) proved the electromagnetic waves
predicted by Maxwell exist.
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Maxwell’s Electromagnetic Theory of Wave
9. Henri Becquerel’s Discovery of

Radioactivity (1852-1908)
Antoine Henri Becquerel got The Nobel Prize in
Physics 1903. Becquerel is a French physicist who
discovered radioactivity in 1896 through his
investigations of uranium and other substances. When
Henri Becquerel investigated the newly discovered X-
rays in 1896, it led to studies of how uranium salts are
affected by light. By accident, he discovered that
uranium salts spontaneously emit a penetrating
radiation that can be registered on a photographic
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plate. Further studies made it clear that this radiation
was something new and not X-ray radiation: he had
discovered a new phenomenon, radioactivity.
The discovery of radioactivity by French physicist
Henri Becquerel in 1896 forced scientists to radically
change their ideas about atomic structure.
Radioactivity demonstrated that the atom was neither
indivisible nor immutable. Instead of serving merely
as an inert matrix for electrons, the atom could change
form and emit an enormous amount of energy.
Furthermore, radioactivity itself became an
important tool for revealing the interior of the atom.
Henri Becquerel Atomic Theory

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10. Revolutionizing Railways and Cars
In the mid-19th century travel was revolutionized by
railways. They made travel much faster. (They also
removed the danger of highwaymen). The
development of the railways, starting in the 1830s,
transformed the economy and society by creating
powerful railway companies, attracting massive
investments, advancing industries, transforming
human migration patterns, and even changing
people’s daily diet. Railway expansion at this time was
rapid. Between 1826 and 1836, 378 miles of track had
opened. Railways allowed people to travel further,
more quickly. This allowed leisure travel, and
contributed to the growth of seaside resorts. It also
allowed people to live further from their places of
work, as the phenomenon of commuting took hold.
Railways even contributed to the growth of cities, by
allowing the cheap transport of food, as well as bricks,
slate and other building materials.
The Stockton and Darlington railway opened in 1825.
However, the first major railway was from Liverpool
to Manchester. It opened in 1830. In the 1840s there
was a huge boom in building railways and most towns
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in Britain were connected. The first underground
railway in Britain was built in London in 1863. Steam
locomotives pulled the carriages. The first electric
underground trains began running in London in 1890.
Karl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler made the first cars in
1885 and 1886.
Mercedes Benz Automobile 1894

Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft laid the foundations of
constructing a racing car that was commissioned by
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Emil Jellinek and named after Jellinek’s daughter
Mercedes.
Railway technology of Europe in the 19th
century
The routing of railway lines was significantly impacted by a
strongly developed inland navigation. The first railway line
in the present-day territory of Poland, and more precisely its
section between Wrocław and Oława, was opened on 22 May
1842 at 6.00 AM.
A two-cylinder German steam locomotive - 1895

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11. Discovery of Anesthetics
During the 19th century medicine made great
advances. During the 19th century, surgery was
greatly improved by the discovery of Anesthetics. Up
until the mid-1800s, however, surgeons could not offer
patients much more than opium, alcohol or a bullet to
bite on to deal with the agonizing pain of surgery.
Britain’s Daily Mail describes medicine during the
U.S. Civil War as a grisly ordeal. Medicine was still
primitive during the Civil War (1861- 1865), but in the
1840s and 1850s, American doctors were working
hard to develop anesthesia. It was there, on Oct. 16,
1846, that a dentist named William T. G. Morton
administered an effective anesthetic to a surgical
patient. On October 16, 1846, Boston dentist William
T.G. Morton used sulfuric ether to anesthetize a man
who needed surgery to remove a vascular tumor from
his neck.
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Chapter Six
European Liberalism
in the 19th Century
1. What is Liberalism?
Liberalism refers to a broad group of related
ideas and theories of government that consider
individual liberty to be the most important political
goal. Modern liberalism has its roots in the Age of
Enlightenment.
Broadly speaking, liberalism emphasizes
individual rights and equality of opportunity.
Different forms of liberalism may propose very
different policies, but they are generally united by
their support for a number of principles, including
extensive freedom of thought and speech, limitations
on the power of governments, the rule of law, the free
exchange of ideas, a market or mixed economy, and a
transparent system of government. All liberals — as
well as some adherents of other political ideologies —
support some variant of the form of government
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known as liberal democracy, with open and fair
elections, where all citizens have equal rights by law.
2. Liberalism as a Political Viewpoint

Liberalism is a 19th century political viewpoint
associated with strong support for a broad
interpretation of civil liberties for freedom of
expression and religious toleration, for widespread
popular participation in the political process, and for
the repeal of protectionist legal restrictions inhibiting
the operation of a capitalist free market economy.
In Europe, the term liberalism is still used more
in its 19th century sense, and European liberals are
rather more respectful of the values of the free market
than their American namesakes, whose views
sometimes more closely resemble those of Europeans
styling themselves as social democrats.
3. Forms of Liberalism
3.1. Classical Liberalism
Classical Liberalism is just one of the Liberal
variants of greater importance. Understanding all
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variants can be time-consuming, but it is worth the
time. While analysis could involve any of the several
versions, it is best to stick to the three major ones. In
addition to Classical, these include Reform Liberalism
and Neo-Liberalism.
• Liberal Views of Classical Liberalism
This form of Liberalism has a lot of the common
characteristics of core Liberal Ideology. This is
because it was the first variant within the Liberal
thought progression. It places a lot of emphasis on the
free marketplace and Government. It believes that the
Government should be limited in its capabilities and
power. This way, the Government will not be able to
take away fundamental, individual human rights that
Liberals believe in so vigorously.
Further, the Government should protect those
rights at all times. Classical Liberals call for the
immediate removal of a Government that fails to
protect those rights, and if those in power refuse to
resign, force may be employed.
In terms of the economy, Classical Liberals
praise the laissez-faire system. In this economic
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system, the Government has no influence over any
aspect of the market which allows customers,
workers, and businessmen within society to trade and
do business with one another without a Government
constantly interfering. Classical Liberals also believe
that economic freedom is a key and crucial part of
human and individual freedom. It allows all
individuals to freely produce goods, sell any labour
hours, trade with other businesses, and own property.
For Classical Liberalism, the Government is
there to protect this freedom by ensuring property is
not stolen or damaged, fraud is not committed, and
handling any economic arguments that arise in an
objective manner.
3.2. Social Liberalism

This variant of Liberalism can also be referred to
as Modern Liberalism, Welfare Liberalism, or Social
Liberalism. Due to the long and extensive hours that
so many people worked during the nineteenth
century, Liberals had to rethink their approach to
Government intervention in economic activities.
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Reform Liberalism, or Social Liberalism,
acknowledges the fact that sometimes a Government
has to be involved in the economy and take certain
actions in an attempt to remove the obstacles that stop
individuals from experiencing true freedom.
Therefore, Reform Liberals call for the Government
to deal with such issues and fight:
• Extended Work Periods
• Environmental Damage
• Poverty
• Poor Health
Reform Liberals believe that the Government

can help all individuals obtain freedom in their life
and allow individuals to develop on a personal level.
They want the Government to improve worker’s
health, the quality of the city, and ensure all citizens
within the city have proper housing.
Those who believe in this variant of Liberalism
are often called Welfare Liberals because they want to
provide a high-standard of living for all individuals
with programs to assist them. Some of these programs
include contemporary services within society like
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public education, unemployment insurance, health
care, and pensions. Essentially, the Government
should use its power to make sure the economy runs
in an efficient manner and that the unemployment
rate is low.
Reform Liberals would also like some aspects of
business regulated to ensure massive corporations do
not buy other, small businesses through hostile
takeovers. At the very center of Reform Liberalism is
the desire to extend the Classical Liberalist view of
equal rights to include equal opportunities.
3.3. Economic Liberalism

In the economic sphere, liberalism in its
nineteenth century form, advocated non-interference
in the economic activities of individuals by
government. This is best expressed in The Wealth of
Nations by Adam Smith, first published in 1776. As
such, it represents a fundamental reversal of the ideas
of mercantilism which previously prevailed. Whereas
mercantilism involved intervention by government
through the imposition of tariffs and other regulations
of trade, Adam Smith advocated free trade. There
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were also a number of French philosophers who
argued a similar non-intervention by government in
economic affairs. The term "laissez faire" is derived
from their writings.
Economic liberalism, however, is generally no
longer included in the concept of liberalism. The idea
that government should not regulate economic
activities has come under severe criticism within
liberal circles ever since the great depression of the
1930's. That economic crisis demonstrated that the
government needed to play a prominent role in the
economy in order to prevent the worst consequences
of the business cycle. Governments in the developed
industrial world have been trying to find the optimum
balance between private enterprise and government
involvement ever since. And ideology has been of no
help in seeking that balance. Rather, practical
experimentation seems to be the only way to find an
approximation of the balance. Furthermore, it is a
moving target because the circumstances continue to
change. For example, as population growth and
related environmental crises occur, there is an
increasing need for governmental involvement.
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In other words, power based on wealth, which
has a profound influence upon the exercise of political
power, needs to be constrained by the government
acting on behalf of the less-well-to-do. Therefore,
economic liberalism, which would argue for
maximum freedom in economic decision-making,
contradicts the need for a political freedom which is
irrespective of wealth. Hence political liberalism
needs to be "saved" from the consequences of
economic liberalism. Only the government can be the
savior. Given these contradictions, 20th century
liberalism has emerged quite differently from 19th
century liberalism, to emphasize the need for
government involvement in a variety of ways. Again
the optimum balance can only be approached by
constant experimentation at a practical level. To deal
with problems in an ideological way is to not deal with
them at all, but to create political debate and political
obstacles to a solution.
3.4. Neo Liberalism

Neo Liberalism is, in a way, the contemporary
version of Liberalism. It holds a few elements of
Reform Liberalism, but it returns to the Classical
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Liberalists view that the marketplace should be free
of any Government involvement or influence. Neo
Liberals believe that the marketplace has a lot of
rewards for those who work hard, and because
individuals are motivated by self-interest, more
people will acquire work and unemployment will
reduce.
They believe that education, health, and welfare
are not efficient because it does not offer the
competitive aspect that other industries do. Further,
welfare will reduce individual motivation to work and
develop dependency on the Government. The high
taxes that go along with such services reduce the
chance of entrepreneurs to invest within the state and
create new jobs.
A lot of people have criticized the Neo Liberal
approach because it is so similar to Neo-
Conservatism; however, Neo-Conservatism tends to
focus on military and societal issues while Neo
Liberalism is primarily focused on the free-market
economy.
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4. Liberalism as an Ideology
Liberalism is the natural ideology of normal
change. But it needed to become an ideology only after
conservatism had emerged. It was English Tories who
first called their opponents "liberals" in the early
nineteenth century. To be sure, the idea of the
individual's right to be free from the constraints of the
state has a long history that predates this moment.
The rise of the absolutist state brought in its train the
advocates of constitutional government. John Locke is
often considered the symbolic incarnation of this line
of thought.
Liberalism is a 19th century ideology that sought
self-government, increased male suffrage, and legal
equality for all and free-market economic policies.
19th century "liberalism" is a far cry from what
"liberalism" means today. Because 19th century
"liberalism" ultimately triumphed in Western
Europe and the United States, 19th century
"liberalism" is actually closer to what is
"conservative" in our own time.
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Liberalism is an ideology which advocates
equality of opportunity for all within the framework
of a system of laws. It includes a belief in government
as an institution whose primary function is to define
and enforce the laws. Since no one is above the law,
the laws, and particularly, the higher law, a
Constitution, must be developed not solely by one
ruler but by representatives of the elite groups.
Therefore, liberalism invariably involves a belief in
the need for legislative bodies which represent the
influential groups. The Constitution then defines the
power relationships between a single executive and
the legislature, and, as in the case of the United States,
may also define a separate judiciary. Liberalism is
also very much concerned with allowing a maximum
of freedom for the individual within the context of a
system of laws which limit interference with
individual rights by government or by other
individuals. Hence the liberal ideology also invariably
involves a bill of rights to define the rights of
individuals and specially to limit the power of
government to interfere with those rights.
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Nineteenth century liberalism and, in particular,
economic liberalism has been supported mainly by an
upper middle class elite which has benefited the most
from industrialization. Entrepreneurs and the owners
and managers of industry have naturally been the
strongest advocates of laissez faire. In the twentieth
century, as liberals began to endorse more
government involvement in the economy,
conservatives became the major advocates of
economic liberalism.
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Chapter Seven
European Nationalism
in the 19th Century
1. What is Nationalism?
Nationalism is a sense of identity with the nation.
It is similar to tribalism, and like the family, is held
together by a sense of kinship. Liah Greenfeld,
Professor of Sociology at Boston University has
defined nationalism as "an image of a social order,
which involves the people as a sovereign elite and a
community of equals". The original use of the term
nationalism refers to elite groups, but in modern
usage it refers usually to a very large group,
sometimes as large as an empire.
The term “nationalism” is generally used to
describe two concepts: The first concept is the attitude
that the members of a nation have when they care
about their national identity, and this concept raises
questions about the concept of a nation (or national
identity), which is often defined in terms of common
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origin, ethnicity, or cultural ties, and while an
individual's membership in a nation is often regarded
as involuntary, it is sometimes regarded as voluntary.
The second concept is the actions that the members of
a nation take when seeking to achieve (or sustain) self-
determination.
It is traditional, therefore, to distinguish nations
from states — whereas a nation often consists of an
ethnic or cultural community, a state is a political
entity with a high degree of sovereignty. While many
states are nations in some sense, there are many
nations which are not fully sovereign states. As an
example, the Native American Iroquois constitute a
nation but not a state, since they do not possess the
requisite political authority over their internal or
external affairs. If the members of the Iroquois nation
were to strive to form a sovereign state in the effort to
preserve their identity as a people, they would be
exhibiting a state-focused nationalism.
The relationship of the members of a nation is,
theoretically, an equal relationship between citizens.
It develops differently in different national
communities under different historical circumstances.
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According to Professor Liah Greenfeld,
nationalism may be collectivistic or individualistic
depending upon whether or not the community or the
individual is considered to be important. A
collectivistic nationalism tends to be authoritarian. An
individualistic nationalism tends to be liberal.
During the period 1850 to 1871, the nation-state
achieved its mature status in Europe. Nationalism
clearly became the principal basis for the organization
of western civilization. This fact had earlier been
demonstrated in England and in France during the
course of their political revolutions. In this period, it
became manifest throughout Europe.
2. Principles of Nationalism
This section sets out the components of
nationalist ideology as seen by nationalists themselves.
(Academic theories of nationalism are skeptical of
some of these principles, see below).
Nationalism is a form of universalism when it
makes universal claims about how the world should
be organized, but it is particularistic with regard to
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individual nations. The combination of both is
characteristic for the ideology, for instance in these
assertions:
• “in a nation-state, the language of the nation should be
the official language, and all citizens should speak it, and
not a foreign language”
• “the official language of the United Kingdom should be
English, and all British citizens should speak it.”
The starting point of nationalism is the existence
of nations, which it takes as a given. Nations are
typically seen as entities with a long history: most
nationalists do not believe a nation can be created
artificially. Nationalist movements see themselves as
the representative of an existing, centuries-old nation.
However, some theories of nationalism imply the
reverse order - that the nationalist movements created
the sense of national identity, and then a political unit
corresponding to it, or that an existing state promoted
a 'national' identity for itself.
Nationalists see nations as an inclusive
categorization of human beings - assigning every
individual to one specific nation. In fact, nationalism
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sees most human activity as national in character.
Nations have national symbols, a national culture, a
national music and national literature; national
folklore, a national mythology and - in some cases - a
national religion. Individuals share national values
and a national identity, admire the national hero, eat
the national dish and play the national sport.
The nation-state is intended to guarantee the
existence of a nation, to preserve its distinct identity,
and to provide a territory where the national culture
and ethos are dominant - nationalism is also a
philosophy of the state. It sees a nation-state as a
necessity for each nation: secessionist national
movements often complain about their second-class
status as a minority within another nation. This
specific view of the duties of the state influenced the
introduction of national education systems, often
teaching a standard curriculum, national cultural
policy, and national language policy. In turn, nation-
states appeal to a national cultural-historical mythos
to justify their existence, and to confer political
legitimacy - acquiescence of the population in the
authority of the government.
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3. Forms of Nationalism
3.1. Ethnic Nationalism
Ethnic nationalism, or ethno-nationalism, defines
the nation in terms of ethnicity, which always includes
some element of descent from previous generations -
i.e. genophilia. It also includes ideas of a culture
shared between members of the group and with their
ancestors, and usually a shared language.
Membership in the nation is hereditary. The state
derives political legitimacy from its status as
homeland of the ethnic group, and from its function to
protect the national group and facilitate its cultural
and social life, as a group.
Ethnic nationalism must also be collectivistic
because it is based upon blood or race or ethnic group.
Germany and Russia are examples of ethnic,
collectivistic nationalisms.
3.2. Civil Nationalism

Civic (civil) nationalism is the form of
nationalism in which the state derives political
legitimacy from the active participation of its
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citizenry, from the degree to which it represents the
"will of the people". It is often seen as originating with
Jean-Jacques Rousseau and especially the social
contract theories which take their name from his 1762
book The Social Contract. Civic nationalism lies within
the traditions of rationalism and liberalism, but as a
form of nationalism it is contrasted with ethnic
nationalism. Membership of the civic nation is
considered voluntary. Civic-national ideals influenced
the development of representative democracy in
countries such as the United States and France. Civic
nationalism is usually individualistic, but it can be
collectivistic.
Corsican nationalists sometimes shoot or spray
on the traffic signs, damaging the French version of
names State nationalism is a variant of civic
nationalism, very often combined with ethnic
nationalism. It implies that the nation is a community
of those who contribute to the maintenance and
strength of the state, and that the individual exists to
contribute to this goal. England and the United States
are examples of civic, individualistic nationalisms.
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France is an example of a civic, collectivistic
nationalism.
3.3. Expansionist Nationalism

"Expansionist nationalism" is a radical form of
imperialism that incorporates autonomous, patriotic
sentiments with a belief in expansionism. It is most
closely associated with the likes of Nazism
(nationalist-socialism) and also shares some
commonalities with American Manifest Destiny and
neo-conservatism.
Expansionist Nationalism is an aggressive and
radical form of nationalism that incorporates
autonomous, patriotic sentiments with a belief in
expansionism. The term was coined during the late
nineteenth century as European powers indulged in
the 'Scramble for Africa' in the name of national
glory, but has been most associated with militarist
governments during the 20th century including Nazi
Germany and the Japanese empire. The American
notion of Manifest Destiny is also oft-cited as an
example.
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What distinguishes expansionist nationalism
from liberal nationalism is its acceptance of
chauvinism, a belief in superiority or dominance.
Nations are thus not thought to be equal to their right
to self-determination; rather some nations are
believed to possess characteristics or qualities that
make them superior to others. Expansionist
nationalism therefore asserts the state's right to
increase its borders at the expense of its neighbours.
3.4. Cultural Nationalism

Cultural nationalism defines the nation by shared
culture. Membership (the state of being members) in
the nation is neither entirely voluntary (you cannot
instantly acquire a culture), nor hereditary (children
of members may be considered foreigners if they grew
up in another culture). Yet, a traditional culture can
be more easily incorporated into an individual's life,
especially if the individual is allowed to acquire its
skills at an early stage of his/her own life. Cultural
nationalism has been described as a variety of
nationalism that is neither purely civic nor ethnic.
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3.5. Third World Nationalism
Recently, there has been a rise of Third World
nationalisms. Third world nationalisms occur in those
nations that have been colonized and exploited. The
nationalisms of these nations were forged in a furnace
that required resistance to colonial domination in
order to survive. As such, resistance is part and parcel
of such nationalisms and their very existence is a form
of resistance to imperialist intrusions. The Third
World nationalism attempts to ensure that the
identities of Third World peoples are authored
primarily by themselves, not colonial powers.
3.6. Religious Nationalism

Religious nationalism is the relationship of
nationalism to a particular religious belief, church, or
affiliation. This relationship can be broken down into
two aspects; the politicization of religion and the
converse influence of religion on politics. In the
former aspect, a shared religion can be seen to
contribute to a sense of national unity, a common
bond among the citizens of the nation. Another
political aspect of religion is the support of a national
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identity, similar to a shared ethnicity, language or
culture. The influence of religion on politics is more
ideological, where current interpretations of religious
ideas inspire political activism and action; for
example, laws are passed to foster stricter religious
adherence.
4. Extremism and Nationalism

Although nationalism influences many aspects of
life in stable nation-states, its presence is often
invisible, since the nation-state is taken for granted.
Michael Billig speaks of banal nationalism, the
everyday, less visible forms of nationalism, which
shape the minds of a nation's inhabitants on a day-to-
day basis. Attention concentrates on extreme aspects,
and on nationalism in unstable regions. Nationalism
may be used as a derogatory label for political parties,
or they may use it themselves as a euphemism for
xenophobia, even if their policies are no more
specifically nationalist, than other political parties in
the same country.
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5. Nationalism and Racism
Nationalism does not necessarily imply a belief in
the superiority of one race over others, but in practice,
many nationalists support racial protectionism or
racial supremacy. Such racism is typically based upon
preference or superiority of the indigenous race of the
nation, but not always.
In United States for example, non-indigenous
racial nationalist movements exist for both black and
white races. These forms of nationalism often promote
or glorify foreign nations that they believe can serve
as an example for their own nation.
Explicit biological race theory was influential
from the end of the 19th century. Nationalist and
fascist movements in the first half of the 20th century
often appealed to these theories. The Nazi ideology
was probably the most comprehensively racial
ideology in history, and race influenced all aspects of
policy in Nazi Germany.
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6. Opposition and Critique of Nationalism
Nationalism is sometimes an extremely assertive
ideology, making far-reaching, despite often justified,
demands, including the disappearance of entire states.
It has attracted vehement opposition. Much of the
early opposition to nationalism was related to its
geopolitical ideal of a separate state for every nation.
The classic nationalist movements of the 19th century
rejected the very existence of the multi-ethnic empires
in Europe. This resulted in severe repression by the
(generally autocratic) governments of those empires.
That tradition of secessionism, repression, and
violence continues, although by now a large nation
typically confronts a smaller nation. Even in that early
stage, however, there was an ideological critique of
nationalism. That has developed into several forms of
anti-nationalism in the western world. The Islamic
revival of the 20th century also produced an Islamic
critique of the nation-state.
In the liberal political tradition there is
widespread criticism of ‘nationalism’ as a dangerous
force and a cause of conflict and war between nation-
states. Liberals do not generally dispute the existence
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of the nation-states. The liberal critique also
emphasizes individual freedom as opposed to national
identity, which is by definition collective.
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Chapter Eight
European Capitalism
in the 19th Century
1. What is Capitalism?
Capitalism, a term of disparagement coined by
socialists in the mid-nineteenth century, is a misnomer
for “economic individualism,” which Adam Smith
earlier called “the obvious and simple system of
natural liberty” Capitalism is a social system based on
the principle of individual rights. Politically, it is the
system of laissez-faire (freedom). Legally it is a system
of objective laws (rule of law as opposed to rule of
man). Economically, when such freedom is applied to
the sphere of production its, result is the free-market.
Capitalism is an economic system in which the means
of production and distribution are privately or
corporately owned and development is proportionate
to the accumulation and reinvestment of profits
gained in a free market. Capitalism is an economic
system based on the private ownership of the means
of production, distribution, and exchange,
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characterized by the freedom of capitalists to operate
or manage their property for profit in competitive
conditions.
2. The Basic Premise of Capitalism

Economic individualism’s basic premise is that
the pursuit of self-interest and the right to own private
property are morally defensible and legally legitimate.
Its major corollary is that the state exists to protect
individual rights. Subject to certain restrictions,
individuals (alone or with others) are free to decide
where to invest, what to produce or sell, and what
prices to charge. There is no natural limit to the range
of their efforts in terms of assets, sales, and profits; or
the number of customers, employees, and investors;
or whether they operate in local, regional, national, or
international markets.
In early-nineteenth-century England the most
visible face of capitalism was the textile factories that
hired women and children. Critics (Richard Oastler
and Robert Southey, among others) denounced the
mill owners as heartless exploiters and described the
working conditions—long hours, low pay,
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monotonous routine—as if they were unprecedented.
Believing that poverty was new, not merely more
visible in crowded towns and villages, critics
compared contemporary times unfavorably with
earlier centuries. Their claims of increasing misery,
however, were based on ignorance of how squalid life
actually had been earlier. Before children began
earning money working in factories, they had been
sent to live in parish poorhouses; apprenticed as
unpaid household servants; rented out for
backbreaking agricultural labor; or became beggars,
vagrants, thieves, and prostitutes. The pre-capitalist
“good old days” simply never existed.
Nonetheless, by the 1820s and 1830s the growing
specter of child labor and “dark Satanic mills” (poet
William Blake’s memorable phrase) generated vocal
opposition to these unbridled examples of self-interest
and the pursuit of profit. Some critics urged legislative
regulation of wages and hours, compulsory education,
and minimum age limits for laborers. Others offered
more radical alternatives. The most vociferous were
the socialists, who aimed to eradicate individualism,
the name that preceded capitalism.
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3. The Basic Principles of Capitalism
3.1. Individual Rights
The most basic and widely understood principle
of capitalism is that of individual rights to life, liberty,
property and voluntary contractual exchange.
Individual rights encompass not only the right to
control ones own life, liberty and property, but also to
defend those rights.
3.2. Equal Justice under Law

The principle of equal justice is critically
important to the function of capitalism. Government
must treat all individuals and organizations equally,
refraining from giving any legal support to popular
discriminatory practices. Government must also
never succumb to the temptation to reward
unsuccessful businesses and individuals with special
benefits or heap additional burdens on successful
business.
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3.3. Spontaneous Order
The tendency for capitalist markets to order
themselves naturally through the laws of supply and
demand is one of the most familiar principles of
capitalism. When individual rights are respected,
unregulated competition will naturally tend to reduce
costs and increase the abundance of products that are
in demand. This principle is also referred to as the
invisible hand of the marketplace.
3.4. Private Ownership

The principle of private ownership is the
capitalist belief that property that is owned by the
state, or is communally owned, is not respected or
preserved as effectively as that property which is
owned by private individuals or corporations. This
principle is also commonly referred to as the tragedy
of the commons.
3.5. Centralization
Capitalism operates on the principle of huge con-
centration of money on machinery and raw materials
with a view to produce at large scale so that the goods
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can be made available at the lowest rates. This results
in enormous expansion in business and enterprise
because it is not possible for any one individual to
become the sole proprietor, even though he is
fabulously wealthy.
3.6. Enormous Capital
The working of capitalism is possible only
through huge capital. At this, money is generally
raised from the financiers or money-lender, it
presupposes the existence of a powerful class of
money-lender which makes fabulous profits. This
money-lender class exercises profound influence on
industry and promotes or kills it by making available
necessary finances or withholding the same.
3.7. Machinery
Capitalism presupposes large scale production to
meet the country-wide or even world-wide demands,
it inevitably implies the adoption of machinery and
other mechanical device.
The use of machine and other technical devices
involves huge expenditure and this inevitably leads to
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the need of large-scale production of goods. For the
consumption of these products a constant effort is
made to find out and maintain markets. This gives rise
to middlemen and advertisements.
3.8. Labour
Labour is another important element of
capitalism. But under capitalism the labourer is paid
the barest minimum to keep him alive. Effort made to
reduce the number of workers by improvements in the
machinery. Even where the workers are absolutely
essential effort is made to reduce the cost by engaging
the women and children, who are wiling to work at
lower wages.
Further, with the growth in unemployment, the
capitalist purchases the labour like any other
commodity. He pays wages to the labourer not in
accordance with the requirements but in accordance
with the principle of supply and demand.
3.9. Organization
Finally, the large-scale enterprise under
capitalism entails a network of organization-for
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finance, for raw material, for production and for
marketing.
The organization is essential for the rising of
capital from various sources, procurement of raw
materials from all possible sources, recruitment and
training of large number of workers needed for the
various stages of production as well as for the
transportation and distribution of goods for sale over
the world. To regulate the activities of the various
organization, a small body exists at the centre which
exercises centralized control over all these activities.
4. Capitalism as an Ideology
Capitalism, as an ideology, is basically the same
as economic liberalism. It also involves certain
individual values such as thrift and hard work. But it
is much more useful to discuss those values specifically
as they are, rather than within the generalized
framework of a capitalist ideology. In fact, the real
significance of capitalism is to be found not in the
realm of ideology but rather in terms of capitalist
institutions which have truly had a profound impact
on human history. To appreciate that, we need only to
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mention corporations, for they have been the primary
institutions to organize and coordinate human labor
in the industrial era. Capitalism is, therefore, not
important as an ideology but is extremely important
as a word which encompasses the actual means by
which capital and labor are organized.
Capitalism is Blame-the-government Ideology
The mainstream ideology that works best as
capitalism's crutch is “blame the government”. This
interpretation of modern society insists that the
ultimate root and cause of economic problems is the
government, not capitalism nor capitalists. If you are
unemployed, foreclosed, or underpaid, the problem is
not the capitalist who refuses to employ you, evicts
you, or pays you poorly. It is instead partly your own
fault, but mostly that of the government: the
politicians and the bureaucrats.
Blame-the-government ideology serves
capitalists and the rich executives, managers,
professionals and advisers who depend on them. They
can boost their profits and wealth by cutting wages,
jobs and benefits, using toxic technologies, relocating
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businesses overseas, jacking up prices, foreclosing,
evicting, and so on. They can provoke global crises
and take massive bailouts with public money. To
cover all that, business and political leaders, media
spokespersons and academics compose a chorus that
endlessly repeats, "Blame the government." They
seek to transform that idea into "common sense" so
victims of capitalists' actions will automatically not
blame them, but instead get angry at politicians.
The blame-the-government ideological crutch
aims to stop, deflect and demoralize political
coalitions of those hurt and outraged by capitalist
crises. Consciously or unconsciously, capitalism's
ideologues want to prevent any repeat of what
happened in the 1930s. Then, a coalition of workers,
farmers, intellectuals, and others forced President
Roosevelt to do the opposite of austerity. He raised
taxes on corporations and the rich to pay for creating
Social Security, unemployment insurance and a
massive federal jobs program. A similar coalition
today could return taxes on corporations and the rich
back to those much higher Roosevelt-era rates. That
could fund a government jobs program now like
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Roosevelt's, reducing unemployment now without any
deficit and thus no additional national debt. It could,
of course, go further and question capitalism itself.
Blame-the-government ideology aims to prevent
workers' angers and resentments about their
deprivations under capitalism from building effective,
organized political power. That ideological crutch
seeks to assure that what capitalism does to the people
economically will not be undone by the people
politically.
Blame-the-government ideology supports
capitalism also in another way. By portraying
government as wasteful, incompetent, corrupt, power
mad and oppressive, it strives to establish another
"common sense" idea. Government should be kept
economically weak: Keep its spending down, its
budget balanced, or else in debt to capitalists and the
rich (main government creditors). Limit the taxes it
can levy, the regulations it can impose, and so on.
Hobble the government while painting it as a negative
social force, not to be trusted. Corrupt the politicians
with the resources only corporations and the rich have
and spend for such purposes and then denounce that
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corruption as the government's fault. Turn workers
away from engagement, respect for, or even interest
in politics. Disgusted and alienated, many workers
withdraw, leaving the political arena to the capitalists
and the rich to buy and shape. US mainstream politics
thus serves and never challenges capitalism.
Blame the government, like all ideologies, has
contradictions and blind spots. When war is on the
agenda, politicians get quick makeovers from
"crooks" into "commander in chief" and "national
leaders." When workers strike and otherwise resist
employers, capitalism's ideologues want to unleash
government on those workers. In such conditions,
ideology waffles from blame and reduce to celebrate
and strengthen government. Similarly, when
politicians get caught working for and being paid by
capitalists and the rich, a troubling question invades
public discussion. Who really is to blame: the
politicians who serve, the capitalists who pay and get
served, or the system they built and maintain
together?
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5. The Benefits of Capitalism
Despite these constraints, which worked
sporadically and unpredictably, the benefits of
capitalism were widely diffused. Luxuries quickly
were transformed into necessities. At first, the
luxuries were cheap cotton clothes, fresh meat, and
white bread; then sewing machines, bicycles, sporting
goods, and musical instruments; then automobiles,
washing machines, clothes dryers, and refrigerators;
then telephones, radios, televisions, air conditioners,
and freezers; and most recently, digital cameras, DVD
players, and cell phones and TiVos (a digital video
recorder (DVR) developed and marketed by TiVo,
Inc. and introduced in 1999. TiVo provides an on-
screen guide of scheduled broadcast programming
television programs, whose features include "Season
Pass" schedules which record every new episode of a
series, and "Wish List" searches which allow the user
to find and record shows that match their interests by
title, actor, director, category, or keyword.)
That these amenities had become available to
most people did not cause capitalism’s critics to
recant, or even to relent. Instead, they ingeniously
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reversed themselves. Marxist philosopher Herbert
Marcuse proclaimed that the real evil of capitalism is
prosperity, because it seduces workers away from
their historic mission—the revolutionary overthrow
of capitalism—by supplying them with cars and
household appliances, which he called “tools of
enslavement.” (Marcuse). Some critics reject
capitalism by extolling “the simple life” and labeling
prosperity mindless materialism. In the 1950s, critics
such as John Kenneth Galbraith and Vance Packard
attacked the legitimacy of consumer demand,
asserting that if goods had to be advertised in order to
sell, they could not be serving any authentic human
needs (Galbraith). They charged that consumers are
brainwashed by Madison Avenue and crave whatever
the giant corporations choose to produce and
advertise, and complained that the “public sector” is
starved while frivolous private desires are being
satisfied. And having seen that capitalism reduced
poverty instead of intensifying it, critics such as Gar
Alperovitz and Michael Harrington proclaimed
equality the highest moral value, calling for higher
taxes on incomes and inheritances to massively
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redistribute wealth, not only nationally but also
internationally (Alperovitz).
Capitalism is not a cure for every defect in human
affairs or for eradicating all inequalities, but who ever
said it was? It holds out the promise of what Adam
Smith called “universal opulence.” Those who
demand more are likely to be using higher
expectations as a weapon of criticism. For example,
British economist Richard Layard recently attracted
headlines and airtime with a startling revelation:
money cannot buy happiness (a cliché of song lyrics
and church sermons) (Layard). He laments that
economic individualism fails to ensure the emotional
satisfactions that are essential to life, including family
ties, financial security, meaningful work, friendship,
and good health. Instead, a capitalist society supplies
new gadgets, appliances, and luxuries that arouse
envy in those who cannot afford them and that inspire
a ceaseless obsession with securing more among those
who already own too much.
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-
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Chapter Nine
European Marxism
In the 19th Century
1. What is Marxism?
Marxism is an economic and social system based
upon the political and economic theories of Karl Marx
and Friedrich Engels. While it would take veritably
volumes to explain the full implications and
ramifications of the Marxist social and economic
ideology, Marxism is summed up in the Encarta
Reference Library as:
A theory in which class struggle is a central
element in the analysis of social change in Western
societies.” Marxism is the antithesis of capitalism
which is defined by Encarta as “an economic
system based on the private ownership of the
means of production and distribution of goods,
characterized by a free competitive market and
motivation by profit (Murdoch 7).
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Marxism is the system of socialism of which the
dominant feature is public ownership of the means of
production, distribution and exchange.
Under capitalism, the proletariat, the working
class or “the people,” own only their capacity to work;
they have the ability only to sell their own labor.
According to Marx a class is defined by the relations
of its members to the means of production. He
proclaimed that history is the chronology of class
struggles, wars, and uprisings. Under capitalism,
Marx continues, the workers, in order to support their
families are paid a bare minimum wage or salary. The
worker is alienated because he has no control over the
labor or product which he produces. The capitalists
sell the products produced by the workers at a
proportional value as related to the labor involved.
Surplus value is the difference between what the
worker is paid and the price for which the product is
sold.
An increasing immiseration (act of misery) of the
proletariat occurs as the result of economic
recessions; these recessions result because the
working class is unable to buy the full product of their
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labors and the ruling capitalists do not consume all of
the surplus value. A proletariat or socialist revolution
must occur, according to Marx, where the state (the
means by which the ruling class forcibly maintains
rule over the other classes) is a dictatorship of the
proletariat. Communism evolves from socialism out of
this progression: the socialist slogan is “From each
according to his ability, to each according to his
work.” The communist slogan varies thusly: “From
each according to his ability, to each according to his
needs.”
2. Marxism and Materialism

Marx regarded materialism as a great step
forward over the various religious and idealist notions
of history. It meant that you could argue scientifically
about changing social conditions, you no longer
depended on praying to God or on ‘spiritual change’
in people.
The replacement of idealism by materialism was
the replacement of mysticism by science. But not all
materialist explanations of human behaviour are
correct. Just as there have been mistaken scientific
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theories in biology, chemistry or physics, so there have
been mistaken attempts to develop scientific theories
of society. Here are a few examples:
Marx said "Men can be distinguished from
animals by consciousness, by religion or anything else
you like. They themselves begin to distinguish
themselves from animals as soon as they begin to pro-
duce their means of subsistence – their food, shelter
and clothing. "With these words, Karl Marx first
stressed what was distinct about his explanation of
how society developed. Human beings are animals
descended from ape-like creatures. Like other ani-
mals, their first concern is feeding themselves and
protecting themselves from the climate.
3. Marxism and Religion

Because the worker under the capitalist regimes
was miserable and alienated, religious beliefs were
sustained. Religion, according to Marx was the
response to the pain of being alive, the response to
earthly suffering. In Towards a Critique of Hegel’s
Philosophy of Right (1844), Marx wrote:
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Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the
heart of a heartless world, just as it is the spirit of a
spiritless situation. It is the opium of the people. The
abolition of religion as the illusory happiness of the
people is required for their real happiness. The
demand to give up the illusion about its condition is
the demand to give up a condition, which needs
illusions (McKinno 15).
In spite of his dislike towards religion, Marx did
not make religion the primary enemy of his work and
thoughts; if he had regarded religion as a more serious
enemy than would have devoted more time on it. In
the above quotation Marx is saying that religion’s
purpose is to create illusory fantasies for the poor.
Economic realities prevent them from finding true
happiness in this life, so religion tells them that this is
OK because they will find true happiness in the next
life. Although this is a criticism of religion, Marx is not
without sympathy: people are in distress and religion
provides solace, just as people who are physically
injured receive relief from opiate-based drugs.
The problem is that operation fails to fix a
physical injury unless it tries to solve the underlying
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causes of the problem. Similarly, religion does not fix
the underlying causes of people’s pain and suffering,
instead, it helps them forget why they are suffering
and causes them to look forward to an imaginary
future when the pain will cease instead of working to
change circumstances. Even worse, the oppressors
who are responsible for the pain and suffering are
administering this 'drug'. Religion is an expression of
more fundamental unhappiness and symptom of more
fundamental and oppressive economic realities.
Hopefully, humans will create a society in which the
economic conditions causing so much pain and
suffering would be eradicated and, therefore, the need
for soothing drugs like religion will cease.
Marx indicated in this writing that the working
class, the proletariat was a true revolutionary class,
universal in character and acquainted with universal
suffering. This provided the need for religion.
4. Marxism as an Economic Ideology

Marxism came along quite late as a new ideology
of the nineteenth-century world. What Marxism did,
as an ideology, was to accept the basic premise of
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liberal ideology (the theory of progress) and add to it
two crucial specifications. Progress was seen as
something realized not continuously but
discontinuously, that is by revolution. And in the
upward ascent to the good or perfect society the world
had reached not its ultimate but its penultimate stage.
These two amendments were sufficient to produce an
entirely different political agenda.
Marxism is a very complex economic ideology
grounded in an historical analysis based on the idea of
class struggle. According to Marxist theory, during
any historical era, there is a dominant class and an
oppressed class and a struggle between the two. The
state is the instrument by which one class dominates
the other. Economic conditions change, the dominant
class loses control; its state is overthrown and is
replaced by the state of a new dominant class. The new
economic conditions also produce a new oppressed
class and the struggle goes on. The bourgeoisie and
proletariat (middle and working) classes are those
identified by Marx in the mid-19th century. The
capitalist system, according to Marx, enables the
owner of capital to expropriate the value of labor. It
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also separates the value of labor from its human
origins and defines it exclusively in monetary terms.
But the capitalist system also generates
unprecedented material wealth which, if shared
equitably, will free mankind from its materialist
chains. The capitalists will engage in a ruthless
competitive struggle with each other, will destroy
themselves and provide the opportunity for the
workers to overthrow the bourgeois state and replace
it with a socialist state. Under the socialist state, which
he called the dictatorship of the proletariat, the class
system will be ended through an equitable
distribution of wealth. It will then be possible to regain
the true value of labor as an expression of human
creativity, and the goal which he describes as
“communism” will be achieved.
This is an ideology which, although it involves a
careful historical analysis, becomes finally a utopian
vision. It has the effect of combining a careful analysis
of economic history with an impossible dream. That
was a potent mixture which has appealed, through a
variety of different interpretations, to millions of
people in the 19th and 20th centuries. In the most
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advanced industrial states of western Europe, Marxist
ideas were absorbed by intellectuals and by leaders of
working-class parties, some of whom believed their
goals could be achieved by working within the
framework of the existing states, where some of the
wealth was filtering down to the working class.
Furthermore, in nations with liberal Constitutional
governments, the leadership of the working class
could hope to gain some political influence. In less
industrialized countries, there was little hope of
working with existing governments, and Marxist
parties became identified with struggles to overthrow
the government. Thus the Marxist ideology was
interpreted in different ways in accordance with the
practical political situations in different nations.
Marxism became especially identified with the
Soviet state because the leadership which controlled
the state after the Russian Revolution believed
themselves to be Marxist, and believed their system
was the first example of the socialist state which Marx
had predicted would come about. And because those
leaderships also called themselves Communists, the
term Communist has come to be used to describe the
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Soviet state. Since Marxism is essentially critical of
capitalism as the great source of injustice in the world,
those who thought in ideological terms understood the
Soviet state to be dedicated to the destruction of
capitalist states. Since the United States became the
leading capitalist nation, ideology became a factor in
the hostility that developed between the Soviet Union
and the United States.
In reality, however, the United States and the
Soviet Union and all other states establish their
particular characteristics in accordance with a variety
of circumstances rooted in the history and traditions
of their own national communities. Ideology is only
one, and not the most important factor. The Soviet
leadership has had to respond to harsh and
demanding circumstances in practical ways which
often contradicted the ideology. More important than
the ideology was the fact that Russia had little
experience with liberal government and a history of
authoritarianism and centralized state power. The
Czarist despotism was replaced by the tyranny of one
party dictatorship. Stalinism, at its height, in the
1930,s, resembled the despotism of the most autocratic
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of the Czars. Despite its Marxist rhetoric, the regime
of Joseph Stalin denied the underlying concern of
Marxism for economic justice. Ideology became, in
the Soviet Union, little more than a facade maintained
to persuade people that the regime was identified with
a noble cause.
Marxism, because of its triumphant prediction
that the working class would overthrow the capitalist
state and bring justice to workers, had an appeal to
downtrodden, less-advantaged people regardless of
class. As Marxism became known by intellectuals and
political leaders in less-developed areas of the world,
where industrialization was in earlier stages and the
vast majority of people were peasants, not workers,
the ideology was again re-interpreted. It became an
ideology justifying class struggle by peasants against
the landlord class. This had been foreshadowed by
Lenin's identification with the peasant cause during
the Russian Revolution. The foremost example of this
interpretation of Marxism was that put forward by
Mao Ze Dhong in China. Maoism introduced the
concept of permanent revolution in an effort to break
the power of a new and privileged bureaucracy of the
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Chinese Communist Party. This revolution from the
top caused a disastrous economic collapse in the
1950's known as the Great Leap Forward, and a
chaotic political crisis in the 1960's and early 1970's,
known as the Cultural Revolution. Never before had
George Orwell's "doublespeak" been so blatant and
obvious. These events demonstrated, through the
suffering of the Chinese people, that policies guided by
ideology without regard for practical considerations,
were doomed to failure. Again, as in the case of
Stalinism in Russia, Maoism in China bore a closer
resemblance to the arbitrary rule of Chinese
emperors than it did to Marxism. In both cases, the
ideology provided a utopian cover for despotic rule,
and was otherwise irrelevant.
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Chapter Ten
European Communism
In the 19th Century
We are led now logically to a discussion of
Communism, perhaps, the dialectical opposite of
Capitalism.
1. What is Communism?
Communism is a socio-economic structure that
promotes the establishment of a classless, stateless
society based on common ownership of the means of
production. It encourages the formation of
a proletarian state in order to overcome the class
structures and alienation of labor that characterize
capitalistic societies, and their legacy of imperialism
and nationalism. Communism holds that the only way
to solve these problems is for the working
class (or proletariat) to replace the wealthy ruling
class (or bourgeoisie), through revolutionary action,
in order to establish a peaceful, free society, without
classes or government.
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Communism, then, is the idea of a free
society with no division or alienation, where humanity
is free from oppression and scarcity, and where there
is no need for governments or countries and no class
divisions. It envisages a world in which each
person gives according to their abilities, and receives
according to their needs. Its proponents claim it to be
the only means to the full realization of human
freedom.
Communism is a political and economic doctrine
that aims to replace private property and a profit-
based economy with public ownership and communal
control of at least the major means of production (e.g.,
mines, mills, and factories) and the natural resources
of a society. Communism is thus a form of socialism—
a higher and more advanced form, according to its
advocates. Exactly how communism differs from
socialism has long been a matter of debate, but the
distinction rests largely on the communists’ adherence
to the revolutionary socialism of Karl Marx.
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2. Who Founded Communism?
Karl Heinrich Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich
Engles (1820-1895) founded the modern Communist
movement to promote the value of the common man,
and to end the suffering of individuals under the rule
of aristocracies and tyrants. Their aim was ultimately
advanced by the Bolsheviks under Lenin, but
perverted under Stalin to create the very sort of ruling
class that they wished to eliminate.
3. The History of Communism

The history of Communism varies in
interpretation because every country that
implemented this social setting made their own
version. Historians define Communism as a branch of
socialism. In most respects, there is a removal of
classes incorporating a classless society. In essence all
people are equal and racism and hatred becomes
extinct. The presence of communist nations arose for
25 years in Europe starting in 1945. Communism was
originated by Karl Marx."
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4. Principles of Communism
In order to liberate the lower class, Marx
believed that the government would have to control all
means of production so that no one could outdo
anyone else by making more money. Unfortunately,
that proves to this day to be more difficult than he
might have realized. Marx believed that a truly
utopian society must be classless and stateless. (It
should be noted that Marx died well before any of his
theories were put to the test.) Marx's main idea was
simple: Free the lower class from poverty and give the
poor a fighting chance.
Marx described three necessary phases toward
achieving his idea of utopia.
Phase 1: A revolution must take place in order to
overthrow the existing government. Marx
emphasized the need for total destruction of
the existing system in order to move on to
Phase 2
Phase 2: A dictator or elite leader (or leaders) must
gain absolute control over the proletariat.
___________________ ____
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Phase 3: Achievement of utopia. This phase has never
been attained because it requires that all
non-communists be destroyed in order for
the Communist Party to achieve supreme
equality.
5. Joseph Stalin’s Reign and Successive
Dictators (1878-1953)
When Lenin died in 1924, Joseph Stalin came into
power and managed to target one of the only groups
that Lenin never did: fellow communists. In Stalin's
eyes, anyone who didn't back him 100 percent was an
enemy. Stalin wanted to take communism worldwide.
He knew that in order to do so, he would have to
industrialize Russia. Stalin built factories in strategic
places so they would not be vulnerable to outside
enemies. He built so many so quickly that Russia soon
surpassed many other major countries in industry.
His legacy continued well after his death.
6. Forms of Communism
Self-identified communists hold a variety of
views, including Leninism, Trotskyism,
___________________ ____
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Luxemburgism, Anarchist communism, Christian
communism, Islamic socialism and various currents
of Left communism. This list includes ideologies which
are or were:
▪ Communist in the sense of maintaining the ideal of
common ownership and control of at least the
means of production (and possibly of other
property) regardless whether the word
'communism' is used by the adherents of the
ideology or not;
▪ Notable enough to be either mentioned in a non-
trivial way in more than one scholarly work about
history of communism, or to be an official ideology
of a party at least represented in a parliament of a
country with more than 1,000,000 citizens.
6.1. Christian Communism

Christian communism is a form of religious
communism based on Christianity. It is a theological
and political theory based upon the view that the
teachings of Jesus Christ compel Christians to
support communism as the ideal social system.
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Although there is no universal agreement on the exact
date when Christian communism was founded, many
Christian communists assert that evidence from the
Bible suggests that the first Christians, including the
Apostles, established their own small communist
society in the years following Jesus' death and
resurrection. As such, many advocates of Christian
communism argue that it was taught by Jesus and
practiced by the Apostles themselves.
Christian communism can be seen as a radical
form of Christian socialism. Christian communists
may or may not agree with various parts of Marxism.
They generally do not agree with the antireligious
views held by secular Marxists, but do agree with
many of the economic and existential aspects of
Marxist theory, such as the idea that capitalism
exploits the working class by extracting surplus value
from the workers in the form of profits and that wage-
labor is a tool of human alienation that promotes
arbitrary and unjust authority. Christian
communism, like Marxism, also holds that capitalism
encourages the negative aspects of human nature,
supplanting values such as mercy, kindness, justice
___________________ ____
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and compassion in favor of greed, selfishness and
blind ambition.
6.2. Leninism
In Marxist philosophy, Leninism is the body of
political theory for the democratic organization of a
revolutionary vanguard party, and the achievement of
a direct-democracy dictatorship of the proletariat, as
political prelude to the establishment of socialism.
Developed by, and named for, the Russian
revolutionary Vladimir Lenin (born Vladimir Ilyich
Ulyanov, 1870–1924), Leninism comprises political
and socialist economic theories, developed from
Marxism, and Lenin’s interpretations of Marxist
theory, for practical application to the socio-political
conditions of the agrarian Russian Empire (1721–
1917) of the early 20th century. In February 1917, for
five years, Leninism was the Russian application of
Marxist economics and political philosophy, affected
and realized by the Bolshevik party, the vanguard
party who led the fight for the political independence
of the working class.
___________________ ____
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Functionally, the Leninist vanguard party
provided to the working class the political
consciousness (education and organization), and the
revolutionary leadership necessary to depose
capitalism in Imperial Russia. After the October
Revolution of 1917, Leninism was the dominant
version of Marxism in Russia, and then the official
state ideology of Soviet democracy (by workers’
council) in the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet
Republic (RSFSR), before its unitary amalgamation
into the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), in
1922. Moreover, in post–Lenin Russia, in the 1925–29
period, Joseph Stalin integrated Leninism to Marxist
economics, and developed Marxism–Leninism, which
then became the Communist state ideology of the
USSR.
6.3. Trotskyism
Trotskyism is the theory of Marxism as
advocated by Leon Trotsky. Trotsky identified as an
orthodox Marxist and Bolshevik-Leninist, and
supported founding a vanguard party of the working-
class. His politics differed sharply from those of
Stalinism, as he opposed the idea of Socialism in One
___________________ ____
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Country. Trotsky still supported proletarian
internationalism, and an authentic dictatorship of the
proletariat based on working-class self-emancipation
and mass democracy. He believed that a bureaucracy
developed under Stalin after Lenin's death.
Vladimir Lenin and Trotsky were close both
ideologically and personally during the Russian
Revolution and its aftermath and some call Trotsky its
"co-leader". However, Lenin criticized Trotsky's
ideas and intra-Party political habits. Trotsky was the
paramount leader of the Soviet Red Army in the direct
aftermath of the Revolutionary period.
Trotsky originally opposed some aspects of
Leninism. Later, he concluded that unity between the
Mensheviks and Bolsheviks was impossible, and
joined the Bolsheviks. Trotsky played a leading role
with Lenin in the revolution. Assessing Trotsky, Lenin
wrote, "Trotsky long ago said that unification is
impossible. Trotsky understood this and from that
time on there has been no better Bolshevik."
___________________ ____
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6.4. Anarchist Communism
Anarchist communism (also known as anarcho-
communism, free communism, libertarian
communism, and communist anarchism) is a theory of
anarchism which advocates the abolition of the state,
capitalism, wages and private property (while
retaining respect for personal property), and in
favour of common ownership of the means of
production, direct democracy, and a horizontal
network of voluntary associations and workers'
councils with production and consumption based on
the guiding principle: "from each according to his
ability, to each according to his need".
Some forms of anarchist communism such as
insurrectionary anarchism are strongly influenced by
egoism and radical individualism, believing anarcho-
communism is the best social system for the
realization of individual freedom. Some anarcho-
communists view anarcho-communism as a way of
reconciling the opposition between the individual and
society.
___________________ ____
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Anarcho-communism developed out of radical
socialist currents after the French Revolution but was
first formulated as such in the Italian section of the
First International. The theoretical work of Peter
Kropotkin took importance later as it expanded and
developed pro-organization list and insurrectionary
anti-organizationalist sections.
7. Communism as an Ideology
Communism is based upon the ideology of
Marxism because Marx used the term in his famous
Communist Manifesto. Communism is a particular
type of socialism. Socialism has as its central focus the
idea that the state should be the owner of the means of
production. It arose as a reaction to the exploitation of
workers by the owners of capital. Socialism is
concerned with economic justice and is based on the
belief that, if you take the ownership of the means of
production away from the capitalist and give it to the
state or to a workers' collective, you will end the
exploitation and achieve economic justice. Some
socialists have argued that a working class state or a
democratic state is a necessary part of the solution,
but that is not an essential element of the ideology.
___________________ ____
- 288 -
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–-----––, 2012b, “Leibniz in the Eighteenth Century: Herder’s Critical
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–--------––, 2014, “The Soul-Body Relationship and the Foundations of
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––------–, 2010, After Herder: Philosophy of Language in the German
Tradition, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
––------–, 2011a, German Philosophy of Language: From Schlegel to Hegel
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––------–, 2011c, “Ursprung und Wesen des Hegelschen Geistbegriffs”, in
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(eds.), Hegel-Jahrbuch 2011, Berlin: Akademie Verlag, pages
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––------–, 2012a, “Bildung bei Herder und seinen Nachfolgern”, in Klaus
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vergessener Zusammenhang, Paderborn: Schöningh.
––------–, 2012b, “Herder and Spinoza”, in Eckart Förster and Yitzhak Y.
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––------–, 2012c, “Herders Beitrag zur Entstehung der Idee romantisch”, in
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––------–, 2015, “Herder’s Doctrine of Meaning as Use”, in Margaret Cameron
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in the History of the Philosophy of Language, Oxford: Oxford
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––------–, 2016, “Historicizing Genre: The German Romantic Rethinking of
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––------–,2017a, “Herder and Human Rights”, in Anik Waldow and Nigel
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––------–, 2017b, “Nietzsche on Morality as a ‘Sign Language of the
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––------–, 2018, Herder’s Philosophy, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
––------–, 2019a, “The Origin and Character of Hegel’s Concept of Geist”, in
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––------–, 2019b, “Imagination and Interpretation: Herder’s Concept
of Einfühlung”, in Gerad Gentry and Konstantin Pollok
(eds.), The Imagination in German Idealism and Romanticism,
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––------–, 2021, “Les origines de la théorie de la traduction défamiliarisante
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––------–, forthcoming, “Herder on Humanity”, in Stefanie Buchenau and
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Gillies, Alexander, 1945, Herder (Modern Language Studies), Oxford:
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––------–, 2013, “‘A Not Yet Invented Logic’: Herder on Bildung,
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––------–, 2017, Herder’s Hermeneutics: History, Poetry, Enlightenment,
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Haym, Rudolf, 1880, Herder nach seinem Leben und seinen Werken, Berlin:
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Hegel, Georg, 1795/6, The Positivity of the Christian Religion, in his Early
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–-----------––, 1798–1800, The Spirit of Christianity and Its Fate, in his Early
Theological Writings.
––----------–, 1807, Phenomenology of Spirit, A.V. Miller (trans.), Oxford:
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–--------––, 1837, Reason in History, R.S. Hartmann (trans.), Upper Saddle
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––--------–, 1832, Science of Logic, A.V. Miller (trans.), Amherst, NY:
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---------------.Fragments on Recent German Literature (1767–8), (excerpts on
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---------------.Treatise on the Origin of Language (1772), pages 65–164
---------------.On the Cognition and Sensation of the Human Soul (1778), pages
187–244
---------------.On the Change of Taste (1766), pages 247–256
---------------.This Too a Philosophy of History for the Formation of Humanity,
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deutschen Aufklärung 1730–1770, Meisenheim am Glan: Anton
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––------–, 1984, “Grundfragen der Geschichtsphilosophie Herders bis 1774”,
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––------–, 2001, Johann Gottfried Herder, Stuttgart: Reclam.
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Jacobi, Friedrich, 1785, Über die Lehre des Spinoza in Briefen an Herrn
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Kelletat, Andreas F., 1984, Herder und die Weltliteratur, Frankfurt am Main:
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Kleingeld, Pauline, 2013, Kant and Cosmopolitanism: The Philosophical
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Lovejoy, Arthur O., 1948, “Herder and the Enlightenment Philosophy of
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Mayo, Robert S., 1969, Herder and the Beginnings of Comparative
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Meinecke, Friedrich, [1936] 1972, Historism: The Rise of a New Historical
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Mill, John Stuart, 1859, On Liberty, Stefan Collini (ed.), Cambridge:
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Mühlberg, Dietrich, 1984, “Herders Theorie der Kulturgeschichte in ihrer
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–----------––, 1882/7, The Gay Science, Walter Kaufmann (trans.), New York:
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––---------–, 1886, Beyond Good and Evil, Walter Kaufmann (trans.), New
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––---------–, 1887, On the Genealogy of Morality, Maudemarie Clark and Alan
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––--------–, 1792, Antiquissimi de prima malorum origine philosophematis
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–--------––, 1797, Ideas for a Philosophy of Nature, Errol E. Harris and Peter
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–--------––, 1798, Von der Weltseele (On the World Soul), Hamburg: Perthes.
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––----------–, 1997, “Herder, Kant, Spinoza und die Ursprünge des deutschen
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Selected Bibliography (French Revolution)

Alperovitz, Gar. “Notes Toward a Pluralist Commonwealth,” in Staughton
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Hampson, Norman. A Social History of the French Revolution. Toronto: UP.
1963
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Hazen, Charles Downer. (1897). Contemporary American Opinion of the
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Horward, Donald D. The French Revolution and Napoleon collection at
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Thompson, J. M. The French Revolution. Oxford: UP. 1945
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Selected Bibliography (Industrial Revolution)
Ashton, Thomas S. The Industrial Revolution: 1760–1830. London: Oxford
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Burnette, Joyce, Gender, Work and Wages in Industrial Revolution Britain,
New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
Crafts, Nicholas F. R. British Economic Growth During the Industrial
Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985.
Crafts, Nicholas F. R., and C. Knick Harley. “Output Growth and the British
Industrial Revolution: A Restatement of the Crafts-Harley
View.” Economic History Review 45 (1992): 703–730.
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Floud, Roderick, and Paul Johnson, eds. The Cambridge Economic History
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Hartwell, R. M. The Industrial Revolution and Economic Growth. London:
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Hobsbawm, E. J. On History. (1990).
Kiely, Ray, Industrialization and Development, London: University College
London Press Limited, 1998.
King Steven and Timmins Geoffrey, Making sense of the Industrial
Revolution, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001.
Lindert, Peter H., and Jeffrey G. Williamson. “English Workers’ Living
Standard During the Industrial Revolution: A New Look.”
Economic History Review 36 (1983): 1–25.
Mokyr, Joel, ed. The British Industrial Revolution: An Economic
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Nardinelli, Clark. Child Labor and the Industrial Revolution. Bloomington:
Indiana University Press, 1990.
More, Charles, Understanding the Industrial Revolution. London: Routledge,
2000.
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O’Brien, Patrick and Quinault, Roland. The Industrial Revolution and British
Society, Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press, 1993.
Rosen, William. The Most Powerful Idea in the World: A Story of Steam,
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Stearns, Peter N. The Industrial Revolution in World History. Boulder:
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(1972)
Taylor, Arthur J., ed. The Standard of Living in Britain in the Industrial
Revolution. London: Methuen, 1975.
Teich, Mikulan and Potter, Roy, The Industrial Revolution in National
Context: Europe and USA. Cambridge: University Press,
Cambridge, 1996.
Thompson, E. P. The Making of the English Working Class. New York:
Pantheon Books, 1964.
Thompson, F. M. L. The Rise of Respectable Society: A Social History of
Victorian Britain, 1830-1900. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard
Wiener, Martin J. English Culture and the Decline of the Industrial Spirit,
1850-1980. 1st ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1982.
Williamson, Jeffrey G. Did British Capitalism Breed Inequality? Boston:
Allen and Unwin, 1985. Chaps. 1–4.
Wrigley, E. Anthony, and Roger S. Schofield. The Population History of
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Vision
The Dept. of English Language and Literature at the Faculty of Arts, Menoufiya
University seeks to become one of the leading researches and education centres
in the domain of English Language and Literature nationally and regionally. It
endeavours to achieve excellence both at the undergraduate and graduate levels
and play a role in societal development and cross-cultural communication.
Mission
The Dept. of English Language and Literature at the Faculty of Arts, Menoufia
University is committed to the end goal of graduating good citizens who will
contribute effectively in academic research as well as societal development. To
this end, the Department endeavours to:
• Provide diverse and complementary courses that foster the students’
academic, communicative, technological, and professional skills
• Advance the students' creative and critical thinking
• Promote their cultural awareness as well as awareness of cross-cultural
differences in a way that will enable them to succeed in a complex, diverse,
global era.
‫الرؤية‬
‫يسعى قسم اللغة اإلنـجليزية إلى أن يكون أحد المراكز البحثية والتعليمية المتقدمة في مجال اللغة‬
‫ ويعمل القسم على تحقيق التميز على مستوى‬.‫اإلنـجليزية وآدابها على الصعيدين القومي واإلقليمي‬
‫كل من المرحلة الجامعية األولى والدراسات العليا والمشاركة في التنمية المجتمعية والتواصل مع‬
.‫الثقافات األخرى‬
‫الرسالة‬
‫يلتزم قسم اللغة ا إلنـجليزية وآدابها بكلية اآلداب بجامعة المنوفية بتخريج مواطنين صالحين‬
‫ ومن أجل تحقيق هذه الغاية فإن‬.‫يساهمون بفعالية في مجاالت البحث العلمي والتنمية المجتمعية‬
:‫القسم يعمل جاهداً على‬
‫• توفير مقررات متنوعة ومتكاملة من شأنها تعزيز المهارات األكاديمية والتواصلية‬
‫والتكنولوجية والمهنية للدارسين‬
‫• تنمية التفكير اإلبداعي والنقدي لدى الدارسين‬
‫• تعزيز الوعي الثقافي لدى الدارسين وكذلك الوعي باالختالف بين الثقافات بما يمكنهم من تحقيق‬
‫النجاح في عصر العولمة بتنوعه وتعقيده‬
___________________ ____
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Nineteenth C Civilization

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Menoufiya University

‫الحـضـارة األروبـيـة حـتى الـقـرن الـتـاسـع عـشـر‬

Compiled and Edited

All Rights reserved for the author

No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any

Dr. Radwan El-Sobky

3 - Course Intended Learning Outcomes

4- Course Topics Week

8- List of textbooks and references:

Instructor: Dr. Radwan El-Sobky

Chapter Nine: European Marxism

This book is a research work on the European thought

The Intellectual Revolution in the

1. The Era of the German Philosophical

2. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

Some philosophers have equated the analytic

Intuition is the ability to understand something

Kant denies the view that space is somehow

If time and space, among other things, are

From empiricism, Kant draws the idea that

2.2. Kant’s Philosophy of Transcendental

2.3. Kant’s Philosophy of Morality and

‫‪2.3.3. The law of duty for Kant is related to the‬‬

2.3.4. The Importance of Freedom to Morality

2.4. Kant’s Theory of Conscience and

We may have different beliefs about the source of

2.5. Kant’s Critique of Practical Reason

2.6. The Highest Good resides in Virtue

In Kant’s words, “virtue and happiness together

2.6.1. No happiness without virtue and there is

2.7. Immanuel Kant’s Philosophy of

In a work published the year he died, Kant analyzes

3. Johann Herder (1744-1803)

The homogenizing cosmopolitanism is a form that

3.2. Herder’s Philosophy of Religion

3.2.2. Herder’s Secularism

3.4. Herder’s Philosophy of Mind

1. The Causes of the French Revolution

1.1. Political and Social Inequalities

1.2. Bankruptcy of the Government

1.3. Absolutism and Privilege

1.4. Economic Causes

1.6. Fiscal Crisis

1.7. The Social Causes of the French

4.1. The First Phase (1790s to 1850s)

4.3. The Third Phase (1960s to present)

5.2. The Potato Revolution (1695 - 1845)

5.3. The Growth of the British Population

5.4. The Commercial Revolution

5.5. The Cottage Industry

In Britain, expansion had led to new "private

11.2. Increase of Child Labour

Children were part of the labor force and often

Romanticism was an artistic, intellectual and

The term ‘Romanticism’ was coined in the 1840s,

Romanticism was a reaction against the

Romanticism in English literature started in the

At the end of the 18th century and well into the

Romanticist practitioners found their voices

3.2. Reverence for Nature

3.4. Veneration of Self

3.5. Interest in Gothicism

3.7. Focus on Exoticism

3.8. The Primacy of Aesthetics and