NÝHSIA;

@IXCR@ÄÓC]
CEHÝMRGE@]

]S]CNC @XCEÄÍA VRGNÀRG@ 

 

Cstc cbaao tcn mana abkctgva prcp`r`r p`r` a maemursa

]S]CNC-`m`hëngma baisgst`.

Rcss`it`nas quc a maetcûha hcstc cbaao ç rcsungha c eía hcvc scr

us`ha man a getugta hc sc cstuh`r `npi`ncetc sabrc as tcn`s `qug
prcscetcs. Vart`eta, cstc n`tcrg`i eía maetcnpi` tah`s `s gejarn`äócs
ecmcssàrg`s hur`etc ` jarn`äía `m`hëngm`.

Gehgm`nas `a `iuea quc eía tcn mana nct` scr `prav`ha ecstc maemursa
a usa has maetcûhas prcscetcs cn eassas mursas ha pi`ea VRA, as qu`gs
jar`n cstrutur`has p`r` rcjaräa uegvcrsgtàrga
 

]unàrga

HC]ARHCE] H@ DIÂEHSI@ XGRCAGHC ..........................................................

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.............8 

LGVCRXGRCAGHG]NA ............................................................
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..............................................3 

MRG]C AS XCNVC]X@HC XGRCAXÝ\GM@ ................................................................ 02 

LGVAXGRCAGHG]NA ......................................................................................................... 0= 

MAN@ NG\CHCN@XA]A...............................................................
NG\CHCN@XA]A...............................................................................................
................................ 04 

@SXARRCDSI@ÄÍA
@SXARRCDSI@ÄÍA VCIA GAHA .............................................................................
............................................................................. 20 

HACEÄ@ HA CEJCRNA CSXGRAGHCA...........................................................

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.......... 20 

HG@BCXC] NCIGXS] (HN) ........

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.................... 22 

MANVIGM@ÄÓC] MRØEGM@] ......................................................................................

...................................................................................... 27 

MANVIGM@ÄÓC] @DSH@] ....................................

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...................................................... =2 

ASXR@] MANVIGM@ÄÓC]...........................................................................................
........................................................................................... 86 

ABC]GH@HC...........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................... 80 

HG]IGVGHCNG@........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................ 84 

A]XCAVARA]C....................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................... 32 
 

HC]ARHCE] H@ DIÂEHSI@ XGRCAGHC

ZG]ÍA DCR@I

@ tgrcaghc ç un` diâehui` iam`igz`h` e` rcdgía `etcrgar ha pcsmaäa, sabrc `

m`rtgi`dcn tgrcaghc. Vassug hags iabas, quc sía ueghas pcia gstna mcetr`incetc.
Ci` ç rcspaesàvci pci` prahuäía, `rn`zce`nceta c igbcr`äía hc larnøegas quc
p`rtgmgp`n ha nct`baigsna hc tah`s `s mçiui`s ha ard`egsna.

@ rcdui`äía h` jueäía tgrcaghg`e` jgm` par maet` ha cgxa lgpatài`na-lgpýjgsc-

 tgrcaghc,, c qu`iqucr hgstûrbga ecssc cgxa pahc dcr`r `s hcsarhces h` diâehui`. A
 tgrcaghc
lgpatài`na prahuz a larnøega igbcr`har hc tgrcatrajge` (XRL), quc `im`eä` `
`hcealgpýjgsc c cstgnui` ` scmrcäía ha larnøega tgrcacstgnui`etc (X]L). A X]L,
par su` vcz, `dc eas rcmcptarcs h`s mçiui`s jaigmui`rcs h` tgrcaghc, cstgnui`eha

` prahuäía has larnøegas tgrcaghg`eas (X= c X8). Ç gnpart`etc icnbr`r quc a

gaha ç m`pt`ha `tgv`ncetc pci` tgrcaghc c scrvc mana n`tçrg` prgn` p`r` css`
prahuäía. Vcia ncm`egsna hc jcchb`mo ecd`tgva, X= c X8 gegbcn ` scmrcäía hc
X]L, t`eta hgrct` qu`eta gehgrct`ncetc, par ncga h` gegbgäía h` scmrcäía hc
XRL.

Cgxa lgpatài`na-lgpýjgsc-tgrcaghc
 

jueäía tgrcaghg`e` ç sgnpics c b`scg`-sc e` has`dcn hc X]L, X8

@ `v`ig`äía h` jueäía 
igvrc c X= tat`i c igvrc.

Autras tcstcs gemiucn îehgmc hc m`pt`äía ha gaha r`hga`tgva (R@GS), mgetgiadr`jg`,

S]D, bgýpsg` par `duil` jge`, c scría us`has cn maetcxtas cspcmîjgmas

cxpigm`has ` scdugr.

Hc naha dcr`i, `s hcsarhces h` diâehui` tgrcaghc pahcn scr hgvghgh`s cn

lgpcrtgrcaghgsna au lgpatgrcaghgsna c, scdueha ` tapadr`jg` h` su` m`us`, cn
prgnàrg` au scmuehàrg`/tcrmgàrg`.

Hcsarhces h` tgrcaghc X=/X8 X]L

Lgpcrtgrcaghgsna prgnàrga ←  ↝↝↝ 
Lgpcrtgrcaghgsna scmuehàrga ←  Earn`i au ← 
Lgpatgrcaghgsna prgnàrga ↝  ←←← 

Lgpcrtgrcaghgsna scmuehàrga/tcrmgàrga ↝  Earn`i au ↝ 

LGVCRXGRCAGHG]NA

GEXRAHSÄÍA

@etcs hc gegmg`r a cstuha sabrc `s hgjcrcetcs haceä`s h` tgrcaghc, ç prcmgsa

manprccehcr as maemcgtas hc hags tcrnas quc, nugt`s vczcs, sía maejuehghas e`
pràtgm` miîegm`; tgrcataxgmasc lgpcrtgrcaghgsna..
miîegm`; tgrcataxgmasc c lgpcrtgrcaghgsna

@ tgrcataxgmasc  ç ` sîehranc ha cxmcssa hc larnøega tgrcaghg`ea

 tgrcataxgmasc ç tgrcaghg`ea  e` mgrmui`äía
sgstëngm` c ç m`r`mtcrgz`h` par cjcgta h` cxpasgäía cxmcssgv` hc trggahatgraege`
(X=) c tgraxge` (X8) eas tcmghas. Cssc cxmcssa hc larnøega pahc tcr hgvcrs`s
m`us`s, t`gs mana gedcstía hc larnøega cxýdcea, prahuäía hc larnøega par
`idun tunar, prahuäía cxmcssgv` hc larnøega pci` prýprg` diâehui` tgrcaghc au
par igbcr`äía hc larnøega prç-jarn`ha hcvgha h`ea mciui`r (`drcssía
`utagnuec, gejcmmgas`, quîngm` au ncmâegm`) sajrgha pci` tgrcaghc.
 

lgpcrtgrcaghgsna   ç lgpcrjueäía h` diâehui`

Hgjcrcetcncetc, a lgpcrtgrcaghgsna diâehui`,, icv`eha `a
`unceta h` prahuäía hc larnøegas tgrcaghg`eas. Hcssc naha, ` tgrcataxgmasc
pahc scr scmuehàrg` `a lgpcrtgrcaghgsna au eía.

CXGAIADG@

@ m`us` n`gs manun hc lgpcrtgrcaghgsna ç ` haceä` hc Dr`vcs 

Dr`vcs (au býmga hgjusa
týxgma? <6% has m`sas), scdugh` ha býmga nuitgeahui`r týxgma 
týxgma  (m`r`mtcrgz`h`
pci` prcsceä` hc vàrgas eýhuias lgpcrjuemgae`etcs) c ha `hcean` týxgma týxgma  (au
haceä` hc Viunncr? n`rm`h` pci` prcsceä` hc `pce`s un eýhuia
lgpcrjuemgae`etc). Autr`s m`us`s passîvcgs sía ` tgrcaghgtc sub`duh` gehaiar, `
tgrcaghgtc sub`duh` haiaras` hc HcPucrv`ge c `geh` ` scmrcäía cmtýpgm` hc
larnøega tgrcaghg`ea

Xgrcataxgmasc
Man lgpcrtgrcaghgsna Vrgnàrga  
Vrgnàrga Haceä` hc Dr`vcs
Býmga nuitgeahui`r týxgma
@hcean` týxgma
]cmuehàrga Xunar lgpajgsàrga prahutar hc X]L
]cn lgpcrtgrcaghgsna Xgrcataxgmasc j`mtîmg` (usa ge`hvcrtgha ha larnøega)
Xgrcaghgtc (geji`n`äía)

A hg`deýstgma ctgaiýdgma earn`incetc jgm` bcn cvghcetc man ` lgstýrg` miîegm` c

cx`ncs i`bar`targ`gs (`v`ig`äía h` jueäía tgrcaghg`e` c has `etgmarpas). Sn
cx`nc quc pahc `uxgig`r ea hg`deýstgma ctgaiýdgma ha lgpcrtgrcaghgsna ç `
m`pt`äía tgrcaghg`e` ha gaha r`hga`tgva cn 28l (R@GS), quc grà nastr`r?

→ m`pt`äía `uncet`h` (=3-73%) (sck`, ` diâehui` cstà m`pt`eha `tgv`ncetc

gaha p`r` prahuäía hc larnøega tgrcaghg`ea) cn m`sas aehc là tgrcataxgmasc man
lgpcrtgrcaghgsna (haceä` hc dr`vcs, býmga nuitgeahui`r týxgma, `hcean` týxgma)
 

→ m`pt`äía rchuzgh` (93%) (gehgm` geji`n`äía au hcstrugäía h` tgrcaghc au usa

cxýdcea hc larnøega tgrcaghg`ea), cn m`sas hc tgrcataxgmasc scn
lgpcrtgrcaghgsna (tgrcaghgtc sub`duh`, tgrcataxgmasc j`mtîmg`).

Dr`vcs;  X`nbçn maelcmgh` mana býmga hgjusa týxgma 

Haceä` hc Dr`vcs;  týxgma  (BHX), ç `
prgemgp`i m`us` hc tgrcataxgmasc c lgpcrtgrcaghgsna? `manctc n`gs `s nuilcrcs
`utagnuec   quc cstgnui` ` tgrcaghc ` `uncet`r su`
 kavces. Ç un` haceä` `utagnuec
prahuäía larnae`i. A prgemgp`i j`tar m`us`i h` haceä` hc dr`vcs ç m`us`h` pci`
prahuäía hc `etgmarpas cstgnui`harcs h` tgrcýghc(hgrgdghas hgrct`ncetc `a
rcmcptar hc X]L(XR@b),
X]L(XR@b), a quc rcsuit` cn prahuäía cxmcssg
cxmcssgv`
v` has larnø
larnøegas
egas
tgrcaghg`eas , gehcpcehcetc ha X]L. @içn hgssa, murs` man ajt`inap`tg`
prç-tgbg`i).  
(cxajt`ing`) c hcrnap`tg` (ngxchcn` prç-tgbg`i). 

(BNEX); M`r`mtcrgz`-sc pci` prcsceä` hc eýhuias ea

Býmga nuitgeahui`r týxgma (BNEX); 
tgrcaghg`ea, quc `hqugrcn mcrt` `utaeang` c mancä`n ` prahuzgr
p`rëequgn` tgrcaghg`ea,
larnøega, icv`eha æ un` prahuäía cxmcssgv` c m`p`z hc dcr`r a
lgpcrtgrcaghgsna. Hgjcrcetc h` haceä` hc Dr`vcs, mastun` `manctcr n`gs
gehgvîhuas ghasas.

@hcean` týxgma (haceä` hc piunncr);  eýhuia m`p`z hc

piunncr); Vrcsceä` hc un ûegma eýhuia 
`uncet`r ` prahuäía hc larnøegas tgrcaghg`eas
tgr caghg`eas gehcpcehcetcncetc ha cstînuia
ha larnøega tgrcacstgnui`etc (X]L).

gehaiar;   Ç un` maehgäía hcscem`hc`h` par un`

Xgrcaghgtc sub`duh` gehaiar;
tgrcaghc, a quc icv` ` igbcr`äía hc larnøega prç-jarn`ha quc
geji`n`äía h` tgrcaghc,
cst`v` cstam`ha eas jaiîmuias. @ geji`n`äía pahc hcmarrcr ha usa hc
nchgm`ncetas (iîtga, getcrjcrae-`ij`, `ngah`rae`), scr maescquëemg` hc
`utagnuegh`hc (`uta`etgmarpas pasgtgvas), amarrcr ea pcrîaha pýs-p`rta au scr
ghgapàtgm`. Dcr`incetc hcscem`hcg` qu`hra icvc c tr`esgtýrga, eía ecmcssgt`eha
hc tr`t`nceta nchgm`ncetasa. Cn m`sas nugta sgetanàtgmas, pahc scr prcsmrgta
un bct`biaquc`har. Z`ic hcst`m`r quc `s hrad`s `etgtgrcaghg`e`s eía juemgae`n
 

e`s tgrcaghgtcs, pags a hgstûrbga ç ` igbcr`äía hc larnøega kà cstam`ha e` diâehui`

c eía un `unceta h` sîetcsc larnae`i.

Xgrcaghgtc sub`duh` haiaras` hc Hc Pucrv`ge(au tgrcaghgtc dr`euian`tas`

sub`duh`); Hcmarrc hc un` gejcmäía hc vg` rcspgr`týrg` supcrgar, hc argdcn vgr`i,

sub`duh`); Hcmarrc
`tu`i au rcmcetc, quc icv` æ `tgv`äía igejamgtàrg`, m`p`z hc `t`m`r a tcmgha
tgrcaghg`ea c m`us`r h`ea æs mçiui`s jaigmui`rcs, sujgmgcetc p`r` ruptur` c igbcr`äía
hc larnøegas tgrcaghg`eas prç-jarn`ha. Ecsscs m`sas, ` tgrcaghc ç haiaras` (har
mcrvgm`i, quc pahc grr`hg`r p`r` as hcetcs c auvghas) c cehurcmgh`. A qu`hra, cn
dcr`i, ç `utaigngt`ha, man hur`äía hc :-02 scn`e`s? c pahc scr `manp`el`ha
par jcbrc, n`i-cst`r c `unceta hc prav`s geji`n`týrg`s ”  vciamgh`hc hc
lcnasschgncet`äía (ZL]) c pratcîe` M rc`tgv` (VMR). A hg`deýstgma ç miîegma c
a tr`t`nceta ç jcgta `spgrge` au autra `etg-geji`n`týrga eía-cstcrýghc, pahceha
scr `hgmgae`ha un bct`biaquc`har, sc nugta sgetanàtgma. V`r` harcs n`gs

getces`s scn ncilar` man @@] c @GECs pahc scr ecmcssàrga a usa hc
digmamartgmýghc( prchgeas` 86-:6nd/hg`).
86-:6nd/hg`).

]cmrcäía cmtýpgm` hc larnøega tgrcaghg`ea; 

tgrcaghg`ea;  @ prcsceä` hc `idues tunarcs,
mana a strun` av`rgg, pahc hcscem`hc`r ` scmrcäía hc larnøega tgrcaghg`ea hc
jarn` cmtýpgm`.

PS@HRA MIÎEGMA

Hcpcehceha ha cxmcssa hc larnøega tgrcaghg`ea, a qu`hra pahc scr hc br`eha

`tç nugta sgetanàtgma, pahceha cn m`sas cxtrcnas cvaiugr man mrgsc tgrcatýxgm`.
Ç csscemg`i rcmaelcmcr `s n`egjcst`äócs n`gs manues h` tgrcataxgmasc, scnprc
`ssamg`eha man lgpcr`tgv`äía ha sgstcn` sgnpàtgma.

As prgemgp`gs sge`gs c sgetan`s sía; gesøeg`,  trcnar, t`qugm`rhg`, p`ipgt`äía,

hgvcrdcetc  (rcsuit`etcs ha `unceta has
suharcsc c lgpcrtcesía `rtcrg`i hgvcrdcetc 
rcmcptarcs bct`-`hrceçrdgmas, mcetr`i c pcrgjçrgma)? paigj`dg`, cn`drcmgnceta
cn`drcmgnceta   c
 

lgpcrm`imcng` (hcmarrc ha `ita nct`baigsna b`s`i)? getaicrâemg` `a m`iar c

marpar`i (hcvgha ` n`gar prahuäía ha m`iar).
`unceta h` tcnpcr`tur` marpar`i 

Vahcn amarrcr ecrvasgsna, i`bgigh`hc cnamgae`i, grrgt`bgigh`hc, lgpcrhcjcm`äía,

bcn mana `itcr`äócs hc pcic c jâecras (` cxcnpia, quch` hc m`bcia c uel`s

qucbr`hgä`s).

býmga   ç rcsuit`etc ha `unceta ha vaiunc h` tgrcaghc, dcr`incetc

A býmga
`manp`el`ha hc jrëngta c sapra pcia `unceta ha jiuxa s`eduîeca. V`r` cjcgtas
pràtgmas, lgpcrtgrcaghgsna `manp`el`ha hc býmga hgjusa ç maesghcr`ha
hg`deýstgma hc Haceä` hc Dr`vcs.

Autr`s n`egjcst`äócs miîegm`s gemiucn ajt`inap`tg` hc Dr`vcs (`manctc 36%

has p`mgcetcs), hcrnap`tg` gejgitr`tgv` (ngxchcn` prç-tgbg`i), rchuäía has eîvcgs
hc maicstcrai c astcaparasc.

HG@DEÝ]XGMA

Larnøegas tgrcaghg`eas;
tgrcaghg`eas; A hg`deýstgma hc tgrcataxgmasc ç cst`bcicmgha man `
has`dcn has larnøegas tgrcaghg`eas; X]L, X8 igvrc c X= tat`i. Ea
lgpcrtgrcaghgsna, ç gnpart`etc ` has`dcn ha X= tat`i, kà quc `idun`s sgtu`äócs
pahcn nastr`r X]L suprgngha man X= cicv`ha c X8 earn`i, 
earn`i,   par cxcnpia e`
suspcgt` hc X=-taxgmasc (lgpcrtgrcaghgsna man X8 earn`i c t= cicv`ha) au
X=.  
tgrcataxgmasc gehuzgh` pci` gedcstía hc X=. 

@etgmarpas; @etgtgrcadiabuige` (@etg Xd) c `etgtgrcapcraxgh`sc (`etg-XVA) pahcn

@etgmarpas; 
scr cemaetr`has cn 43% has p`mgcetcs man haceä` hc dr`vcs, maejgrn`eha `
prcsceä` hc haceä` tgrcaghg`e` `uta-gnuec. Cequ`eta quc a XR@b ç n`gs
cspcmîjgma c `uxgig` ea hg`deýstgma hc haceä` hc Dr`vcs, kà quc 73% has m`sas
scría pasgtgvas. Maetuha, eía ç maesghcr`ha un cx`nc csscemg`i p`r` a
hg`deýstgma. @pce`s cn `idun`s sgtu`äócs, ç vàigha ` su` has`dcn, t`gs mana;
 

p`mgcetcs man lgpcrtgrcaghgsna scn býmga c scn miîegm` m`r`mtcrîstgm` hc Dr`vcs,

dcst`etcs man `etcmchcetc hc haceä` hc Dr`vcs (p`r` `v`ig`r rgsma hc
tgrcataxgmasc jct`i pci` p`ss`dcn tr`espi`mcetàrg` ha XR@b), p`mgcetcs
cutgrcýghcas man `manctgnceta amui`r sudcstgva hc ajt`inap`tg` hc Dr`vcs c

p`r` `v`ig`äía ha rgsma hc rcmghgv` `pýs ` suspcesía ha tr`t`nceta

rgsma). 
nchgm`ncetasa (tîtuias `geh` cicv`has `uncet`n a rgsma). 

Sitr`ssaeadr`jg`;  X`nbçn eía ç maesghcr`ha un cx`nc csscemg`i ea

Sitr`ssaeadr`jg`; 
hg`deýstgma ha lgpcrtgrcaghgsna, cxmcta sc là p`ip`äía hc eýhuias `a cx`nc
jîsgma. Ecsscs m`sas, ci` ç m`p`z hc `v`ig`r a t`n`ela h` diâehui`, `
cmadcegmgh`hc, prcsceä` hc eahui`rgh`hc c ` v`smui`rgz`äía `a happicr. @
utgigz`äía ha happicr pahc `uxgig`r e` `v`ig`äía ctgaiýdgm`, kà quc a jiuxa
s`eduîeca e` haceä` hc Dr`vcs ç nugta `ita, e` tgrcaghgtc hc L`slgnata cicv`-
sc un pauma c e` tgrcaghgtc sub`duh` ç qu`sc `uscetc.

Mgetgiadr`jg`;  @ mgetgiadr`jg` eía ç abrgd`týrg`, prgemgp`incetc hgspcesàvci eas

Mgetgiadr`jg`; 
m`sas cn quc ` lgstýrg`, a cx`nc jîsgma c as cx`ncs i`bar`targ`gs kà jarcn nugta
tîpgmas h` haceä` hc Dr`vcs. Ea cet`eta, ci` hcvc scr jcgt` sc hûvgh` ctgaiýdgm`.
Pu`eha ` diâehui` ç qucetc, ci` pahc hcnaestr`r un` m`pt`äía hgjus`,
sudcrgeha haceä` hc Dr`vcs. ]c ` m`pt`äía ç eahui`r hgjus`, sudcrc BNEX. Kà
sc ç eahui`r ûegm`, man gegbgäía ha rcst`etc ha p`rëequgn`, sudcrc `hcean`
týxgma. Cetrct`eta, sc ` diâehui` jar jrg` (scn `unceta h` m`pt`äía), sudcrc
tgrcataxgmasc par autr` m`us` quc eía a lgpcrtgrcaghgsna.

XR@X@NCEXA

Nchgh`s sgetanàtgm`s; A tr`t`nceta has sgetan`s `hrceçrdgmas h` tgrcataxgmasc

bct`biaquc`harcs,, cxmcta sc maetr`gehgm`ha (par
hcvc scr jcgta man bct`biaquc`harcs
gesujgmgëemg` m`rhî`m` maedcstgv` hcsmanpces`h` au `sn` dr`vc). Rcmanceh`-
sc a usa hc prapr`eaiai
prapr`eaiai   au `tceaiai. Mana `itcre`tgv`, pahc-sc us`r
màimga, mana vcr`p`ngi au hgitg`zcn.
biaquc`harcs has m`e`gs hc màimga,
 

Xgae`ngh`s;   ]ía `s hrad`s hc csmail` p`r` a tr`t`nceta ha lgpcrtgrcaghgsna.

Xgae`ngh`s;
Ea Br`sgi, là hgspaegbgigh`hc ha prapgitgaur`mgi (VXS) c ha nctgn`zai
nctgn`zai   (NN[).
X`eta a VXS, qu`eta a NN[ `dcn rchuzgeha ` prahuäía hc X= c X8 pci`s mçiui`s
jaigmui`rcs tgrcaghg`e`s. Cetrct`eta, sý a VXS tcn a ncm`egsna `hgmgae`i hc

rchuzgr ` maevcrsía pcrgjçrgm` hc X8 cn X=, prgemgp`incetc sc utgigz`ha cn `it`s

hascs. @içn hcss` rchuäía h` sîetcsc larnae`i, `s tgae`ngh`s tën un cjcgta
gnueanahui`har, au sck`, sía m`p`zcs hc rchuzgr ` gnuegh`hc maetr` ` diâehui`.

A nctgn`zai ç scnprc ` prgncgr` csmail`, par passugr ncilar rcspast`

tcr`pëutgm` c ncear rgsma hc lcp`tataxgmgh`hc, cxmcta ea prgncgra trgncstrc h`
dcst`äía, aehc ç prcjcrîvci a usa hc prapgitgar`mgi (pcia rgsma `uncet`ha hc
`pi`sg` mutgs c cnbrgap`tg`s man usa hc nctgn`zai ecssc pcrîaha).

As cjcgtas mai`tcr`gs n`gs tcnghas h`s tgae`ngh`s sía ` `dr`euiamgtasc c `

lcp`tataxgmgh`hc, cetrct`eta sía cjcgtas r`ras man gemghëemg` hc mcrm` hc 6,3%.
Var gssa ç gnpart`etc ` rc`igz`äía hc un lcp`tadr`n` c un icumadr`n` `etcs
ha geîmga ha tr`t`nceta (9 366 ecutrýjgias/nn= au sc `s tr`es`nge`scs
cstgvcrcn 5 3 vczcs a igngtc supcrgar h` earn`igh`hc maetr`-gehgm`n a geîmga h`
nchgm`äía).

Rcmanceh`-sc a usa ha `dcetc `etgtgrcaghg`ea par 02 ` 0< ncscs, ncsna quc

 kà earn`igz`ha as eîvcgs larnae`gs, vgs`eha gnueanahui`äía c hgngeugeha,
`ssgn, `s ml`emcs hc rcmghgv`. ]c rcmghgv` au maetr`gehgm`äía `a usa h`s hrad`s
`etgtgrcaghg`e`s, ` tcr`pg` hcjgegtgv` mana ` tcr`pg` man gaha r`hga`tgva au
tgrcaghcmtang`, hcvc scr maesghcr`h`.

r`hga`tgva;  Xr`t`nceta ea qu`i a p`mgcetc rcmcbc un` hasc

Xcr`pg` man gaha r`hga`tgva; 
ar`i hc gaha r`hga`tgva (G 0=0), quc sc grà sc `munui`r cn tcmghas àvghas par gaha,
mana ` tgrcaghc, c m`us`r ` su` hcstrugäía. Ç maesghcr`ha un rcmursa scdura,
cjgmgcetc c man cxmcicetc rci`äía musta-bcecjîmga, prahuzgeha cutgrcaghgsna cn
scgs ` agta scn`e`s. @s prgemgp`gs maetr`gehgm`äócs ` css` tcr`pg` sía; dcst`äía
 

c `icgt`nceta (pcia rgsma h` r`hg`äía), c as dr`ehcs býmgas (pcia rgsma hc

tcnpcst`hc tgrcaghg`e`, par dcr`r un `unceta rcpcetgea hc larnøega e`
mgrmui`äía)

Xgrcaghcmtang`;  Kà
Xgrcaghcmtang`;  Kà a tr`t`nceta mgrûrdgma pahc scr rcscrv`ha p`r` as p`mgcetcs
man lgpcrtgrcaghgsna `ssamg`ha ` prcsceä` hc eýhuia suspcgta p`r` n`igdegh`hc.
Vahc scr gehgm`ha t`nbçn e`qucics quc tcel`n `idun tgpa hc maetr`gehgm`äía
`s tcr`pg`s nceas gev`sgv`s, mana amarrc eas dr`ehcs býmgas.

MRG]C AS XCNVC]X@HC XGRCAXÝ\GM@

Ç ` manpigm`äía n`gs dr`vc ha lgpcrtgrcaghgsna

lgpcrtgrcaghgsna,, sceha ` haceä` hc Dr`vcs `
m`us` n`gs manun. @ tcnpcst`hc tgrcaghg`e` pahc scr hcji`dr`h`
prgemgp`incetc par gejcmäía, mgrurdg`, tr`b`ila hc p`rta, tr`t`nceta man
r`hgagaha, suspcesía h`s hrad`s `etg-tgrcaghg`e`s, usa hc maetr`stc gah`ha,
mcta`mghasc hg`bçtgm`, gej`rta `duha ha ngamàrhga c `mghcetc v`smui`r cemcjàigma.

@s n`egjcst`äócs sía `s ncsn`s `prcscet`h`s cn tgrcataxgmasc, ea cet`eta, hc

jarn` cx`mcrb`h`. Gemiucn  jcbrc `it`,  t`qugm`rhg` cxmcssgv` (5086bpn),
hg`jarcsc, gesujgmgëemg` m`rhî`m`, `itcr`äócs cn ]EM ]EM  (`dgt`äía, hciîrga, psgmasc
d`strgetcstge`i   (hg`rrcg`, har `bhange`i, gesujgmgëemg`
c man`) c cn sgstcn` d`strgetcstge`i
lcpàtgm` c gmtcrîmg`). A qu`hra miîegma pahc cvaiugr p`r` tarpar, hcsghr`t`äía,
`zatcng` c ýbgta.

A hg`deýstgma ç csscemg`incetc miîegma. V`r` tr`t`nceta, hc naha dcr`i, `s

mi`sscs j`rn`maiýdgm`s utgigz`h`s sía as bct`biaquc`harcs (prapr`eaiai), `s
 tgae`ngh`s (mana prapgitgaur`mgi) c as manpastas man gaha geardâegma.
geardâegma. @
`barh`dcn hc supartc ç jcgt` prcjcrcemg`incetc cn SXG.

A n`ecka h` mrgsc hcvc scr b`sc`ha cn 3 manpaecetcs; (0) V`r` mrgscs

tgrcatýxgm`s par lgpcrtgrcaghgsna, ` hgngeugäía h` sîetcsc c h` scmrcäía hc
 

larnøegas tgrcaghg`eas, man prapgitgaur`mgi (VXS) au nctgn`zai (NN[) + iudai (sc

maetr`gehgm`ha, apt`-sc par m`rbae`ta hc iîtga)? (2) A biaqucga h` `äía pcrgjçrgm`
has larnøegas tgrcaghg`eas ç jcgta man prapr`eaiai + hcx`nct`sae` + VXS +
àmgha gap`eagma? (=) Rcnaäía ha cxmcssa hc larnøegas, `tr`vçs hc

maicstgr`nge`, pi`sn`jçrcsc, lcnapcrjusía man m`rvía c hgàigsc? (8) ]upartc

man lghr`t`äía, rcpasgäía cictraiîtgm`, `etgtçrngmas (p`r`mct`nai au hgpgrae`, hc
prcjcrëemg`), supicncet`äía hc axgdëega c rcpausa? c, (3) Xr`t`nceta ha j`tar
prcmgpgt`etc.

LGVAXGRCAGHG]NA

GEXRAHSÄÍA

A lgpatgrcaghgsna ç ` sîehranc miîegm` m`r`mtcrgz`h` pci` hcjgmgëemg` hcsscs

larnøegas
cemaetr`h`stgrcaghg`eas. Rcprcscet`
e` pràtgm` miîegm`. un`
@manctc n`gsh`s p`taiadg`s
a scxa jcngegean`gs
c su`prcv`icetcs
gemghëemg`
`uncet` man ` gh`hc.

CXGAIADG@

@s m`us`s hc lgpatgrcaghgsna pahcn scr hgvghgh`s cn prgnàrg`s

prgnàrg`s   (par n`u
scmuehàrg`s   (par hcjgmgëemg`
juemgae`nceta h` tgrcaghc? 73% has m`sas), scmuehàrg`s
lgpajgsàrg` hc X]L) au  tcrmgàrg`s 
 tcrmgàrg`s  (sc hcjgmgëemg` lgpat`iângm` hc XRL). @
hgjcrcemg`äía cetrc m`us`s scmuehàrg`s c tcrmgàrg`s ecn scnprc ç passîvci,

sceha a tcrna lgpatgrcaghgsna mcetr`i a n`gs `hcqu`ha p`r` cediab`r css`s

p`taiadg`s.

Lgpatgrcaghgsna
Vrgnàrga Xgrcaghgtc hc L`slgnata
Haceä`s maedëegt`s
G`tradëegm` c nchgm`ncetas`
Ncear ajcrt` hc gaha
Mcetr`i Haceä` lgpajgsàrg` c/au lgpat`iângm`
 

Xgrcaghgtc hc L`slgnata; Ç ` prgemgp`i m`us` hc lgpatgrcaghgsna ea `huita cn

rcdgócs sujgmgcetcs hc gaha. Gssa parquc su` jgsgap`taiadg` eía ç gejiucemg`h`
hgrct`ncetc par j`it` ha substr`ta gaha. Ci` ç hcscem`hc`h` par un pramcssa
`utagnuec, cn quc là gejgitr`äía hc igejýmgtas c `uta`etgmarpas, mana `
`utagnuec,
(@etg-XVA)) c ` `etgtgrcadiabuige` (@etg-Xd). Css` gejgitr`äía
`etgtgrcapcraxgh`hc (@etg-XVA
dcr` un` geji`n`äía, quc ç m`p`z hc hcstrugr c m`us`r jgbrasc h` diâehui`, man
maescqucetc hgngeugäía h` su` jueäía. Z`ic icnbr`r quc, gegmg`incetc, pahc
murs`r man tgrcataxgmasc par igbcr`äía `brut` has larnøegas `rn`zce`has e`
diâehui`? c, a `etg-XVA ç a cx`nc hc ncilar scesgbgigh`hc c cspcmgjgmgh`hc,
cst`eha pasgtgva cn 73% has m`sas.

G`tradceg`;  X`nbçn ç un` passîvci m`us` hc lgpatgrcaghgsna prgnàrga. Gssa

G`tradceg`; 
parquc `idues pramchgncetas au prcsmrgäócs nçhgm`s pahcn manpranctcr `
jueäía h` diâehui` tgrcaghg`e`. As cxcnpias sía tgrcaghcmtang`,
r`hgagahatcr`pg`, r`hgatcr`pg` cn tunarcs hc m`bcä` c pcsmaäa, `içn hc usa hc
( `ngah`rae` c maetr`stc gah`ha).
nchgm`ncetas rgmas cn gaha (`ngah`rae` gah`ha). Cstcs pahcn
m`us`r lgpatgrcaghgsna par un ncm`egsna cspcmîjgma, ml`n`ha hc cjcgta hc
Taijj-Ml`goajj , m`r`mtcrgz`ha par ’hcsigd`nceta„ (’ajj„) h`
h ` diâehui` `a scr
cxpast` f` un` dr`ehc qu`etgh`hc hc gaha.

maedëegt`s;   Vahcn scr ` m`us` hc lgpatgrcaghgsna, mana amarrc e`

M`us`s maedëegt`s;
`dcecsg` tgrcaghg`e`, e` prcsceä` hc tgrcaghc cmtýpgm` c hgsjuemgae`i, e`
hgsnarjadëecsc c e` prcsceä` hc nut`äócs ea rcmcptar ha X]L.

Býmga cehëngma; Amarrc par m`rëemg` hc gaha e` hgct`, hgct`, tîpgma hc rcdgócs
dcadràjgm`s cn quc là hcjgmgëemg` hcssc cicnceta. Nchgh`s mana ` `hgäía hc
gaha ea s`i hc mazgel`, mana ç rc`igz`h` ea Br`sgi, rchuz as m`sas hc býmga.

Mcetr`i;  @itcr`äócs cstrutur`gs au juemgae`gs 

Lgpatgrcaghgsna Mcetr`i;  juemgae`gs  ` eîvci hc
lgpatài`na au lgpýjgsc dcr`n getcrrupäía ha cgxa c maescqucetc
 

lgpatgrcaghgsna. Mana cxcnpia, pahc-sc mgt`r `s icsócs tunar`gs h` rcdgía

lgpat`iângma-lgpajgsrg`, `içn ha tr`t`nceta mgrûrdgma c/au r`hgatcràpgma hcss`s
lgpat`iângma-lgpajgs
icsócs. Cetrc m`us`s nceas manues, igst`nas; tr`un`tgsna mr`eg`ea, ecmrasc
pýs lcnarr`dg` lgpajgs
lgpajgsrg` ea pýs-p`rta (sîehranc hc ]lccl`e) c haceä`s

gejgitr`v`s (mana s`rmaghasc c `ngiaghasc).

PS@HRA MIÎEGMA

A qu`hra miîegma ha lgpatgrcaghgsna n`egjcsta ç bcn m`r`mtcrîstgma c

manprccehc sgetan`s c sge`gs quc gemiucn getaicrâemg` `a jrga, maestgp`äía, pcic
scm`, d`ela paehcr`i, rauqughía. @a cx`nc miîegma c i`bar`targ`i pahcnas
abscrv`r t`nbçn, br`hgm`rhg`, `ecng`, hgsigpghcng`, hgngeugäía h` tcnpcr`tur`
marpar`i c L@] maevcrdcetc.

A lgpatgrcaghgsna pahc pravam`r hcjgmgëemg` madegtgv`, p`rtgmui`rncetc

prabicn`s hc ncnýrg`. Autras `ml`has ecuraiýdgmas gemiucn hcprcssía,
psgmasc, `t`xg`, maevuisócs c man`.

HG@DEÝ]XGMA

A cx`nc i`bar`targ`i `prcscet` X8I b`gxa, man X]L `ita (prgnàrga) au b`gxa (sc
lgpatgrcaghgsna mcetr`i, sck` scmuehàrga au tcrmgàrga). Cn m`sas aehc là `unceta
ha X]L `ssamg`ha ` eîvcgs earn`gs hc X8I a hg`deýstgma ç hc lgpatgrcaghgsna
submiîegma.

Eas m`sas hc lgpatgrcaghgsna prgnàrga, ` tgrcaghgtc hc L`slgnata ç maesghcr`h`

` prgemgp`i m`us`. Vart`eta, ç rcmanceh`h` ` gevcstgd`äía man has`dcn has
`uta-`etgmarpas n`gs prcv`icetcs, mana a @etg-XVA c t`nbçn ` @etg-Xd.

@içn hgssa, cn `idues m`sas, ç passîvci quc sck`n ecmcssàrgas `idues cx`ncs
hc gn`dcn p`r` ` hcjgegäía ctgaiýdgm`. Var cxcnpia, un` tunar`äía lgpajgsàrg`
 

cvghcetc cn rcssaeâemg` n`deçtgm` hc sci` tûrmgm` pahc hcjgegr ` ctgaiadg` hc un

lgpatgrcaghgsna mcetr`i.

N`gs gnpart`etc `geh` hcvc scr ` `e`necsc hgrgdgh` c a cx`nc jîsgma, aehc

busm`-sc ` ghcetgjgm`äía hc passîvcgs nchgm`ncetas m`us`harcs ha

lgpatgrcaghgsna, bcn mana p`ss`ha hc mgrurdg` cn tgrcaghc (cvghcemg`ha par
mgm`trgz), tr`t`nceta man r`hgagahatcr`pg` c/au usa hc hrad`s `etg-tgrcaghg`e`s,
`içn hc r`hgatcr`pg` cn rcdgía mcrvgm`i par passîvci tunar hc m`bcä` c pcsmaäa.

XR@X@NCEXA

Hc naha dcr`i, a tr`t`nceta maesgstc cn rcpasgäía tgrcaghg`e`. @hat`-sc

rcjcrcemg`incetc man icvatgraxge` (IX8), par vg` ar`i, cn hasc ûegm` hgàrg`, pci`
kckun  (=6-:6 nge `etcs ha hcskckun), mana abkctgva hc cvgt`r
n`elí c cn kckun 
getcr`äócs c ncear `bsaräía getcstge`i.

@ hasc gegmg`i v`rg` hc `marha man ` gh`hc c a pcsa ha p`mgcetc, tceha `s mrg`eä`s
c `haicsmcetcs ecmcssgh`hcs n`garcs ha quc as `huitas. Cn dcr`i, p`r` `huitas
 kavces (0: ` :3 `eas), gegmg`-sc man 0,:-0,<nmd/Od hc pcsa ghc`i (nçhg` hc 066-
036nmd/hg`).

Maetuha, p`r` cvgt`r as cjcgtas mai`tcr`gs hc un` passîvci supcrhas`dcn,

p`mgcetcs man n`gar rgsma m`rhgav`smui`r (ghasas man n`gs hc :3 `eas au
marae`rgap`t`s) c p`mgcetcs part`harcs hc lgpatgrcaghgsna dr`vc hc iaed`
hur`äía hcvcn gegmg`r man un` hasc n`gs b`gx`, ` qu`i hcvc scr rc`kust`h` `as
paumas. Rcmanceh`-sc gegmg`r man 23-36 nmd/hg`, rc`kust`eha-sc ` hasc cn
02,3 ` 23nmd/hg`, cn getcrv`ias hc 03 ` =6 hg`s.

Pu`eta `a lgpatgrcaghgsna submiîegma, a tr`t`nceta ç `geh` maetravcrsa. E`

n`garg` h`s rcmanceh`äócs, a tr`t`nceta hcvc scr gestgtuîha sc hctcmäía hc
X]L pcrsgstcetcncetc `mgn` hc 06nS/I au sc hcscka hc dcst`r. Autr`s
 

maehgäócs, man ncear cvghëemg` miîegm`, pahcn eartc`r a geîmga ha tr`t`nceta,

t`gs mana; pasgtgvgh`hc has `etgmarpas `etgpcraxgh`sc, prcsceä` hc
uitr`ssaeadr`jg` sudcstgv` hc tgrcaghgtc, prcsceä` hc býmga, hgsigpghcng` c
sgetan`s hc lgpatgrcaghgsna.

A `manp`el`nceta c ` `v`ig`äía h` cjgmgëemg` tcr`pëutgm` hcvcn scr jcgtas man

has`dcn hc X]L `pýs :-< scn`e`s hc geîmga hc rcpasgäía larnae`i, kà quc cssc
mastun` scr a tcnpa ecmcssàrga p`r` a X]L sc `itcr`r ` m`h` nuh`eä` hc hasc.

]c a X]L `geh` cstgvcr cicv`ha, hcvc-sc `uncet`r ` hasc `tç ` su`

earn`igz`äía. Kà sc a X]L cstgvcr suprgngha, ` hasc ç maesghcr`h` cxmcssgv` c
hcvcrà scr rchuzgh`. @ nct` ç `tgedgr un X]L cn eîvci eîvci hc earn`
earn`igh`hc,
igh`hc,
prgargz`eha v`iarcs cetrc 6,3 c 2,3 cn `huitas kavces c `tç 4.3 eas p`mgcetcs
n`gs ghasas. @a `tgedgr ` ea
earn`igh`hc,
rn`igh`hc, ` rc`v`
rc`v`ig`äía
ig`äía pahc ama
amarrcr
rrcr ` m`h` 02
ncscs. M`bc rcss`it`r quc ea lgpatgrcaghgsna mcetr`i, a `kustc h` hasc eía
hcvcrà scr b`sc`ha ea X]L c sgn ea qu`hra miîegma c ea X8 igvrc, quc hcvc scr
n`etgha ea tcräa supcrgar h` earn`igh`hc. 

@pcs`r h` icvatgraxge` scr maesghcr`h` un nchgm`nceta cstàvci c scdura, hascs

cxmcssgv`s pahcn m`us`r un lgpcrtgrcaghgsna g`tradëegma au j`mtîmga. Mana
cjcgtas mai`tcr`gs, pahcn amarrcr jgbrgi`äía `trg`i (prgemgp`incetc cn ghasas),
lgpcrtcesía `rtcrg`i, lgpcrtrajg` hc vcetrîmuia csqucrha c haceä` ngamàrhgm`
gsquëngm`. @içn hgssa, `pcs`r hc `geh` maetravcrsa, hascs cxmcssgv`s hc
icvatgraxge` t`nbçn tcrg`n gnp`mta ea nct`baigsna ýssca, prchgspaeha
astcaparasc, cn cspcmg`i cn nuilcrcs pýs-nceap`us`.

MAN@ NG\CHCN@XA]A 
NG\CHCN@XA]A 

Xr`t`-sc hc un` maehgäía miîegm`, r`r`, quc sc n`egjcst` cn p`mgcetcs

(prgemgp`incetc ghasas) man lgpatgrcaghgsna prgnàrga au scmuehàrga, hc iaed`
hur`äía, c eía tr`t`has au ge`hcqu`h`ncetc tr`t`has. Ç un` jarn`
nct`býigm`, quc
hcsmanpces`h` ha cst`ha lgpatgrcaghca c un` cncrdëemg` nct`býigm`,
 

qu`eha eía hg`deastgm`h` c tr`t`h` gnchg`t`ncetc, sc `ssamg` æ un`

nart`igh`hc 536%.

AB]; A tcrna ’man`„, ` prgemîpga, ç gnprýprga, un` vcz quc a p`mgcetc, cn dcr`i,
AB]; 

eía sc `prcscet` man`tasa.

Cetrc as j`tarcs hcscem`hc`etcs, hcst`m`n; gejcmäócs,

gejcmäócs, gej`rta `duha ha
ngamàrhga, `mghcetc v`smui`r cemcjàigma, lcnarr`dg` hgdcstgv`, tr`un`,
lgpatcrng`, lgpadigmcng` c hcprcssía rcspgr`týrg`.

@ n`garg` has p`mgcetcs `prcscet` un` lgstýrg` mrøegm` hc lgpatgrcaghgsna, man

qucgx`s hc m`es`äa, getaicrâemg` `a jrga, d`ela hc pcsa, maestgp`äía getcstge`i c
pcic scm`. @içn hgssa, pahc pradrchgr p`r` ict`rdg`, hciîrga c man`.

abscrv`-sc lgpatcrng`  (icnbr`r h` prcsceä` hc aeh`s

Pu`eta `a qu`hra miîegma, abscrv`-sc lgpatcrng`
hc K Asbaurec ea CMD, quc ç un `i`rd`nceta ha PR] æs must`s ha `p`rcmgnceta
hc un cet`ilc jge`i),  jr`qucz`, lgpavcetgi`äía, br`hgm`rhg`, lgpae`trcng`
lgpae`trcng`   c
lgpadigmcng`. @ `v`ig`äía i`bar`targ`i pahc `uxgig`r ea hg`deýstgma.
lgpadigmcng`.

]ge`gs miîegmas cn man` ngxchcn`tasa

Xcnpcr`tur` Lgpatcrng` cstà usu`incetc prcscetc
@ jcbrc pahc eía scr hamuncet`h` cn m`sas hc gejcmäía
Vuisas Jrcquëemg` c `npigtuhc rchuzghas
Vrcssía `rtcrg`i ]gstýigm` earn`i c hg`stýigm` cicv`h`
M`bcias Drassas au jgeas c r`ias

Jàmgcs
Xgrcaghc Dratcsma man chcn`auj`mg`i
Zaiunc `uncet`ha eía au pcrgarbgtàrga, n`mradiassg`
p`ipàvci
Vahc l`vcr prcsceä` hc mgm`trgz par mgrurdg` `etcrgar
Vuinócs Jrcquëemg` rcspgr`týrg` b`gx`, sge`gs hc maedcstía puinae`r, hcrr`nc
picur`i, maesaigh`äía ea p`rëequgn` puinae`r
@bhanc Hgstcesía scmuehàrg` `a îica p`r`iîtgma c/au `smgtc, hgngeugäía au
`usëemg` hc ruîhas getcstge`gs
Mar`äía Br`hgm`rhg`, hgngeugäía ha gnpuisa `pgm`i, buil`s m`rhî`m`s `b`j`h`s,
`unceta h` àrc` m`rhî`m` c hcrr`nc pcrgmàrhga
Cxtrcngh`hcs Jrg`s, man chcn` eía hcprcssîvci cn nías c pçs
 

Vcic/uel`s Cspcss`h`, scm`, `n`rci`h` (par lgpcrm`ratcecng`), uel`s qucbr`hgä`s

Ecuranusmui`r Maejusía, tarpar, abeubgi`äía, j`i` icet`, maevuisócs, man`

VRAZ@;  
HGM@ HC VRAZ@;

]uspcgt`-sc hc man` ngxchcn`tasa qu`eha là

`itcr`äía ha cst`ha ncet`i, lgpatcrng` au `usëemg` hc
jcbrc e` passgbgigh`hc hc gejcmäía,
g ejcmäía, `ssamg`has æ
prcsceä` hc un j`tar prcmgpgt`etc.

Cx`ncs i`bar`targ`gs c rcsuit`has cspcr`has

X]L Dcr`incetc cicv`ha, gehgm`eha un` haceä` tgrcaghg`e` prgnàrg`
Cn m`sa hc maemcetr`äócs earn`gs au b`gx`s, maesghcr`-sc un
lgpatgrcaghgsna scmuehàrga, cxmcta un` haceä` dr`vc c/au hrad`s
t`gs mana hap`nge` au digmartgmaghcs
X8 igvrc B`gxa au gehctcmtàvci
Cictrýigtas Lgpae`trcng`
Asnai`rgh`hc sçrgm` B`gx`
Mrc`tgege` Cn dcr`i, cicv`h` (hcvgha æ hgngeugäía h` pcrjusía rce`i)
Digmcng` Lgpadigmcng` ç manun c t`nbçn pahc sudcrgr gesujgmgëemg` `hrce`i
MO Ssu`incetc cicv`h`
Lcn`týmrgta 9=6%
D]@ @unceta h` VMA2 c hgngeugäía h` VA2
Martgsai Hcvc scr hctcrnge`ha `etcs hc martgmatcr`pg`
Cictram`rhgadr`n` Br`hgm`rhg` sgeus`i, manpicxas PR] hc b`gx` `npigtuhc, PX
praiaed`ha, aeh`s X `ml`t`h`s au gevcrtgh`s
R\ hc týr`x M`rhgancd`ig`, hcrr`nc picur`i

E` suspcgt` hc man` ngxchcn`tasa, as p`mgcetcs hcvcría scr `hngtghas cn

uegh`hc hc tcr`pg` getcesgv` p`r` mugh`has rcspgr`týrgas c m`rhgav`smui`rcs? c a
tr`t`nceta gegmg`ha, ncsna `etcs h` maejgrn`äía i`bar`targ`i.
 

vcetgi`týrga,, gemiusgvc vcetgi`äía

@s prgargh`hcs gegmg`gs cediab`n; (0) ]upartc vcetgi`týrga
ncmâegm`, sc lauvcr lgpcrm`peg` au lgpýxg` gnpart`etcs. (2) Rcpasgäía
larnae`i gnchg`t`,
gnchg`t`, cequ`eta sc `du`rh`n rcsuit`has maejgrn`týrgas. @ n`garg`
icvatgraxge`  (I-X8), `a gevçs
has pcsqugs`harcs rcmanceh` a tr`t`nceta man icvatgraxge` 

h` trggahatgraege` (X=), par vg` cehavceas`. (=) @qucmgnceta 

@qucmgnceta  man mabcrtarcs
manues c un` s`i` qucetc. A `qucmgnceta ràpgha, `tgva, ç maetr`gehgm`ha, pags
pahc pravam`r v`sahgi`t`äía pcrgjçrgm` c gehuzgr a mlaquc mgrmui`týrga. (8)
@hngegstr`äía hc martgmaghcs,
martgmaghcs, `pýs ` maict` hc s`educ p`r` martgsai pi`snàtgma.
@hat`-sc lghramartgsae` 36 ` 066nd, hc </<l `tç ` rcmupcr`äía. (3) Xr`t`nceta
gejcmäía  `ssamg`h`. (:) Marrcäía hc lgpae`trcng` dr`vc
hc gejcmäía  dr`vc   (E` 9026nCq/I),
bcn mana hc autras hgstûrbgas lghracictraiîtgmas.

Autr`s getcrvceäócs gemiucn marrcäía hc lgpadigmcng` man digmasc, vg`

cehavceas`? tr`t`nceta hc lgpatcesía dr`vc, man `hngegstr`äía mugh`has` hc
saiuäía digmas`h` ` 3-06%, c saiuäía jgsgaiýdgm` ` 6,7% au s`ige` lgpcrtøegm`, sc
cxgstgr lgpae`trcng`? rc`kustc hc hasc hc qu`iqucr nchgm`äía p`r` manpces`r `
hgngeugäía h` pcrjusía rce`i? hgdgt`i au hgurçtgmas hcvcría scr `hngegstr`has
man m`utci` p`r` as p`mgcetcs man GMM.

Z`ic rcss`it`r quc, maesghcr`eha quc ` natgigh`hc getcstge`i cstà usu`incetc

hgngeuîh`, ` gedcstía `igncet`r eía hcvc scr pcrngtgh` `tç quc a p`mgcetc cstck`
`icrt` c man ruîhas lghra`çrcas `tgvas, qu`eha, cetía, `igncet`äía p`stas`
hcvcrà scr dr`hu`incetc gestgtuîh`.

]ía maesghcr`has j`tarcs hc n`u pradeýstgma; tcnpcr`tur` marpar`i 9=8¶M?

lgpatcrng` pcrsgstcetc, eía rcspaesgv` `tç 42l hc tcr`pg`? gh`hc `v`eä`h`?
br`hgm`rhg` man jrcquëemg` m`rhî`m` 988bpn? scptgmcng`? gej`rta ha ngamàrhga c
lgpatcesía `rtcrg`i.
 

@SXARRCDSI@ÄÍA VCIA GAHA

A cjcgta hc Taijj-Ml`goajj  ç un` rchuäía has eîvcgs hc larnøegas tgrcaghg`eas

(lgpatgrcaghgsna)
lgpatgrcaghgsna) gehuzgh` pci` gedcstía hc dr`ehcs qu`etgh`hcs hc gaha, par
jcchb`mo ecd`tgva.

A  jceøncea hc Kah-B`schaw
Kah-B`schaw   sc rcjcrc `a 
`a  lgpcrtgrcaghgsna
lgpcrtgrcaghgsna   gehuzgha, `pýs `
`hngegstr`äía hc gaha au gahcta, sck` par ncga hc supicncetas hgctçtgmas au hc
maetr`stc gah`ha.

HACEÄ@ HA CEJCRNA CSXGRAGHCA

Eas ûitgnas `eas, vcn `uncet`eha a hg`deýstgma hcss` maehgäía man `unceta
h`s uegh`hcs hc tcr`pg` getcesgv` pcia nueha, cst`eha `ssamg`ha `as p`mgcetcs
man maehgäócs gejcmgas`s au geji`n`týrg`s.

Cn p`mgcetcs getcre`has cn SXG, pahc-sc vcrgjgm`r un qu`hra hc cutgrcaghgsna

hacetc   (man `unceta ha rX=, bcn mana rchuäía ha X= c X]L), mana
hacetc
ncm`egsna hc manpces`äía hc un cst`ha geji`n`týrga, lgpcrnct`býigma c
maesunptgva.

@s mgtamge`s geji`n`týrg`s sía rcspaesàvcgs par gegbgr ` maevcrsía pcrgjçrgm` hc

X8 cn X=, rcsuit`eha cn eîvcgs hc X= tat`i c igvrc rchuzghas, man eîvcgs hc X8 c
X]L earn`gs eun prgncgra cstàdga. Maetuha, cn p`mgcetcs nugta dr`vcs pahc
amarrcr un` quch` hr`nàtgm` eas eîvcgs hc X8 c X= (sîehranc X8 b`gxa),
cxpigm`has par cstînuia `mcicr`ha ea nct`baigsna hc X8 c X=. A X]L, e` j`sc
mrîtgm`, pahc sc nastr`r rchuzgha (96,0nGS/i), cspcmg`incetc sc cn usa hc
digmamartgmaghcs au hap`nge`, c `unceta e` j`sc hc rcmupcr`äía h` haceä` ha
cejcrna cutgraghca.

@s v`rg`äócs has larnøegas tgrcaghg`eas pahcn scr hgvcrsgjgm`h`s hc `marha

man m`h` haceä`, p`r` j`mgigt`r, pahcnas icnbr`r hcssc naha; X= tat`i c igvrc
 

rchuzgha? X8 tat`i rchuzgha? c, X]L rchuzgha e` j`sc mrîtgm` c `uncet`ha e`

rcmupcr`äía.

Ecsscs m`sas, hcvc-sc cspcr`r 0 ` 2 ncscs p`r` `v`ig`äía h` jueäía tgrcaghg`e`.

HG@BCXC] NCIGXS] (HN)

ZG]ÍA DCR@I

Maesgstc eas hgstûrbgas ha nct`baigsna rci`mgae`ha `a lgpagesuigegsna

lgpagesuigegsna,,
m`t`býigma (’kckun cx`mcrb`ha„? abscrv`-sc
icv`eha ` un qu`hra m`t`býigma  abscrv`-sc pramcssas hc
lgpcrdigmcng`.
digmadceýigsc, pratcýigsc c igpýigsc, bcn mana digmaecadëecsc) c lgpcrdigmcng`.

MI@]]GJGM@ÄÍA 
MI@]]GJGM@ÄÍA 

0.  Hg`bctcs nciigtus tgpa 0  0  (HN0)

(HN0);;  @ hcstrugäía h`s mçiui`s-bct`
p`emrcàtgm`s m`us` hcjgmgëemg` `bsaiut` hc gesuige` c tcehëemg` ` mctasc,
pahceha tcr m`us`s `uta-gnuec (tgpa 0@) au ghgapàtgm` (tgpa 0B). A HN
tgpa 0@, m`r`mtcrgz`ha pci` prcsceä` hc `uta-`etgmarpas maetr` `etîdceas
p`emrcàtgmas, prchange` eas m`um`sg`eas. Amarrc cn 06% has hg`bçtgmas,
prcjcrcemg`incetc mrg`eä`s c `haicsmcetcs cetrc 3 c 08 `eas hc gh`hc.
M`r`mtcrgz`-sc par paigûrg`, paighgpsg`, paigj`dg` c pcrh` paehcr`i. @
ncilar jarn` hc hg`deýstgma i`bar`targ`i ç has`dcn hc pcptîhca M
(gehctcmtàvci)? c, pahc sc pcsqugs`r prcsceä` hc `etg-GM@/D@H
(`etgmarpas quc gehgm`n a m`ràtcr `uta-gnuec h` haceä`).
 

A tgpa 0B tcn m`us` hcsmaelcmgh` c prchange` cn ecdras c `sgàtgmas. Là

lgpcrdigmcng`, hcjgmgëemg` tcnparàrg` h` scmrcäía hc gesuige` c `usëemg` hc `uta-
`etgmarpa.

 
Hg`bctc nciigtus
2. manpicx`, (HN2);
(HN2)
tgpa 2hc
rcsuit`etc ; Ç un` hcsarhcn
gejiuëemg`s dceçtgm`slctcradëec`, hc ctgaiadg`
c `nbgcet`gs. Hcmarrc
prgemgp`incetc hc un` trî`hc hc `earn`igh`hcs quc gemiugr `unceta h`
prahuäía lcpàtgm` hc digmasc c `itcr`äía e` scmrcäía hc gesuige` c e` su`
`äía (rcsgstëemg` æ gesuige`), rchuzgeha ` utgigz`äía c `rn`zce`dcn hc
digmasc pcia ard`egsna. Cequ`eta ea p`mgcetc n`dra ` hcjgmgëemg` h`
scmrcäía gesuiîegm` ç a j`tar prcv`icetc, ea abcsa prchange` ` rcsgstëemg`
` `äía ha larnøega. Abcsgh`hc, hgct`s lgpcrm`iýrgm`s c schcet`rgsna sía
jrcqucetcs c `dr`v`n ` rcsgstëemg` æ gesuige`, dcectgm`ncetc hctcrnge`h`.
A manpaecetc dceçtgma ea hg`bctcs tgpa 2 ç nugta `tu`etc, a rgsma j`ngig`r

mlcd` ` 86%, qu`eha as hags p`gs sía hg`bçtgmas.

=.  Hg`bctc nciigtus dcst`mgae`i 
dcst`mgae`i  (HND)
(HND);; Manprccehc qu`iqucr getaicrâemg`
` digmasc, hc n`degtuhc v`rgàvci, mn geîmga au hg`deýstgma e` dcst`äía. @s
`itcr`äócs larnae`gs c nct`býigm`s h` dr`vghcz gehuzcn rcsgstëemg` æ
gesuige`, pahceha m`us`r hg`bctcs au getaicrâemg` ` digmasc cn 0-08% h`s
dr`vghczcs, dcr`incetc rcvcrsîvcgs ea pýs-p`rta. 
pýs-p`rta. 

8.  Hg`bctc nciigtus cspcmîjgma; 

cspcmîjgma; Hcst`m`-sc ` hg`bctcs `utagnuec i`tcetc ha
(I@H@),), hc cvaiuäía icet` c t`rhg`, m`r`mtcrgz`h` par hcjgmgëemg` hc
`huita (I@H@

gesuige` par hcstrugäía pradrcssgv` h`s gil`s p`emrcàtgmas. C ` hg`bctcs

tgpa NAHW
NAHW   (N`turgty-Aesct Hg`bctcs aj tlc Waued), m`r`mtcrgz`ha par
n`egjcst`äía prcmamc (cn dcr`i 923 `eas) c man tr`esngssía
`utassøngm` hange`etc? marrcspaehc ` un hcjcgta prgnàrga e` scmrcäía
h` gesuige`, `ssamg`h` ` hgsjueäía e` mçiui` β p`emrcàtgm`.
 

HG@DEÝ]XGMA

@ maejgrn`äía h` HN ç rc`igz`h` qu`eha là

•
  ]getan`s miàssgmas hc hg`bctcs + digmcng` `ic`týrg` gdu`i au supcrgar `
266nd/hI
•  Cn p`mgcetcs scn sgetan`s miàssgmas, sc lauvcr `itcr`äía hc `idun has
mrgtçrgas hg`deýstgmas (digmcng` hc kckun, XAXD, Lb@0M) a mrgtçrga
`itcr`ha hcvcrà scr rcpctgha p`r` maejgrn`äía hg`deýstgm`. ]c hags
mrgtçrgas hgjcrcetcs sc nastr`rcn `itcr`has (cx; digmasc > 0=2 c Lb@0M
> :.4%), eía sc j`z ecmcssàrga rcpctgäía has cx`ncs. ]c hags mrgtçrgas sc
cemaetr`n hgsmarh`etcs (cx; digmasc > 0=6 tatd > 0=3) a mrgtçrga quc
gehgm` hg`deýstgma hc HN 2 hcvc scr rcpctgha.

Mrgtçrgas Hg`deýstgmas
Earn`i Vrç-hg`bctc Hg`bctcs
Digmcng` hc Kckun 9066 066-023 ≣02: 
Digmcng` 2l `pýs XAXD man 43d hc digmasc 9086 086-077 ≣266 
Lcnadiabge` Digm`h` (Lb@0M) 93,4% 3,4-:,8% ≣:,3% 

AB]; A kckun ç hcjgegha mana ` j`it` m`iýrgm` par ea nîegna < lar`s. @ digmcng`
AB]; 
pi`snàtgm` m`su`i ç `quci` rc`igz`h` ` qu`iqucr lar` ha hg`, scn sc abscrv`r a
getcrv`ia hcshc ` ûitgn` rcjcgäía. Sn` h`s v`et`dces h` has`dcn h` Lb@0M ea
hg`deýstgma ha HN ç su` ba` marrci`äía man rgsma hc manpigm`äócs
ngmrav`smui`rcs (ngmra`edgap`tg`).
(ngmra`edgap`tg`).
 

R@]XRC@NCEXA

Zàigha cspcmg`incetc p`r` HN 2. Hcvc scr jcgta ` m`h` = `eas,

`eas, gemiugeha gh`hc
≣83 `eas au GNM 523, san`ha ` un j`tar
un j`tar hc rgsma,
rgsma, mana lgstýrg` j`ngig`r ha 0»
dr`u, haceä` m`rhgav`smui`r, L@], hgsigpghcng`, ]AV, schcet`rgsna, `m`etasc
egdr`es c hg`bctc nciigtus dcst`mgae`i.

XR@X@NCEXA

A `iva tcr`pëutgma
tcr`pëutgma   ç, cn dcr`i, Lb@0M 94%
94%   (rcjictc ` digmcng` nçhg` has
ûitgnas = ncscs).

V`r` maetraic h` v`rg`äía hgàrg`, ç gnpart`etc rc`igz`r ` digmcng` m`pgi`r  

`utanaegtargz`äía),), cspcmg`incetc cn HN0 c eas p`mgcetcs man HN 2
(`utanaegtargz`äía
hcpcehcetc hc gesuige`; n`etceha cetrc <6-0=6 ea pcrîaha prç-pr`ehg`i (`etcs
ha m`jç, `inaäa c k`et`) c 90<6, pýs-pr`ehg`i (2l `pýs rcjcgäía).

@içn hgssa, ç csscemg`i rcmanceh`r tcr`pg` eía j`rn`maiýdgm`, t`gs mana hgct` c
`tgvgh`hc jîsgm` c pcrh` hc pcsa.

Pu`eta `a usa hc nchgm`ncetas; 

nchgm`ncetas; 

V`r`  prç-hg`bctc
V`r`  prç-hg`bctc,, pahc maesghcr`r a usa h` nctjarnge` cn p`mgcetcs prç-
hg`bçtgmas man gh`hc 9:6 `eas, GNM 5=3 au lgstýrg` hc HN dcst`mgae`i.

V`r` HN0,
HN0,  sc gegmg` a tr`t`nceta man gesuige` cn hascs hc 6,2-6,8 S/Od/Hg`
pastcrgarncetc ` n`garg` hcsscs p`mgcetcs ecmcssgt`ría hc 6,: ` 6,4 S/Od/hg`. A
csqucn` cevaivc;
 

`)  Gesuige` b`s`i,

b`s`i, marrcspaehc ` `praxgn`h`ncetc 36% h` hasc tat`i hgàrg`
hc gesuige`, hc `äía icet` c praiaed`h`, mana EVL 2x/hg` au `eàiada
(hcdiuhcm`, hctcngr, di`rdge`) 0x/hg`?

pr`ehg`i, hc cjcgta ràpgha c gnchg`ta, `hngegstr`h` prcvg`ncetc

b)  Gesuige` pr`ehg`i,
`s rcjcgäócs, p`r` nct`baigz`äía has eutrgcetcs gedcrghas c p`r` marrcäía
hc lgpcrdigmcng`s, t`gs mana rcdui`r (`pigm`ha =nge `etcs h` rcjcgäía) au
igspra  (e` lar` h` rcjcgäía).
`eàiada igspra

As `eàiadas hc gesuige`, hc n`gar musta, rchuzcn ` gemghëemg` hc lgpadigmcng`

par `prcscet`rcn n`gar cst`bgigh`hc hc `äía. @içn hgssa, gssa pahc scr `hat`ha
getcesgva  (rc`igz`ha cn nûitgpi`s `pigm`äócs hgàrg`s, sceha ` hasc
man csqucn` getcesgva
tat`i ç jr`mgae`h` cn gesuige` b`s`i c pr`ehg`i) au cn gejusía maetîeu` (ç
p`hría-aura? `tr`vçs h` banb` hc gesuige`)

AB]; @ lgpcrdigmcng` n`tge`i

n`tge`i,, nugt`s vczcs, abscrv`h`s cn gesuigeatcr`pg`,
pahc scr cxpigm`h` par; (0) Jceøncea ha @ivarcmcr   (’n`elí hcspratcdgh`„); Ç
` gescesgbgigh`hc æ `äía h` gesuige` pci` n`elí, icv`eha æ lgpcrdigmcng`. Rcsuit`
h` igbcr`äía jgsgaiýdgm` has  has  larnøegas maetr`rrcdui`harcs (`hrce`ige`,
dium`dae, martgsai c DL (larnøega ha mrcsmgnceta). @ maehut` ç prcsmrcvcr `
t`rhc. Au, (2) Cjcgta ]anadyg (lgpadigmcng` h`
gesuige` b`s`i p`r` laràrga n`gs t`rhc.
n`hrud`h`); Xr`t`-sc hc un` lgpcrdigmcng` hc rcbatc, m`us`h`, par cxcnpia,
par hasc `it` hc gesuige`,
gesuige`, earn`incetc ` eagtc, a quc m`us` lgpadigmcng` hc
n`hrud`h` c maescqucetc lgpcrdigmcng` hc rcbatc pci` n`elí. V`r`

hg`deýstgma, ghc`incetc gehgm`-sc digmcng` m`pgi`r æs =l h` n`hrud`h`. A

n`ecka sc b`scg` cn rchuzgr ` hasc h` gesuige` b`s`ib`s`i   au rcmanceh`r `
mcg`.
getrahuäía h` mcg`.

Var jgn, p`r` 

p`r`  HN2,
HN2, ` prgncgr` hrad` hc csmail` ç nctjarnge`
nctjarnge`,, hcvceha scr
manbge`ha ` autr` mi`ssc sc eía ncilar` ha maetraic digmëngma (`unceta h`
Lb@0M), cn =-: ncscs.
 

@a sc `ssamg`r un` scdueh` hrad` ç gnpart`etc icv`r cn maesghcr`äía `s

manarbgh`hcs has p`mgcetcs, pags `idun` hrad`s pahcn `uxgig`r ea maetraic h`s
ncsn`s?

•
  E` prcsceä` hc haceä` m`rhgav`smui`r →  prcjcrc-sc `ssamg`äía hc
`eàiadas hc DIV-0 au gegbghar hc ]DIX2 (cstuhas nastr`r`n rchuäía
hc cvceta m`rhgav`smui`r man usa hcss`s hrad`s)

•  E` prcsceä` hc Gesujgmgëemg` rce`i nahcr`h` au Gesujgmgëemg` m`rhî`m`

→  prcjcrc-sc `ssamg`äía hc gegbghar hc ]DIX2 (cstuhas nastr`r`n

ncilar` h` jgitr`äía digancrui`r c hgngeugäía h`s getcre`äócs par GMM)

•  E` prcsceä` hc abcsgh`hc → prcjcrc-sc utgigz`äía hc @eàiada hc DIV-

0, hcvgha `a cjcgta `hgmgae`i hc pcrh` hc pcsa hcss`s nchgm`äócs.

Cn m`sas hc eía ncilar` man tcr`pg` manbge`h` `pýs =-: ncscs, hcvc-sc
`hgmgae`r gesuige` (gegmg`incetc, EVL eature` 06S? c, man pradrcssgva `unceta
h` hasc; EVL 2x/hg` cRcdui`r = x/hg`), bcn mana suspcehcr suijaegiurcg` au
pgadigt`zae` (rgsma hc lgpadigmcng`).

Z`ic rcss`it`r quc ` gesuigeatcr`pg` tcn gehgm`äía gnchg`t` cn m`sas hc;

lgpcrdigmcng` jr`em` (Lb@0M 506%, digmcng` ≣=66 c sgetanàtgmas), dr`vghcz,
hgsjueäía rce`i au lcpàtgm`, c sgtu`äócs hc cstrcssc (mgrurdg` c gejcmäócs).

M@R@MXCRÎ]XGM@] VRGEMGV@G] HA] LGVADIGMCNG@EXC] AR@G]

@ csmail` ha ncilar csqucn` tcr`pëutgma b`sc`ha e`s m`r`mtcrîstgm`s ha

gh`hc   (maesghcr`r rgsma hc lgpadigmcng` cn ghasas)? hur`äía ha
p`mgcetc; gh`hc
hg`bctcs (maesghcr`r rcscrv` p`emrcàtgm` hc gesuige`? qu`eta n`gar ` hur`äía
ncear ` ml`emc hc rcspaehcr ` scmrct`dadas hc gesuige`)? pcsa (prchanîega hc
rcsgstëemg` æ gesuige` cn abcsas c hçjgmgt hc scmrcäí
scmrcäíaa hc gesuige` cn n`dras)?
prcsceä` hc manarbgh`hcs
manarbgh`hcs  (maesghcr`r maetr`gehgm`äía hc hctcrnge`h`s hrad`s
 
 

cn haceä` rce`i, lcpàtgm`, d`stragetcstge`i, lgpatcesía pastur`i, rgsma hc

hcsghr`t`äía, par cxcnpia)? prcsceä` hc sgetan`s (maesghcr`r ecmcssgh`hc hc
marrcäía n`gs ràpgh` h` digmcng` cn p`mgcetc sgetanàtgma c/au m`t`býigma)? c,
prcsmrgäía   (natgv`äía, madegäía, supartc samg`i c
cxpcmt`tgv` hc `hcsía æ prcsmrgäía 

cmaeøngma).

@s hrad`s hcvcn scr gegmg`h`s e` ncear hasc, cspcmg`incetc `quci`s man n`gar
patcemg`i cn m`us`r lgpadigmcng` (suijaegiurçg`s c gesuige`) au man cjcgtas
`hvcrsas gehcsckàvcgs (cjcgtas d`stragetcstge`gs h` nctjarnge`). Hcvc-sc
`manp`el`r ` pradrcssía h` hasc maesghcr`eha `s nct`s tcr`pëutgm`s
cst`bcicmgh`s c/au a hcscevaivgnceta hc cvcetas `hvcrsas.

Jàrn`mas @etg-hg`bçtgmas
Ncm`egsna hc `äía Cjcgtas
]cesgbgigz`harcs Bgdu`egh` Rchuzgr ` rcsgstëemg` æ Vcrh` hc pcsa, cjcgtas
h` gesuige` (Nctjarnge`) gesuige` d`stragetcstge`gs (hg`rrcg` c
Nct`baigsna lcpàtgma mýigm`), rchuäía h` vgt`nge` B02 
c `mghasc iàtgm` (r`r`? cvgt`r cn
gesujgmgëemg`s m`rhî`m`s,
lcpàtgm`s c rce`gs). Rchuäía has
cjcgtas m`rhgav`smui`rcs.
Xg`zaighgechgae`s  Rchuzgr ` rcsgstëemg` æ @unceta ha pcsa, rctceäía
(Vgadigt`zae`) gesuige` lîhrgm`, pgar` h` GM c astcapceg`.
@äía pcrgjçrgm` Hur`bgigh`hc (cjcgta sustcet`ha)
(cspcmg`incetc nusmui`r) c bcecjîmga ha pcrjgi igpîhgma.
]cmrct`dadas ]uijaegiurcg` @uncet` gesuige` b`s`i Ràpgh` marrcäía ` digmcng`.
hc gesuige` (Digbcemi`ngh`, D`ela paehcr`i c lgpadigmcng`.
Digncpgrgh`, J`iëemg` scmuehàrg` (pcrh` hc
Digmi`zgh`) cjcgta man a tcnpa) c
Digegh` @uncet` gesuige` maetr`gehgm`ha e` GRM.
(Rcp`digegh`, pr`ehg`i
E`tcdigegh`) 
Gegbghar hc `bsaräía hc m`rbaghr`tas Gegbc `ij`-digmasgh`sc, Ji`tuiëemg` gnpart`etc. ]cn
(@m`rbasc)  man `äía pýs-pr`ehg`i  cjcgta sgstëngma. Maetr`gehgm`h`
e` GRM.
Gemrctge` c @eàiadas ha @uncet` h` gemrctge` Rchuäía ha pcsa c bcecjîmga
ngnçtgmas DIV-0  (DGV c DIV0), man m`rhgav`smui`r. V`emrc`tgtc c M@
(Igr`diutgh`, `unceta h` gesuige` hc tgrcaghc.
Hci`diutgh`) hcpcehcetc c rchuäía ha
dium`dae? `dc ea rcmcptar
 

Gegbghar h` HHV- Gegbc ` cezgn` Srtgmàrg` c `edgachcn`. ]cn

GZ (]gt`digptge`, hcdr`h`har h`s gemrctge`s cjcgta hc lgpadigmcng` c scn
Zgh`digptge`)  pcrh`/d`ela paehcr`i
]cmrctarcs hc digmasc Gegbgharcs h` ]DIX2 Vcrh` hc pcsa, rchuäía h` V@,
(Cnp`digjiazge, H`p`digjiazge, (matr`espart`har E`-Dig- bcecjîmga m`rhgav`smui`r c rce`i.
M`e`digjiazge) 2), `tu` e` rchuäía h` Vaigûrg`, GXS hc rcpctgäía c

rc`bsaräía tubui`r hc
digmasc, ea rgn `nput`äócs.

MANVIGM@ÄÓC] MRØEGM@]

@s manpigm`äócs mrøegm`s, pahcn scr; (0) N`mrav`smui`r;  Gemiucn G@N

N`mrav`smui`r; Gemiucn G@N  c @ZC
@ZC,, c
`prcscet`n rci`äía man L@] c hgsigpghcng`. Rcprcscet`n n`gar m`us` hc
Ngmrav`smui`r;  @manctc prgemgp`incetc rctge`, rgn c sgstcn`
ýbgta. Au, (2) Ngmrav`smui`r; 
ecuraiýdgma..
ecuraiýdgma

]ía haceä`s hcbgigt`etcs man n`gar rci`äía æ lgpcrdigmcng`. A r`strc`nceta ç

`eu`i, gegmg`-sc `pýs 3 `eas ha geîmga h` haceä` cn HN0 c ea nanceta ha
hg`deýstgma cn m`sa hc HN2.

A maetraic digmëngma ç un` h`s jcrr`ncet`s n`gs gnpart`etcs p`r` rchuzgr `s

manpigm`äócs mrøegm`s h` hg`bctcs. Sn dr`ehc cstuha ml`n`ha hc Xlc Hg`bctcs
Maetrai `eh Manpigm`tgaes Xrg`i (HMMX) rcvciau quc a maetraic digmëngma rchuzgu
`s t`x`s hc rctgeap`tg` praigjcr`tgv` c eía praigjcr`tgv` cn 84%, `
ngmra`ibungeûrg` cn =7%, ` ecjrap`tg` miîegm` cn =7% c ` ecurap`tg` cn :6%.

HG@BÇXGM@ 
RCXGEAV@XG@ HG@BÇXGM@ 

hg`bçtgm` pahc scr r`strc`h` par ncga h` juehasmapg`

@ rctgeap`tg` hg`bçtgm`  h` juehasmapg`..

E`  j`sc eía-praigjcr`tgv`
eía-praigjcr`tgv`,, abscrv`-sc ngmra`ecurgsn`, cxsuh`ta hura,
rasàrga ? a
lcnarr`dg` cn ml`n`-hc-vci`, n`eml` `idahaeas` c vcg`s cn rasàrga?
tr`t`nceta maesgstc cn maetraic h` digmcng`, `tceta ` dcst`etcs.
 

praigjcr`tgv`,, par su` vcz, eat`-sc ` ecav`smui`rgz`äía

E` praigjcr`tgv` ecav`smui`rgz`äía?? a tr`t`nceta sc
b`scg` cn `etg-ZCDJ au jatama`dui`ä
jatama`dui`äía.
ía.

ECJRAV@XG@ HG@BÇXGM@

sçrgm`,,
@ ecjrap`tg` hg`bçtgm` ç pcsqugs`h` par ncga h` `ibungeûrg` + mrc`tgege` sçrgm`
c rcprcscet` un` h`s prgemgp`gs m`us`s hc gesujgmgëemg` rce`i mrøegm` (GRM) ea
nueha.  
nueha.

@ su` cvaiuäía ç hgvghgh` cn scdugetcs j`scs;

(0) Lgpcrjgitr`äía diancrui`r; 

diancrui`r; Xr`t`-sc hc j`sc prç-ecjrap`tg`, rcvcrsîvci `tr`vçs
ha maetraic digmëngm`. Æ ngmrasmapg`, abscrv`-sc cspcss`nceta h` ncnbr`e`
`uncet`has..
b`s`i diancrui`r, lgpcrtrajg` diancrui`r c tubui`r, bcn mana rges `uncet`has

(2) Ngmra`ibungeûrg`;  urge` 

Ngmra`ibungeûrg`; Hcjgec-sc par pcrh` hc pratcîe` =6-=66nd/hg` e` urge` 

hc 28l,lgstap`taiýdgma.
cx`nc au r`zía `ibunge`/mrc`tgege`
Ç n`rm`har hc5=6nd/d `nastr`  gemgpgcetc
cnhg`bçtgm`
ecjrap`tg` `nastr` `ic`týrg`? c,
c ea
sc
`ssamg` man icsía ngmrav`smui`r sgstëngma c haceä` m`rhgav`smui`r  (man n`gar
rgsma hc 3x).

(=) Vratcgeûrg`; M`r`mtcrgz`-sc par `ibunge` 5=66nd/hg`. 

5=66nd/hg`.  Ç ` icsía rce`i
hg`bçtgm` hcmi`r`h`, `ssamg`eha æs manpigm`äócs, mana L@], chcn` c
rctgeap`tg`, au `dr`v`nceta. E` bgýpsg`, `içn h` cxp`esía `mciui`r h` n`trgz
 

csmicrasc? pahc scr jam`i (diancruiacsmicrasc eahui`r

ncs`edg`i, là mai`psa c csmicrasc?
au hc Ognncisgtci-Tgisae
Ognncisgtci-Tgisae)) au hgjus` (diancruiacsmicrasc
(diancruiacsmicrasc hgjus`?
hgjus`? n`gs
jrcqucetc).

A tr`t`nceta cevaivc maetraic rgdarasa h` digmcng` (Lb@0m ≨4%),

≨4%) , `hat`eha
gegbghar h` ]DIX2, sc XJD 9=6ni/nge? usa hc GCM@ au BR@ (sc ngmra`ibungeûrg`
au L@])? maetraic rgdarasa h` prcssía `rtcrg`i? `içn hc tcr`pg` igpîhgm` (IHI
9066nd/hi). @ rcstrgäía pratcgm` ç sý maesghcr`h` cn j`sc pradrcssgv`? eía ç
`hat`h` e` ratge`.

ECSRAV@XG@ HG@BÇXGM@ 
HG@BÇXGM@ 

Ç ` prgemgp`i m`us` hc ecurap`tg` cn p`mgcetcs eía ctgigst`s.

Vahc scr;

(`) Vaigecurap`tg` sgnçtrgm` hgst`i; N`gs manun, ç m`r`mtcrgz`h` par n`gar

`manctgnceta scesgtgva, hgstrgbugäía ’cn iuv` c bat`„ c pç hg`bçtgma. A
r`strc`nceta ç rc`igz`ha par cx`nc ecuraiýdgma, `tr`vçs ha naeajgi`nceta. A
tr`t`nceta maesgstc cn maetraic digmëngma, bcn mana usa nchgm`nceta
`etgmaevuisgv`etc c `etghcprcssgva (a abkctgva ç rchuäía h` p`rcstcsg` c
jarngd`nceta, bcn mana maetraic h` har ecurapàtgm`).

Naeaecurap`tg`;   Vahc `manctcr ecrvas mr`eg`eas au pcrgjçrgmas. A

(b) Naeaecurap`tg`;
`manctgnceta ha GGG p`r mr`eg`ea ç a n`gs manun, sceha m`r`mtcrgz`ha pcia
hacetc man qucgx` hc hgpiapg`, man a cx`nc jîsgma c nastr`eha ptasc `ssamg`ha
` ajt`inapicdg` man rcjicxa jatanatar earn`i. H` naeaecurap`tg` hc ecrva
pcrgjçrgma, hcst`m`-sc `manctgnceta ha ecrva nchg`ea.

(m) Hgs`utaeang`; 
Hgs`utaeang`; Vahc scr hgvghgh` cn scdugetcs sgstcn`s;
 

M`rhgav`smui`r X`qugm`rhg` cn rcpausa man lgpatcesía pastur`i

D`stragetcstge`i D`strap`rcsg` hg`bçtgm`, t`gs mana eàusc`s, vøngtas, picegtuhc
pýs-pr`ehg`i, rcjiuxa au hgsj`dg`, maestgp`äía au hg`rrcg` (au
`nbas), `içn hc gemaetgeëemg` jct`i
Dcegtaurgeàrga Nuilcr; Gemaetgeëemg` urgeàrg`
Lancn; Hgsjueäía crçtgi
Vcrgjçrgm` Lgpcrlghrasc

MANVIGM@ÄÓC] @DSH@]

GEXRAHSÄÍA

Mcta`mghasc hg`bçtgm`  (M@H)  c cst`ha lgpcrasnai`r lgpcrdigmëngma

hg`bçtgm` (M@H) lgpcrdigmëngma  (CLL) sía
hu`s manpigm`äócs dr`vcs, `ssamg`h`s `a hg`bctcs ncigta (HN), quc hgjcrcn
hgjcrcn  
lgpcrdigmcng`.
cetrc sg hc `marha man ` prcsceä` hc mctaàmghas c man a dr`u hc lgpcrdigmcng`.
lgpcrdigmëngm`s.
Maesgstcn cn cncrdëemg`s lgpcrdigmëngm`s.

@  mcta`mghasc hg`bçtgm`
hg`bçtgm`   ç hcjgegh` pci` prcsceä` hc lgpcrdigmcng` (digmcng`
5236nd/hI), `mghasc nct`býigm` (pL `rtcrg`i ≨4,=) man âegae d`p `uncet`ha
c mctaecng` 
mctaecng` (gsta ç, `unceta h` maemcetr`äía hc marpas mctøegmas, man passîvci
mctaeûrg` jartcncetc pasgtgv`).

lgpcrdigmëngma,, t`nbçn hceange`ha hc sîehranc

C, a cst`ha lgpcrasnai`r lgpcrdigmëngma

lgpcrdigmëngma lgpcrasnai`r eía mctýtgma au man` lgpcrasnai`r, ç hcjgegha pci`

prcsceä` hc lgpcrdigmcng`
lgpcrdigmcng`   n`gs `mcetu`ha (digmcng` 5:66nd/hI),
(digmcng` 5:66nd/hI),
lgpcrasnai`rgh`hc   (asnai`rgh`hc sçrgm` cjctgv` cstgn`h` 5=26nAsn/od
lgpcrasnai`rgh`hc 5=26nAsn/od),),
sgdegjgm`tgv`  (pL `rtcrg`i 54,=).
hcsghr`t`äía, c `usëemg` hc mcta`mghasc sgdegjgm`tgv`
 

Mrgtçrgas hg`deýstgmas h` M@H c CLL

M@H
V`rânctras CLL
Icvc Nahcr`h` Dr`vc
Digmcng` (nd/hi) 5236 5236 5236 5:66
pL `rtcrg`i 4,23 ” 4,=6 4,66
4,66 -4,28 94,66 54,=6
Bgm`rbae`ta sçrgma (nCq/i) 03 ” 0< 06 ” 08,7 906 503
Mctaeûrg` Vasgtgv` Vasgtgv` Vasgtgv` Jr`ma pasgtgv`
Mctaecng` Vasgtgv` Vasgtgv` Vasgtgv` Jr`ma pasgtgv`
Asnai`rgh`hc cjctgv` (nAsn/od)* Z`rgàvci Z`rgàvci Z`rgàvci 5=26
Âegae d`p** 506 502 502 Z`rgàvci
@icrt` au Cstupar Cstupar au
Eîvci hc maesmgëemg` @icrt`
saeaiceta au man` man`

* Asnai`rgh`hc cjctgv` ç m`imui`h` par 2 x (E`+ nchgha) + digmcng` (nd/hi) / 0<.

** Âegae d`p ç hctcrnge`ha par (E`+ nchgha) ” (Mi- + LMA=-).

CVGHCNGAIADG@

Cn p`mgcetcs man HN tgpa G, ` mcta`mghasc ç a sgetan` hc `prcscet`äía cn 26-

=8% h`s mrg`eä`s c `haicsmcetcs c mcrm` hc 03-26% has `huitas. Var autra i`ha,
cn p`mgcetcs man CLL, ` j`gx` ctàrg` mastun` scr `mgn` has 36 `eas.

@ nart`igh`hc h` M@H ç nugta pcquce` (0-3%) c jueh`ncet`incetc hcpcehc

h` m`us` prcmgpgt`etc? kà ` hc CLL ç n`gar (3-26%), c sc hcvc prgemgp`incetc æ
gh`hc `v`eä`h` c æ `it` jrcquëemg` hc nart`igh`hc. Cn `nbas, a rgsma hc nartc
ç n`gar; eas cxtrcnas hc gh`hcs, e` prcsceä` hc man`, eas p`mgcetcs man
lgpatcesía au mlaquc c hc `marha man ` dr`vgh`hc ha j`tar prcmgpgt`etc, bcn
mana e` nuitgpigmgh`hc hc cpgsýhgas.

JG]GAV@XAIADG@ 
CXGAIADG@ C JG]GAV@XAIADG@ 

Cn `nb`s amarrc un` rchuäía h` scmrcäía hc gesuige` 

gesuige` mana ncm`egsna mcetr`i
c, maescqucetcncetc, amarrc un `unceta has larnøegas maetr`rrcdui`harcs 
maetr`rrcdui`harcs 
 

(dium`dae
dium`dae,, martgsai, m`tcmai`nge`s c DL), `itcr`eha a cqugiîbrga hc vàrgas ýrdías
c sgstcn`s. @ lgpcrdigmcng`
lgpcrdigmcng`   ç rcsuit`etc ha cstînuia hc digmaecadëecsc,
digmadceýigsc c rcsgstëemg` gesuiîegm`. 
gesuiîegm`. 

E` M@H
M@H,, là prahuäía hc àmghas dr`xas (igpýigsc
( igpýigsc)) ea jîd`ha c prahuäía hc marpas
mctøegmas (àmgha `mcta`mçtgma c bct`-lghraxgbutgr`ta), icv`eha ` mctaecng` c
CLL, là prahuäía nîegn` hc gesuige`
`mghasc nct`býigm`. @a pasta quc, ea CLL, gesuige`  
sujgmgcetc p`r` suprgr ` prahuäía hc dium`dae c gegbgr ` prahuäía hc marpas
mctøegmas? cetrct`eta, pahc amarrcr mctaeûrg` icvc.

J@XARC] VRCMGVGX@EXC]

Gemiucn; (0) Gejcmäócs

Gejcmäócs   (pecunaeg`, gejcmäía urgeàrg` c scpsc sía n`gs
jrcqucetcs, scdughas hc pç hg`bçtgma, mciuigtc, sgeusgtc, ncegedgtc c hg`rrcg`? c ç
a prgemgp`i j`tar ea CLL)? (2) 
(2)  Xr`t`nceta grrcdui`r ? (=) Vrgnahcsmanpces`äía?
Vrgnahcsmanpces`äía?
(8) Haceä`s `bhange`gs 
`bhange`gs  (p`emrc`tgtc, maicmgstgtc, `pcehgmgtc, vøngtas getcesas,
v`smui`rcs  (G@N c @ZM)? (:)
hg`rrcg`, gsqucng` ncscetçrgm`)? (3) Haceä`s v`smui`rcs 
hrad`s   (martgmastcraghcs, jcegtapge`, `etgrrctravgr`gs, mam`îe`,
Nchgm`äía c hrad`s
m`tcmai`nge`s)?? (4) Dcst`äía? c (<) Mgrurdg` c tr`un`.
m`tcmai`nge`s)

Z`ic hcst`m`r quc ea CLL, qu`sc scnprc a p`mgcetc tcn hgjgmuih`hc hc `mcssa
` iîqughas. 

N@EGJC]X@ÄÓC] MIÎEGM@]

Hcmarrcn h` lgpagesuigecng` c lgpcrdigmcng`.

M`bc rcss`it`r quc ` har `bhange`i ç un `ml`ha nugta m`r`mtcrîstgma h` M@H, c

prav`vcincetc tcn marrci`äía man `itcr`äía hc prast`di`ehge`s e` p`rchc
nusmui`r getcstge`i. M`sa ` har eía ncilarc man a tr`t`nceta, au sc tarec
iam`igz`h`, hcvc-sc gevcstgd`r `s m`us`s scmuehàrg`s h` har (` cxcnpia, haceä`s
 

`bhange`gs). @ jcbrc eía ç manun c eía sc hcsm`rt` a j`tar prcmgpgt`etc

gejcmmgasa.

@ml`has miîegmas h` M@H c ha CLL

Z`rgàvcgs M@H CLL

J`gx` ctàrg` Nugta n`gs jrcquëemg` cn mrg`eä` c Earn`incetc 586 `eas
`huitas kavces
Gest`i`äía Ràpgh`, nugt`s vczcs, cn lar`s Vradrcssgv`, hur`etc vàrgas hg`s
]getan`s Vaigûrg`, paighgpsg` c pcrh` hc pcsa Vaigûrg`, paighgpsg` c pcrh` hc pcsa
Earn`incetc `icrt` (pahc l`vcr Rcb`gx`nceta hc eîvci hc
rcb`gx`nceta ha eîvci hc maesmgëemg` ç ` rcdr`
maesmgëemg`, sceha gnpart`etc
gevcstgd`r haceä` `ssamg`h` ha
]EM)
]ge`gs Làigta mctøegma, t`qugpecg`, Vrajueh` hcsghr`t`äía
rcspgr`äía hc Oussn`ui
Vcmuig`rgh`hcs Eàusc`s, vøngtas c har `bhange`i Hgjgmuih`hc hc `mcssa æ àdu`

C\@NC] MANVICNCEX@RC]

Hcvcn scr saigmgt`has cn p`mgcetcs man hcsmanpces`äía hg`bçtgm` dr`vc au

Lcnadr`n`,, quc pahc l`vcr
suspcgt` hc mrgsc lgpcrdigmëngm`s. Hcst`m`n; (0) Lcnadr`n`
icumamgtasc man hcsvga æ csqucrh` scn quc sgdegjgquc gejcmäía. Z`iarcs `mgn`
Digmcng`. (=) Has`dcn hc cictrýigtas
hc 23666 mçis/nn= sudcrcn gejcmäía. (2) Digmcng`.  cictrýigtas,,
mrc`tgege`, p`r`
t`gs mana sýhga, patàssga, miara, n`deçsga c jýsjara. (8) Srcg` c mrc`tgege`,
`rtcrg`i  au vceas`, p`r` `v`ig`r
`v`ig`äía h` jueäía rce`i. (3) D`sanctrg` `rtcrg`i 
passîvci `mghasc nct`býigm`. (:) Màimuia hc âegae D@V. D@V. (4) Asnai`rgh`hc
mctaeûrg`. (7) C@].
pi`snàtgm`.. (<) Mctaecng` au mctaeûrg`.
pi`snàtgm` C@]. (06) CMD
CMD,, ` jgn hc busm`r
`ml`has hc lgpcrm`icng` c gsqucng` (n`gs ûtgi ea CLL) c passîvcgs j`tarcs
týr`x.  (02) Autras cx`ncs pahcn scr
prcmgpgt`etcs. (00) R`hgadr`jg` hc týr`x. 
uramuitur`s, XM
ecmcssàrgas, hc `marha man ` suspcgt` miîegm`; Lcnamuitur`s c uramuitur`s,
hc mrâega, pueäía igquýrgm`, tcstc hc dr`vghcz, cezgn`s lcpàtgm`s, `ngi`sc c
igp`sc.
 

HG@DEÝ]XGMA] HGJCRCEMG@G]

Cevaivc ` busm` hc j`tarcs prcmgpgt`etcs c ` hgjcrcemg`äía hc autr`s m`us`s hc

`mghasc, har `bhange`i c rcb`gx`nceta ha eîvci hc maesmgëemg`.

Cn rci`äía ` M@H, hcst`m`n mcta`mghasc `imaýigm` c mcta`mghasc hc ge`egäía

(kckun praiaed`ha)? ecstcs m`sas, ` digmcng` cstà earn`i au b`gx`. As
hg`deýstgmas hgjcrcemg`gs hc `mghasc man âegae D@V cicv`ha au `i`rd`ha
manprccehcn `mghasc iàtgm`, gesujgmgëemg` rce`i, getaxgm`äía cxýdce` par
nct`eai, ctgicea digmai, s`igmgi`tas c p`r`ihcîha? ecstcs, ` digmcng` t`nbçn cstà
earn`i. Har `bhange`i c `itcr`äía ha eîvci hc maesmgëemg` (mana @ZM, ncegedgtc
c tr`un`) pahcn scr hgjcrcemg`has par cx`ncs hc gn`dcn, i`bar`targ`gs c/au
iîquar.

XR@X@NCEXA  
XR@X@NCEXA

A abkctgva ç pramur`r c tr`t`r as j`tarcs prcmgpgt`etcs? marrgdgr a hçjgm

hçjgmgt
gt lîhrgma 
lîhrgma 
au hcsghr`t`äía (man rcpasgäía vaiëngm`)? marrgdgr ` lgpcrdigmcng`  lgpcrdigmcng` 
(gesuigeatcr`pg`)? marrgdgr as hçjgmgts cictraiîtgmas 
cictraiîtgmas  (tcr mugh`ha man patàssga)? c
bgm`rbae`ta   (r`r`ncetc ecmcssàrga c `pce`s e` mcta`mghasc, qu`eha
rcpar bgm`rbae`ta
jrcqucetc.
cstgvcr gehgm`ha). ]an`-sc naegtargz`äía jrcqucetc.

@ lghr`t`äía 
lghr`t`äía  vgs` cxp`esía cxtr`mciui`r, rcst`ur`äía ha vaiunc getr`v`smui`r,
ncilar` h` pcrjusía tcmghu`i man maescqucetc hgngeugäía has eîvcgs hc
larnøegas maetr`rrcdui`harcs c h` digmcng`. J`z-sc rcpasgäía vaiëngm` vceas` 
vceas` 
mrgst`iaghc. @ prcjcrëemg` ç par iîqughas gsatøegmas ea geîmga ha tr`t`nceta
man mrgst`iaghc.
man 06 ` 26ni/od hc saiuäía jgsgaiýdgm` e` prgncgr` lar` lar`.. A usa hc saiuäócs
lgpcrtøegm`s c gsatøegm`s ea geîmga ha tr`t`nceta ç `ssamg`ha ` manpigm`äía c
eía cxgstcn bcecjîmgas man usa hc maiaghcs.
 

gesuigeatcr`pg`   ç rc`igz`h`
Cxmcta cn m`sas hc lgpam`icng`, ` gesuigeatcr`pg`
maemangt`etcncetc æ lghr`t`äía. Hcssc naha, hcvc-sc prcsmrcvcr gesuige`
`pce`s sc patàssga sçrgma 5=,=nCq/i. Rc`igz`-sc gesuige` rcdui`r   (hc `äía
baius  (hasc hc `t`quc) + 6,0S/od/l par
ràpgh`) 6,0SG/od cehavceas` cn baius 
banb` hc gejusía maetîeu` (hasc hc n`eutceäía). Jrcqucetcncetc,
`hngegstr`-sc ` gesuige` vg` submutâec` c getr`nusmui`r? c, e` M@H icvc, pahc sc
us`r hc jarn` getcrngtcetc c par vg` GN.

Cn rci`äía æ n`eutceäía, ` digmcng` m`pgi`r hcvc scr naegtargz`h` ` m`h` 0l,

066nd/hi/l?? m`sa maetràrga, ` gejusía hc
sceha ` t`x` ghc`i hc quch` 43 ` 066nd/hi/l
gesuige` hcvc scr `uncet`h` (baius ç hc 6,03S/od CZ p`r` rchuäía ncear quc
06%). Pu`eha ` digmcng` mlcd`r ` mcrm` hc 266-236 c =66nd/hi,
rcspcmtgv`ncetc p`r` M@H c CLL, ` gejusía hc gesuige` ç b`gx`h` p`r`
3%,   man abkctgva
6,63SG/od/l, `ssamg`h` ` lghr`t`äía man sara digmas`ha hc 3%, 
hc n`etcr digmcng` ecssc eîvci c cvgt`r lgpadigmcng`
lgpadigmcng`..

@ tr`esgäía p`r` gesuige` submutâec` amarrc qu`eha digmcng` 9266-236nd/hi,

9266-236nd/hi,
( pL 54,= c LMA=- 503-0<nCq/I)
maetraic h` `mghasc nct`býigm` (pL 503-0<nCq/I) c âegae D@V
902.  E` CLL, ` asnai`rgh`hc c a eîvci hc maesmgëemg` hcvcn sc earn`igz`r. Hcvc
902.
l`vcr un` sabrcpasgäía hc 0-2l cetrc gesuige` rcdui`r ]M c GZ? c ` has`dcn
pahc scr ` ncsn` us`h` prcvg`ncetc, hcshc quc lauvcssc maetraic `hcqu`ha,
au 6,3-6,<SG/od/hg` cn nûitgpi`s hascs. @ hgct` vg` ar`i pahc scr igbcr`h`.

AB]; Z`ic rcss`it`r quc ` ecd`tgv`äía h` mctaeûrg` eía ç mrgtçrga p`r`

mcta`mghasc, vgsta quc a p`mgcetc pahc maetgeu`r ` tcr mctaeûrg`
rcsaiuäía h` mcta`mghasc,
par nugt`s lar`s `pýs a maetraic hc M@H. A A  mrgtçrga hc rcsaiuäía ç mctaecng`.
mctaecng` .
Àmgha bct`-lghraxgbutîrgma eía ç hctcmt`ha pci` rc`äía ha egtraprussg`ta ea tcstc
urgeàrga, hgjcrcetcncetc ha `mcta`mct`ta.

patàssga, l`bgtu`incetc, a O+ sçrgma gegmg`i ç earn`i au

Pu`eta æ rcpasgäía hc patàssga,
`uncet`ha (hcvgha `a hcsvga ha patàssga `a ncga cxtr`mciui`r hg`etc h`
 

`mghasc). Cetrct`eta, a hçjgmgt marpar`i hc patàssga ç dr`ehc. Man lghr`t`äía,

rcpasgäía hc gesuige`, marrcäía h` `mghasc c h` lgpavaicng`, l`vcrà hgngeugäía
hràstgm` ha patàssga sçrgma. Hcvc-sc prarrad`r prcsmrgäía hc gesuige` sc O+
9=,=nCq/I,, c prcsmrcvcr 23nCq/I hc patàssga GZ? sc O+ 93,6, gegmg`r rcpasgäía
9=,=nCq/I
patàssga  (26-=6nCq ` m`h` igtra hc sara gejuehgha). Eía ç ecmcssàrga rcpar
hc patàssga 
A patàssga sçrgma ç n`etgha cetrc 8-3nCq/i.
sc patàssga jar n`gar quc 3nCq. A  8-3nCq/i. @
has`dcn hc patàssga ç jcgt` man jrcquëemg`
jr cquëemg` ` m`h` 2-8l. Sn tcräa hc patàssga
pahc sc rcpasta mana jasj`ta.

@ rcpasgäía hc bgm`rbae`ta hc sýhga ç `pce`s maesghcr`h` sgtu`äócs cxtrcn`s,

qu`eha  pL 9:,7.
qu`eha 9:,7.

Dcr`incetc eía ç ecmcssàrg` ` rcpasgäía hc autras cictrýigtas. Ç gehgm`h` `pce`s

qu`eha ` maemcetr`äía cstgvcr nugta b`gx`. @ rcpasgäía hc jasj`ta
jasj`ta  ç jcgt` p`r`
0nd/hI?  c, rcmanceh`h` p`r` cvgt`r jr`qucz`
has`dcn sçrgm` ncear quc 0nd/hI? 
nusmui`r, hgsjueäía m`rhî`m`, `rrgtng` m`rhî`m`, hcprcssía rcspgr`týrg`, lcnýigsc
au r`bhangýigsc.

MANVIGM@ÄÓC]

Manprccehcn; (0) Lgpadigmcng`

Lgpadigmcng`   (prgemgp`i manpigm`äía ha tr`t`nceta?
`prcscet` nart`igh`hc gnchg`t`). (2) Lgpam`icng`
Lgpam`icng`   (pahc `p`rcmcr `pýs `
gestgtugäía ha tr`t`nceta man gesuige`). (=) @mghasc nct`býigm` lgpcrmiarëngm` 
lgpcrmiarëngm` 
(hg`etc h` lghr`t`äía `drcssgv`). (8) Chcn` mcrcbr`i
mcrcbr`i;; R`ra? c hcmarrcetc
prgemgp`incetc h` rcpasgäía vaiëngm` cxmcssgv` c h` nuh`eä` ràpgh` h`
asnai`rgh`hc. @ prcvceäía ç pci` rchuäía dr`h`tgv` h` asnai`igh`hc c h`
digmcng` `tç ` rcmupcr`äía ha eîvci hc maesmgëemg`. (3) ]îehranc ha hcsmaejarta
rcspgr`týrga `duha (]HR@). (:) Cnbaig` puinae`r   (jrcqucetc cn CLL). (4)
Maedcstía puinae`r par sabrcm`rd` lîhrgm`. (<) Hgi`t`äía dàstrgm` `duh` `duh`  
(maescquëemg` hc un` ecurap`tg` `utaeøngm`, sceha dr`vc). (7) Numarngmasc
 

(gejcmäía jûedgm` quc `tgedc prgemgp`incetc scgas h` j`mc c amarrc pci` `itcr`äía
ha nct`baigsna hc jcrra). (06) @im`iasc nct`býigm` p`r`hax`i.

LGVADIGMCNG@ HG@BÇXGM@ 

@ lgpadigmcng` ç dr`ehc j`tar igngt`etc p`r` a maetraic digmëngma cstrgta ea HN

tgpa 0 c 2. A maetraic digmëngma pahc p`r`r au rchuzgr ` pradrcssía h`s icsócs
ngmra c n`mrav`smui`r? cetrct`eta, a cxmcssa hc gesuige` c/au `usëemg` hc
rcspast` has larnøegas maetr`rrcdui`harcs icv`n ` lgpadigmcng`.

Z`ic rcss`it`r quc ` digmasc ç ` jaetc hc cecrdg` p`r` mçrcbra, quc ecmcssgt` hc
`partc maetîeua, un` vcz quc eía tcn m`p`mgh`hc hc sîetcsc au
`rn`zce`nceta.

@s n`egjcst`äócs miîegm`s sía; sge`gs c sgetan`s hc igbcr`äía `hrceçrdgm` (par

cxcnpia, t`qugm`rhg`, t`qugpecg` c suharcsc jrg`) c qu`hra miîegma hc
ecuradigmapceg` (t`gs mana maejusía ncet`i, `itcr`äócs manpart`ncet`gs, mrgsc
maevuisgv`, man`, h`ea ecuraiýdgma pcrn`ecetc c nartc).

Tlgppic;; n`egjcst`äócs miîegm`s +

A hg`deýstgma ç rc`igz`ha par  trî`hc hc Tlgppic
hamuncet`äía hc lgpadigmcng` + ncilar` `pýs ` earn`igz`äía h` digmcng`.

A tr`t`nceta cediab` gedcstía hc digmasc c/au m`rbaghr`tas, qu`eha p`mgcetc

`marh`ha? cn m`sa maetràrga, rc`igz`-sc digmasc vceas` au dium`dae p`rcetcr`i.
 

ASXR@] MANVIGM@ÄÓC]

GEJCMÄÓC] @]]AMG@H@]

Gehgvîhuas
h`s man Gssa
gejcmäócs. hg`bctc
sc nciigtus tcn un `unceta
hcvc ` `earn`igh`hcs cne`gnuegh`hc
jrcquëemg`mciui`r
c e` scvcrgh`hc
c jueäía
j`damîtgm`, `içn h` v`smui`rgz`äía prckuhgm`h`.

@idun`s gejcmäócs nugta r`r`s sía nugta `ssamg`h`s ` HN. ]ía ci`s;
numarngmasc rgeamcrcbr`i, gejcmäócs cejgscn`tas`s h` bcxgd` c ha tr`ta
tr `ta urgeàrga
c atgtc cxtcre` n`igde`. Autras p`týdceas rci`mgae`has sía; N. tubcrmuiasgs,
Vscuhanae`s c ]. `urcus. @ lgpcrdigmcng` j`mgigt` t`nbçn ` maiaegz`äía hc un`
v`rgch`hc hc ard`egsnas, mana ` Mâehgh`.

LGVADIGMCNG@

@s prgemgp`gs m`us`s hc lgpadigmcng` par hrad`s sía suijaegiurcg`s,

jiuraqugeaiae`s, bct`biaquc`harcs c ct`eýgs.

As sgetan`s hc lgpadigmcng` sía pravcegcetcs h` hcsm`rd` `utaeøngm`,

`prcscet`eha suharcsc, p`ipgt`äía, `esgch`hc c trcnar. As sgetan`s, cn dcr`i,
dcr `i,
sc gegmg`n man eîvcgs `b`gxa hc :6nd/hi c ` pcrh` h` jueäía ecuraiýdgm` amarrc
qu`eha as eîvcgs jgm`n `b`gxa hc 36nd/hi.

A tr`t`nceta hcvc scr praet`ncetc rc`igz`ha man rcpasgäía hc digmasc ar`i au

getr`vceas`. As p`mgcetcs scn `itcr`äía ha eîvci hc maesmgëemg` pahcn scr
tr`t`has man 06-86d hc digmasc ZA, c sc eía lauvcr rcpast` cn 03nge au sc
hgngeugr a eîvci hc maesmgëemg`, hcvc-sc rc`igz`r ` rcpasgäía vg` GZ.
 

ABC]GH@HC

ZG]ÍA DCR@I

A prabicn` ha cxmcssa hc pcsa c h` abcsgh`hc tcn `im`eä`ha praparäócs

cpghëngm`s ea nueha taha c marrcspaehc ` un has n`garcs hcs`jgas hc s`ûhc
pûbigm` `tu`i.

Ç bcn cst`bcicmgh` ` rci`äía h` abcsgh`hc man `s manpigm`äócs p`r` ` s`ûhc.

@ igst` ç iaed` c hcst`m`-sc; a hg`bctcs nciggtus tgpa 2 (HN2), `s hgsigpghcng`s, `
`pecg` ha saea, `s haceä`s m`rhgav`smui`r c a `unceta hc `idun`s ecapi`sg`s.
Pu`eta n`gar a cxmcssa hc pcsa, n`gar ç ` dr`vgh`hc h` haceä`. @içn hgssa,
geûncras cstuhas t`nbçn kà hcnaestr`r`n quc ` abcsgh`hc `bhange`i cstà
n`gs rci`mgae`h` `a rgsma hc haceä`s dr`vcs c t`nbçn æ n`gar nart`igh`hc ha
quc ` abcsgh`hc diûtca-jcnar`i, gehcpcehcetcncetc h` darhur` marpar`i tat`i.

HG@DEÝ]XGMA

A îehgmc hc N`ss` Marpar`i

Marpar`i   (GNM) ç a gehgm`har cpghcngaiýdgma p`r` a
hg`deýstgma ha sabrcpcsa c h` abcsgh`hc.

Mi`ssgjgm`äía hc Vcsa pcia GNMC

Mi`ssgjgm`äía GNM (od/n2) Rgsma hc manarbgh`hcs
B`gxa pcsa 9 0<,3 B`gxa

Vcsa earn`i 0<,3 ” 28,7 Nçhga

]abrcpcsa au prç-abcsa ≣ 23 ” 
” 27,7 @uncet`ha
Abcsa G =6 ” =8,7 Nahcr`ha
Abcsa GG =3 ” =7,7 Dr`vc
Abcsa GGG ≣ 86 
86  Nugta dr`vc
 

@ mi`ssgjgm`äía `h`pt`h` pci` Ard`egz`äía Nuehg`i h` ]`ûhc (AN]),

`prcscet`h` `mgn`, b`scg`-sc cn p`hrócs getcre`mgae`gs hcscevaivghas p`r`
pcssa`s `huit`s hcsmcehcetcs hc curapcus. Eía cxgstcn cstuhas hc maartc
e`mgae`i p`r` hcjgegr as igngtcs p`r` ` papui`äía br`sgicgr`.

`bhange`i,, rc`igz`h` ea paeta nçhga cetrc a

@ `jcrgäía h` mgrmuejcrëemg` `bhange`i
rcbarha mast`i gejcrgar c ` mrgst` giî`m`, ç a nçtaha `etrapançtrgma quc rcjictc hc
jarn` gehgrct` a maetcûha hc darhur` vgsmcr`i. Cetrct`eta, v`ic rcss`it`r quc as
v`iarcs hc mgetur` `bhange`i quc hctcrnge`n a rgsma m`rhganct`býigma v`rg`n,
hcpcehceha h` papui`äía cstuh`h`. @s prgncgr`s rcmanceh`äócs eartc-
`ncrgm`e`s cst`bcicmcr`n as v`iarcs hc 062mn p`r` lances c <<mn p`r`
nuilcrcs, mana paetas hc martc. Cn autr`s papui`äócs, eîvcgs ncearcs ” 78mn
p`r` lances c <6mn p`r` nuilcrcs ” tën sgha maesghcr`has n`gs `praprg`has.
(@). E` papui`äía br`sgicgr`, `idues cstuhas gehgm`n quc cstcs eîvcgs sía baes
prchgtarcs hc rgsma p`r` haceä`s nct`býigm`s, prgemgp`incetc lgpcrtcesía
`rtcrg`i.

@ manbge`äía h` nchgh` h` mgrmuejcrëemg` `bhange`i man a GNM ajcrcmc un`

ba` `itcre`tgv` p`r` ` hctcrnge`äía hc rgsmas c `kuh` ` hgngeugr `s igngt`äócs hc
m`h` un` h`s `v`ig`äócs gsai`h`s.

Manbge`äía h`s nchgh`s hc mgrmuejcrëemg` `bhange`i c GNM p`r` `v`ig`r abcsgh`hc c

rgsma p`r` hg`bctcs nciigtus tgpa GG c haceä` m`rhgav`smui`r
Mgrmuejcrëemg` `bhange`i

Lancn 78 ” 062mn 5 062mn

GNM (od/n2) Nuilcr <6 -<<mn 5 <6mn
B`gxa pcsa 9 0<,3 - Rgsma hc
Vcsa s`uhàvci 0<,3 ” 28,7 - @uncet`ha manpigm`äócs
]abrcpcsa 23 ” 27,7 @uncet`ha @ita nct`býigm`s
Abcsgh`hc ≣ =6 
=6  @ita Nugta `ita
 

CXGAIADG@

@ ctgaiadg` h` abcsgh`hc ç manpicx` c nuitgj`targ`i

nuitgj`targ`i,, rcsuit`eha h` getcr`äía hc
cnamgae`gs.
dcecs, `nbgcetc, cstgias hc vgh` c j`tarcs cnamgae`gs.

A `nbgcetc nahcrea ç un patcetc cstînuia p`r` ` abcsgh`hc. @ hgngeugäía has

eîvcgs hc `tgvgh`hc jîsgm` c a `unceta h` gedcstía m`iýrgm` sía j`tarcs
hctcrnge`etcs `nbgcet`gs n`gs jartcs. @içn hgssa, s`bc-sc quc ` n`gar t`x` hc
`unceta h` abcsgh`hc amarrc cn papui`äócs man n`gar dr`u hc pabrcz` c
ncear eîvci chum`mgae`i.

Cn dcr`i, ` abcsgh`hc manun `prcscet` lcr`eä` paigdëegm`. Migegm`ncetc, ç

passîvci ghcetgjgm`r `idues j`tarcs gehgm`harcs hc gejiuëemg`s dceçtgm`s e`
abcsgh`hc, mana a geîmga prcmamc c n`rm`etc h` abcsgh`hc e` gejâemg` au
`haicsmëemg`. A rgsma hc hcscevaivgnceta hc abcsgh`hc ç n`gar e` prcsceä` hc
lgstýrg` j`ngig`r hc abcsgh`hc nýrbgh`, man GNM ≣86od/n2, au man eîvcgs n`gs
nahcr`has hc abcsgh`hc, GNM 986od/n2.

Ea quc hgz rcspcgta `a cjcgta ha cstrcssc ea `pctgtc, sgetan`s hc `esgch`hc,

hcprcssía, ecrvasgsna c a làbgta hc sc `igncet`r qu`eha prabicn`s cnamgae`gs
cstía prcscetcs sía manues cn p`mgcetcs man sabrcpcsa au abcsgh`hc. Gssa
sudcrc rci`äía cetrc cstrcssc, manpuisía par mangh` p`i`tàvci, tr`estarea hc
manpuisía `igncet`r c abcsgh`hc.

@içn hgssa, p`r` mrg`eä`s c `huitas, a eûncra hc lar`s hc saea par eagtc cstà
gevcrs`ncetc rci`mgae`ha `a GNM c abcsgh`hc cn cstuhas tr`esvcrs`gs c
abcsgh`hc gemghcetc cn cstuhas iaedgtuhge`gs.

Var jgn, nugtas nchgm`ncetas utgigz`has p`r` tr`t`nceta hc maehgäócs autr`s

`içn h` abcsgh`hc pahcn maetrgbugr p`r` `unceta hc pcsa au p`r` cx`mcrb`äía
ha d`ela hc pcsa cn gehgvîhuas susmctîvcgs ” g`tradceg` j`rn`mëutgm`.
 

XR@X@NCEXA MIÎEGMA

A tr`t`nceta h` abcsgh`hc ç nuitghgsmgpige`r. Cn igel`s dcr`gs, a tr`t`nceta

j`rn`maiýdgma ç `hkuv`etc h`s tcr`pg`s hgrgdgh`s man jama e` nahgjgm`äía has
vgh`, rci`mgae`has man argcet`äócs eutrgmgae`gs 
làbgtas hc vgh`, eutrgmgae`gs  p`r` hgngeugr a
maesuna hc m`iarg`s e` `igncet`äía c cxcrmîmgas jîsgmas
jîsgmas   p`r` `uncet`r a d`sta
m`iýrgma. Xuha hcvc scr gehgvghu`igz`ha, sab supcrvgsía nçhgm` maetîeu` c
n`etgha qu`eha scdura c cjctgva. @ csmail` ha tr`t`nceta hcvc b`sc`r-sc e`
dr`vgh`hc ha prabicn` c e` prcsceä` hc manpigm`äócs `ssamg`h`s.

Mana tah` haceä` mrøegm` a tr`t`nceta j`rn`maiýdgma gegmg`-sc e` prcvceäía

scmuehàrg` p`r` gnpchgr ` pradrcssía h` haceä` p`r` un cstàdga n`gs dr`vc c
prcvcegr manpigm`äócs c hctcrgar`äía pastcrgar, c hcvc scr n`etgha p`r` cvgt`r `
rcmupcr`äía ha pcsa. Eía cxgstc ecelun tr`t`nceta j`rn`maiýdgma cn iaeda
pr`za quc eía cevaiv` nuh`eä`s hc cstgia hc vgh` c madegtgva-manpart`ncet`gs.

A tr`t`nceta nchgm`ncetasa ç gehgm`ha qu`eha; (0) GNM ≣=6od/n2? au, (2) GNM
≣23 au 24 d/n² e` prcsceä` hc manarbgh`hcs au j`tarcs hc rgsma, t`gs mana
lgpcrtcesía `rtcrg`i, hg`bctcs tgpa 2, lgpcrigpghcng`, `pecg` ha saea, astca`rtrasc
c dat` (hcpcehceha ha nchgm`nceta)? `içn hc (=) j`il` cn pcrhcr pcsa man a
tr`t`nceta eía j`rn`maiýdgma. @ lgstýrg` prçvg` hc j`iëemg` man tcet`tgv` man
hgct` man rcstrgäía m`iýrgm` ç sujgmgcetc.

@s cstr`tçdg`s has nchgm`ncetas `etgabcsgh`hcs maesgstcn cn; rchuäía h`

gedcstía cecrdçtgm`, biaqucga h` `bsaräía hc eutrgcetcs, `unceta h`
tcrnadëecsc, nahui`äía ha nct`baigsna/`rn`zce`nceta hc darhur` c
nahui`äía h` rcdui`äía mcetr`i h` n`ss` marpar`i.

Cxgstcn, `tu`incetc, trës nchgm`ncetas `prav`has p`r` tr`t`nceta h`

igr`diutgh`  =,6 nd.
abcsgh`hc ea Br`sgi; sgbutr`nge`, arigst`tc c igr`diutgh`
 

sgbutr`nge`   ç un gegbghar h` rcm`pt`äía h` scrataege` (3-LX) c h`

@ sgbutr`nge`
earc`hrce`ige` e`s tcrnge`äócs ecrvas`s ha ]EM, n`gs cspcmgjgm`ncetc, eas
paetas lgpat`iângmas quc rcdui`n ` gedcstía `igncet`r. Css` `äía tcn cjcgtas
`earcxîdceas c s`mgctýdceas, icv`eha æ rchuäía h` gedcstía `igncet`r c pcrh`
hc pcsa (au n`ss` marpar`i) hasc-hcpcehcetc, cst`eha `ssamg`h`
passgvcincetc `tr`vçs ha `unceta h` tcrnadëecsc. @içn hgssa, rci`t`-sc quc
prahuz rchuäía h` nchgh` h` mgetur` (darhur` vgsmcr`i), hgngeugäía has
trgdigmcrîhcas pi`snàtgmas c h`s IHI, n`s `unceta h`s LHI. Là cjcgtas
bceçjgmas e` lgpcrgesuigecng` c ea nct`baigsna h` digmasc. ]ceha `ssgn, `
sgbutr`nge` ç cjgm`z ea tr`t`nceta h` abcsgh`hc, ha sabrcpcsa c has
manpaecetcs h` sîehranc nct`býigm`, cn maekueta man `maescil`nceta
eutrgmgae`i c gemcetgva æ pràtgm` hc `tgvgh`hc jîsgm`.

arigst`tc  tcn `äía getcstge`i, `dc gegbgeha rcvcrsgvcincetc igp`scs dàstrgm`s c

A arigst`tc
p`emrcàtgm`s (par ncga h` rc`äía man rcsîhuas hc scrge` eas iam`gs `tgvas h`s
iîp`scs), gnpchgeha ` hcdr`h`äía h` darhur` h` hgct` ` àmghas dr`xas c digmcrai
(rchuzgeha cn =6% ` `bsaräía), quc sía cignge`h`s man ` cxmrcäía jcm`i. A
arigst`tc rchuz mgrmuejcrëemg` `bhange`i, GNM, prcssócs `rtcrg`gs sgstýigm` c
hg`stýigm`, digmcng` hc kckun, lcnadiabge` digm`h`, maicstcrai tat`i c maicstcrai
IHI cn p`mgcetcs man hg`bctcs tgpa 2. Rci`tau-sc, t`nbçn, quc cic rchuz as
eîvcgs hc icptge` c h` prcssía `rtcrg`i, pratcdc maetr` `s `itcr`äócs h` scmrcäía
bgig`r gehuzgh`s pci` pcrh` hc pcsa, rct`rh` a csv`zg`nceta dàstrgma c ` scmrcäía
dàstrgm` c ncilar` vàrgas p`rânctras nct`býigmas gnpart`etcs scn getcrjcrgr e`
igbcr`äía au `äía has larnøegas h` tgrcaghc au autras larnøegas gnpart`etcs.
Eía gehuz `itcr`äía ea d`sta hc cecrdg`.

A  igr`diutgh`
igr`diutgh`   ç un `eàiada has pcptîhcas scncil`etcs `a dium`dae (DIV-0).
Ss`h` p`r` tr`t`r hg`bctcs tgpa 2, scus ncm`egsnas nchg`harcs e` rchuäía hc
pcsa sía prav`vcincetc rci`mgae`has ` un` manbge`äía hc cjcgtas ea tr`ta
d`stragetcstge`i c ea mçrcbra. A DIV-0 `tgva gegbc a `pctgtc c a `partc cecrdçtgma
 

t`eta cn gehgvîhuas earn`gs qu`eta cn abcsas, `ssgn mana cn p`mgcetcs

hg`bçtgmas, `içn hc rct`rh`r a csv`zg`nceta dàstrgma.

A sumcssa ea tr`t`nceta h` abcsgh`hc hcpcehc h` n`degtuhc h` pcrh` hc pcsa

c h` rchuäía has j`tarcs hc rgsma prcscetcs ea geîmga ha tr`t`nceta. Sn`
getcrvceäía tcr`pëutgm` p`r` pcrh` hc pcsa ç cjgm`z qu`eha là rchuäía n`gar
au gdu`i ` 0% ha pcsa marpar`i par nës, `tgedgeha pcia nceas 3% cn = ` :
ncscs. Vcrh`s hc 06-03% kà nastr`n hgngeugäía hc nart`igh`hc cn cstuhas
miîegmas.

XR@X@NCEXA MGRÛRDGMA

Mcrm` hc 76% has subnctghas `a tr`t`nceta miîegma p`r` ` abcsgh`hc

`prcscet`n rcmghgv` cn `tç 3 `eas. @ mgrurdg` b`rgàtrgm` ç, `tu`incetc, a
tr`t`nceta man rcsuit`has n`gs cxprcssgvas c hur`hauras p`r` ` abcsgh`hc
nýrbgh`, man ncilar` abkctgv` h`s manarbgh`hcs, mana lgpcrtcesía `rtcrg`i,
hg`bctcs nciigtus, ûimcr`s eas ncnbras gejcrgarcs, pcrjgi igpîhgma `itcr`ha,
gesujgmgëemg` rcspgr`týrg`, pscuhatunar mcrcbr`i, ctm., c tr`z gemrcnceta e`
qu`igh`hc hc vgh`, e` `utacstgn`, ea lunar c e` `jctgvgh`hc pcssa`i. 
pcssa`i.  

A Ngegstçrga h` ]`ûhc rcmaelcmc ` d`strapi`stg` mana un has pramchgncetas

mabcrtas pcia ]S]. As mrgtçrgas hc gehgm`äía sía; part`harcs hc abcsgh`hc hc
dr`ehcs praparäócs, man hur`äía 52 `eas, man GNM 586od/n2 c rcsgstcetc `as
maescrv`harcs (hgct`s, nchgm`ncetas, cxcrmîmgas c psgmatcr`pg`) c
 tr`t`ncetas maescrv`harcs 
abcsas man GNM 5=3od/n2 part`harcs hc haceä`s `ssamg`h`s  `ssamg`h`s  (hg`bctcs,
lgpcrtcesía, `rtrap`tg`s, `pecg` ha saea c lçreg` hc hgsma) quc tcel`n sgtu`äía
miîegma `dr`v`h` pci` abcsgh`hc.

@s mgrurdg`s pahcn scr hgvghgh`s cn hgs`bsartgv`s, rcstrgtgv`s au ngst`s.

ngst`s. Cetrc
`s tçmegm`s, igst`nas; d`strapi`stg` vcrtgm`i man b`eh`dcn, b`iía getr`dàstrgma,
 

b`eh` dàstrgm`, d`strcmtang` vcrtgm`i, hcrgv`äía d`strakckue`i (Jabg-M`pcii`),

hcrgv`äía bgigap`emrcàtgm` c huahce`i swgtml.

]abrc `s manpigm`äócs pýs-mgrûrdgm`s, pahcn `manctcr `qucics man 5:3 `eas,

GNM 533od/nn2 c nûitgpi`s manarbgh`hcs, `a p`ssa quc manpigm`äócs t`rhg`s
pahcn scr eutrgmgae`gs, psgqugàtrgm`s au `bhange`gs c dcr`incetc tën su`
gemghëemg` subcstgn`h`. @s manpigm`äócs eutrgmgae`gs sía n`garcs e`s
apcr`äócs ngst`s ha quc e`s cxmiusgv`ncetc rcstrgtgv`s, sabrcss`geha ` `ecng`
jcrraprgv`, c ` hcjgmgëemg` hc ngmracicncetas, mana màimga, zgema c vgt`nge`s ha
manpicxa B.

HG]IGVGHCNG@

HCJGEGÄÍA C MI@]]GJGM@ÄÍA

@ hgsigpghcng` rcjcrc-sc æ `earn`igh`hc eas eîvcgs hc igpîhcas pi`snàtgmas

pi`snàtgmas   c
pahcn scr mi`ssgjgm`h`s cn lgpcrigpghcng`s (eîvcgs cicv`has hc igpapratcîe`s) c
lgpaigpghcng`s (eîvcgs pi`snàtgmas hc igpapratcîe`s b`gxas).
 

Hc `marha man ` mi`ssgjgm`äía i`bar`targ`i, hgvghc-sc ` jr`äía igpîhgm` `itcr`h`

cn;

Lgpcrmaicstcraicng` gsai`h` @unceta gsai`ha ha IHI (≣0:6nd/hI) 

(≣0:6nd/hI) 

Lgpcrtrgdigmcrghcng` gsai`h` @unceta gsai`ha h`s trgdigmçrghcs (XD ≣036nd/hI au

Lgpcrigpghcng` ngst`
LHI-m b`gxa
≣043nd/hI, sc ` `nastr` jar abtgh` scn kckun) 
kckun) 
@unceta ha IHI (≣0:6nd/hI) c has XD (≣036nd/hI au
≣043nd/hI, sc ` `nastr` jar abtgh` scn kckun) 
kckun) 
Rchuäía ha LHI (lances 986nd/hi c nuilcrcs 936nd/hI)
gsai`h` au cn `ssamg`äía `a `unceta hc IHI-m au hc XD

CXGAIADG@

X`eta `s lgpcr qu`eta `s lgpaigpghcng`s pahcn tcr m`us`s prgnàrg`s au

scmuehàrg`s. @s m`us`s prgnàrg`s sía `quci`s e`s qu`gs a hgstûrbga igpîhgma ç hc
argdcn dceçtgm`. Cn rci`äía æs m`us`s scmuehàrg`s, ` hgsigpghcng` ç hcmarrcetc
hc cstgia hc vgh` ge`hcqu`ha, hc mcrt`s maehgäócs nýrbgh`s, au hc
nchgm`ncetas.

XR@X@NCEXA

@ cstr`tçdg` prgnàrg`
prgnàrg`   maesgstc e` nahgjgm`äía ea cstgia hc vgh`
vgh`.. Cetrc `s
nchgh`s, pahcnas mgt`r; tcr`pg` eutrgmgae`i, maetraic hc pcsa marpar`i, rchuäía
hc bcbgh` `imaýigm`, `unceta h` `tgvgh`hc jîsgm` c mcss`äía ha t`b`dgsna.

AB]; 
AB];  A t`b`dgsna maestgtug un gnpart`etc j`tar hc rgsma p`r` haceä`
marae`rg`e`, cst`eha `ssamg`ha ` un` rchuäía has eîvcgs hc LHI,
manpranctgnceta h` rchuäía ha maicstcrai, cjcgtas mgtatýxgmas ea cehatçiga,
axgh`äía `uncet`h` h`s igpapratcîe`s c cstgnui`äía h` tranbadëecsc.
 

A geîmga h`  tcr`pg` nchgm`ncetas`

nchgm`ncetas`   h`s hgsigpghcng`s hcpcehc ha rgsma p`r`
`eas (@]MZH rgso).
haceä` m`rhgav`smui`r `tcrasmicrýtgm` cstgn`ha cn 06 `eas 

Cn p`mgcetcs hc nugta `ita au `ita rgsma m`rhgav`smui`r, a tr`t`nceta h`

hgsigpghcng` hcvc gemiugr nchgm`ncetas kà cn `ssamg`äía man `s nahgjgm`äócs
ha cstgia hc vgh` ` scrcn prapast`s. V`r` as p`mgcetcs hc rgsma nahcr`ha au
b`gxa, a tr`t`nceta scrà gegmg`ha `pce`s man `s nchgh`s ha cstgia hc vgh`, man
` `ssamg`äía, cn un` scdueh` ct`p`, hc nchgm`ncetas, sc ecmcssàrga, p`r`
abtceäía h`s nct`s hcjgegh`s ha IHI. A tcnpa hc rc`v`ig`äía `pýs `
gnpi`et`äía h`s nchgh`s hc nahgjgm`äócs ha cstgia hc vgh` pahc scr hc = ` :
ncscs.

@iva Xcr`pg`
Xrgdigmcrîhcas 9036nd% Hgct` c `tgvgh`hc jîsgm`

(scn kckun, 9043nd/hI) ]c v`iar ≣366nd /hI, usa hc jgbr`ta c

øncd`=
Maicstcrai LHI 586nd/hi Rc`igz`r cxcrmîmga jîsgma
Àmgha egmatîegma (scn rcmanceh`äía)
Maicstcrai IHI Hcpcehc ha rgsma Cst`tge`s (sgev`st`tge`, `tarv`st`tge` c
m`rhgav`smui`r rasuv`st`tge`)
Czctgngb` au gegbghar hc VM]O7
Rgsma `ita; Xcr`pg` hc `it` getcesgh`hc;
IHI 5076nd/hi au HMZ Rchuäía IHI cn 36%
(haceä` `tcrasmicrýtgm`) Rasuv`st`tge` (26-86nd) au @tarv`st`tge`
au csmarc hc rgsma 526% (86-<6nd)
@iva IHI 936-46nd/hi
Rgsma nahcr`ha; Xcr`pg` hc nahcr`h` getcesgh`hc;
IHI 46-0<7nd/hi + HN Rchuäía IHI cn =6-87%
au rgsma m`rhgav`smui`r Rasuv`st`tge` (3nd) au @tarv`st`tge` (06-
cicv`ha 26nd) au ]gev`st`tge` (26-86nd)
@iva IHI 946nd/hi
 

@hcn`gs, ` hcmgsía qu`eta `a usa hc tcr`pg` j`rn`maiýdgm` p`r` ` lgpcrigpghcng`

b`scg`-sc ea hcjcgta nct`býigma cspcmîjgma c ea scu patcemg`i hc m`us`r
`tcrasmicrasc au p`emrc`tgtc.

As nchgm`ncetas lgpaigpcng`etcs mastun`n scr hgvghghas eas quc `dcn

prchange`etcncetc e`s t`x`s sçrgm`s hc maicstcrai (maicstcraicng`) c e`qucics
quc `dcn prchange`etcncetc e`s t`x`s hc trgdigmcrîhcas (XD).

Hc naha dcr`i, e` lgpcrmaicstcraicng` gsai`h`, gsai`h`, as nchgm`ncetas

cst`tge`s,, quc pahcn scr `hngegstr`h`s cn `ssamg`äía æ
rcmanceh`has sía `s cst`tge`s
czctgngb`,, æ maicstgr`nge` c, cvcetu`incetc, `as jgbr`tas au `a àmgha egmatîegma.
czctgngb`

cst`tge`s   `tu`n e` gegbgäía manpctgtgv` h` cezgn` LND-Ma@ rchut`sc,

@s cst`tge`s
ct`p` igngt`etc h` bgassîetcsc hc maicstcrai c sía jàrn`mas n`gs cjctgvas e`
rchuäía has eîvcgs hc IHI (jueh`ncet`incetc rci`mgae`h` æ hasc gegmg`i), `içn
hc scrcn gehgm`has 
gehgm`has  p`r` lgpcrmaicstcraicng` c hgsigpghcng` ngst` ]ía ci`s;
iav`st`tge`, `tarv`st`tge`, jiuv`st`tge`, pr`v`st`tge`, sgev`st`tge`, rasuv`st`tge`
c pgt`v`st`tge`.

@ czctgngb`
czctgngb`   ç un gegbghar h` `bsaräía hc maicstcrai e` barh` cn csmav`
(ncnbr`e` `pgm`i) ha getcstgea hcid`ha, `tu`eha scictgv`ncetc eas rcmcptarcs
EVM0-I0 c gegbgeha a tr`espartc getcstge`i hc maicstcrai (c jgtacstcrags). @
gegbgäía h` `bsaräía hc maicstcrai (cn dr`ehc p`rtc ha maicstcrai bgig`r) icv` æ
hgngeugäía has eîvcgs hc maicstcrai lcpàtgma (mcrm` hc 36%) c `a cstînuia æ
sîetcsc hc rcmcptar IHI, man maescqucetc rchuäía ha eîvci pi`snàtgma hc IHI,
rchuäía nahcst` hc XD c `unceta hgsmrcta hc LHI. @hcn`gs, ` czctgngb`
nastr`-sc cjctgv` `tç ncsna e` `usëemg` hc maicstcrai hgctçtgma, vgsta quc ci`
gegbc ` rc`bsaräía ha maicstcrai cxmrct`ha e` bgic.

m`tgøegm`s  (maicstgr`nge`, maicstgpai c maicscvci`n), au

@s rcsge`s m`tgøegm`s 
scqucstr`harcs has àmghas bgig`rcs (man m`rd` ecd`tgv`), par su` vcz, `tu`n
 

rchuzgeha/gnpchgeha ` rc`bsaräía cetcr`i hc àmghas bgig`rcs (ea tcräa hgst`i ha

îica), par ncga h` igd`äía eía mav`icetc ea iûnce getcstge`i. Mana rcsuit`ha, là
cxmrcäía jcm`i ha manpasta rcsge` + àmgha bgig`r, c rchuäía `uncet`h` hc
maicstcrai c àmghas bgig`rcs (sgetctgz`has ` p`rtgr ha maicstcrai) ea jîd`ha par 4ΰ-
lghraxgi`äía, quc mastun` scr maetrai`h` pcias àmghas bgig`rcs par jcchb`mo
ecd`tgva. Nastr`n-sc ûtcgs `pce`s cn m`sas hc cicv`äócs gsai`h`s h` IHI
(hasc-hcpcehcetc).

gsai`h`  sía prgargt`rg`ncetc gehgm`has as

Ea tr`t`nceta h` lgpcrtrgdigmcrghcng` gsai`h`
 jgbr`tas  c, cn scdueha iud`r, a àmgha egmatîegma
 jgbr`tas  egmatîegma   au ` `ssamg`äía hc `nbas.
Vahc-sc `geh` utgigz`r, ecst` hgsigpghcng`, as àmghas dr`xas øncd` =, =,
gsai`h`ncetc au cn `ssamg`äía man autras jàrn`mas. Gnpart`etc hcst`m`r quc
trgdigmcrîhca 5366nd% cstà `ssamg`ha `a n`gar rgsma hc p`emrc`tgtc c kà cstà
gehgm`ha a geîmga ha tr`t`nceta man jgbr`tas.

As  jgbr`tas
As  jgbr`tas   tcn mana ncm`egsna hc `äía cstgnui`r as rcmcptarcs eumic`rcs
hceange`has ’Rcmcptarcs @ij` @tgv`has h` Vraigjcr`äía has Vcraxgssan`s„
(VV@R-ΰ). Cstc cstînuia icv`, mana maescquëemg`, `unceta ha LHI pi`snàtgma,
`unceta ha IVI ea icgta v`smui`r nusmui`r, `unceta h` axgh`äía hc àmgha dr`xa
e`s mçiui`s nusmui`rcs c rchuäía ha XD pi`snàtgma.

eg`mge`   au àmgha egmatîegma ç un` vgt`nge` lghrassaiûvci ha manpicxa B (B=)

@ eg`mge`
c manpaecetc hc E@H c E@HV, p`rtgmgp`eha mana maj`tar ea nct`baigsna
getcrnchgàrga. As scus cjcgtas j`rn`maiýdgmas gemiucn rchuäía has XD (`tç 83%)
c IHI (`tç 26%), bcn mana `unceta ha LHI (`tç =6%).

As àmghas dr`xas øncd` =, =, cn `it`s hascs (8 ` 06d `a hg`), rchuzcn as XD c

`uncet`n hgsmrct`ncetc a LHI, pahceha, cetrct`eta, `uncet`r a IHI. ]cus
cjcgtas ea pcrjgi igpîhgma sía hasc-hcpcehcetcs c rcsuit`n hc un` v`rgch`hc hc
ncm`egsnas, cetrc as qu`gs ` hgngeugäía h` prahuäía hc ZIHI c a `unceta hc
scu m`t`baigsna.
 

Var jgn, e` lgpcrigpghcng` ngst`

ngst`,, ` t`x` sçrgm` hc trgdigmcrîhca hcvc argcet`r mana
a tr`t`nceta j`rn`maiýdgma scrà gegmg`ha.

Z`ic rcss`it`r quc ` hgct` hcvc scr n`etgh` p`r` ` abtceäía hc taha patcemg`i
ha csqucn` j`rn`maiýdgma. Csscs jàrn`mas hcvcn scr cvgt`has cn nuilcrcs
dr`vgh`s, passîvcgs hc cedr`vgh`r c hur`etc a `icgt`nceta. Xahas as jàrn`mas
quc `itcr`n `s maemcetr`äócs pi`snàtgm`s hc igpapratcîe` pahcn cxgdgr un
`kustc h`s hascs has `etgma`dui`etcs v`rj`rge` c geh`ehgae`.

A]XCAVARA]C

ZG]ÍA DCR@I

@ astcaparasc ç hcjgegh` mana un` haceä` sgstëngm`, ýstca-nct`býigm` c

pradrcssgv`, m`r`mtcrgz`h` pcia manpranctgnceta h` rcsgstëemg` c h` qu`igh`hc
ýssc`. Amarrc un` hgngeugäía `bsaiut` h` n`ss` ýssc` c hctcrgar`äía h`
ngmra`rqugtctur`, icv`eha æ jr`dgigh`hc ha assa c `uncet`eha a rgsma hc jr`tur`s.

AB]; @ hcjgegäía hc astcaparasc cstà t`nbçn rci`mgae`h` æ `itcr`äía has

ýssc` hcvgha
v`iarcs h` hcesgtanctrg` ýssc` hcvgha æ pcrh` hc n`ss` ýssc`. @ssgn, tcnas
as scdugetcs tcrnas;

astcapceg`,,
→  astcapceg` qu`eha ` pcrh` ç hc 0 ` 2,3 hcsvgas p`hrócs ghcetgjgm`has pcia
cx`nc

astcaparasc,,
→ astcaparasc qu`eha ` pcrh` ç n`gar ha quc 2,3 hcsvgas p`hrócs.

@ hcesgh`hc ngecr`i ýssc` rcjictc ` qu`etgh`hc hc ngecr`i qu`etgjgm`h` eun`

àrc` ha csqucicta, rcprcscet`eha ` hcesgh`hc ngecr`i ýssc`, cxprcss` cn
 

dr`n`s pci` àrc` au vaiunc nchgha. @ astcaparasc pahc scr maesghcr`h` dr`vc
qu`eha, `içn ha mrgtçrga `mgn` rcjcrgha, kà cxgstc un` jr`tur`.

AB];  Gnpart`etc hgjcrcemg`r h` astcan`iàmg`,

AB];  astcan`iàmg`,   quc ç a `mûnuia hc tcmgha
astcaghc eía ngecr`igz`ha ea assa tr`bcmui`r rcsuit`etc hc igngt`äía h`
hcpasgäía ha ngecr`i ea tcmgha.

CVGHCNGAIADG@

@ astcaparasc ç un` maehgäía manun. Hc `marha man ` Ard`egz`äía Nuehg`i

hc ]`ûhc (AN]), un tcräa h`s nuilcrcs br`em`s `mgn` hc :3 `eas sía
part`harcs hc astcaparasc. @hcn`gs, cstgn`-sc quc mcrm` hc 36% h`s nuilcrcs
man n`gs hc 43 `eas vcel`n ` sajrcr `idun` jr`tur` astcaparýtgm`.

@pcs`r h` astcaparasc scr nceas manun ea lancn cn manp`r`äía man `s

nuilcrcs. Cstgn`-sc quc cetrc un qugeta ` un tcräa h`s jr`tur`s ha qu`hrgi
amarr`n cn lances c quc un lancn br`ema hc :6 `eas tcn 23% hc ml`emc
hc tcr un` jr`tur` astcaparýtgm`.

JG]GAV@XAIADG@

Jgsgaiadgm`ncetc, a assa ç maetgeu`ncetc hcpasgt`ha par astcabi`stas c

`bsarvgha eas iam`gs aehc as astcami`stas cstía `tgvas, l`vceha un cqugiîbrga
cetrc hcpasgäía c `bsaräía ýssc`. E` astcaparasc cxgstc hcspraparäía cetrc
astcamiàstgm`, man prchanîega h` ûitgn`.
`tgvgh`hc astcabiàstgm` c astcamiàstgm`,

A csqucicta `munui` assa `tç ` j`gx` has =6 `eas, sceha ` n`ss` ýssc` n`gar
ea lancn ha quc e` nuilcr. @ p`rtgr hgssa, pcrhc-sc 6,=% `a `ea. E` nuilcr, `
pcrh` ç n`gar eas 06 prgncgras `eas pýs-nceap`us`, pahceha mlcd`r ` =% `a
`ea, c ç n`gar e` nuilcr schcetàrg`.
 

J@XARC] HC RG]MA

As rgsmas quc gejiucemg`n ` n`egjcst`äía h` astcaparasc pahcn scr gehgvghu`gs

(rci`tgvas æ pcssa`) au `nbgcet`gs.

As j`tarcs hc rgsma gehgvghu`gs gemiucn; lgstýrg` j`ngig`r pasgtgv` hc astcaparasc,

nuilcr br`em`, prcsceä` hc csmaigasc, gehgvîhuas n`dras, tgpa maestgtumgae`i
pcqucea c `p`rcmgnceta prcn`tura hc m`bcias br`emas.

]ía maesghcr`has j`tarcs `nbgcet`gs a àimaai c a mgd`rra (gegbgharcs h`

nuitgpigm`äía has astcabi`stas)? m`jcîe` (`uncet` ` cxmrcäía hc màimga)?
ge`tgvgh`hc, nà eutrgäía, hgct` rgm` cn jgbrge`, pratcîe`s c sýhga (hgngeucn `
`bsaräía hc màimga)? euigp`rgh`hc? `ncearrcg` par cxcrmîmgas? nceap`us` prcmamc
c cehamrgeap`tg`s.

MI@]]GJGM@ÄÍA

@ astcaparasc pahc scr prgnàrg` (ghgapàtgm`) au scmuehàrg`, sceha ` jarn`

prgnàrg` subhgvghgh` cn tgpa G c tgpa GG.

Ea tgpa GG,, t`nbçn maelcmgha par tgpa pýs-nceap`us`, cxgstc ràpgh` pcrh` ýssc`
Ea tgpa
c amarrcn e` nuilcr rcmcetcncetc nceap`us`h`. Vrchange`etcncetc `tgedc a
assa tr`bcmui`r c ç `ssamg`h` ` jr`tur`s `s vçrtcbr`s c ha ràhga hgst`i.

@  tgpa GG
GG,, au scegi, ç `ssamg`h` `a cevcilcmgnceta c `p`rcmc par hcjgmgëemg`
mrøegm` hc màimga, `unceta h` `tgvgh`hc ha p`r`tarnøega c hgngeugäía h`
jarn`äía ýssc`.

@ astcaparasc scmuehàrg`
scmuehàrg`,, par su` vcz, ç hcmarrcetc hc pramcssas geji`n`týrgas,
mana ` `rtrgtc rcun`taghc? `itcr`äócs cehýmrge`s, mana lgpcrtgrcaghgsna c
hcsarhces `hrce`gs? ecapi`sg`s? ngcian` nûitgpia? par hcsusa? par usa hc
 

hrad`s, mana lcp`rge`, àimaai, vgt`nge` @ c martgmaghcs. Cstcs gegbcn ` `bsaräía

getcstge`i ha màimga c `uncet`n su` cignge`äía urgeàrg`, hgngeucn ` jarn`äía
astcabiàstgm` c `uncet`n ` rc`bsaräía astcamiàstgm`.
astcamiàstgm`.

HG@DEÝ]XGMA 
HG@DEÝ]XGMA 

Hc naha dcr`i, ` haceä` ç gesghgas` c pauma sgetanàtgm`? nugt`s vczcs, sceha

n`egjcst`h` par un` j`tur`.

E` `e`necsc
`e`necsc,, hcvc scr qucstgae`h` ` gh`hc h` nceap`us`, ` prcsceä` hc
lgstýrg` j`ngig`r, làbgtas `igncet`rcs, `tgvgh`hc jîsgm`, usa hc m`jç, mgd`rra au
àimaai.

jîsgma, pahc-sc vcrgjgm`r hcjarngh`hc h` maiue`, hcvceha gemiugr h`has

@a cx`nc jîsgma,
hc pcsa c `itur` p`r` `manp`el`nceta. Ç gnpart`etc `v`ig`r `itur` ha p`mgcetc
t`nbçn (lgstýrg` hc hgngeugäía h` cst`tur` pahc gehgm`r jr`tur` vcrtcbr`i
`ssgetanàtgm`).

As cx`ncs i`bar`targ`gs
i`bar`targ`gs  jrcqucetcncetc sía earn`gs e` astcaparasc prgnàrg`.
Ratgecgr`ncetc saigmgt`nas lcnadr`n`,
lcnadr`n`, ZL], cictrajarcsc hc pratcîe`s, prav`s
hc jueäía rce`i, has`dcn hc màimga c jýsjara, jasj`t`sc `im`ige` c m`imgûrg` hc
28l. A eîvci hc màimga cehýdcea cxmrct`h` ç hgrct`ncetc rci`mgae`ha `a
`p`rcmgnceta h` astcaparasc.

]cnprc quc ecmcssàrga, saigmgt`-sc as n`rm`harcs hc jarn`äía c hc rc`bsaräía

ýssc`.

Rcprcscet`n as n`rm`harcs hc jarn`äía ` jasj`t`sc `im`ige` ýssc`, `

astcam`imge` (pcrngtc `v`ig`äía h` `tgvgh`hc astcabiàstgm`) c a prý-maiàdcea tgpa
G M-tcrnge`i pcptîhca (ç ` jarn` n`gs manun ha maiàdcea prcscetc eas assas).
 

As n`rm`harcs hc rc`bsaräía ýssc` gemiucn lghraxgpraige` (ç a prahuta h`

hcdr`h`äía ha maiàdcea? cetrct`eta, ç gejiucemg`h` pci` hgct` `igncet`r),
prgrhgeaige`, hcsaxgpgrghgeaige` (prcscetcs e`s igd`äócs ha maiàdcea, sía has`h`s
e` urge`) c a Etx (ç rcsîhua hc tciapcptîhcas argdge`has h` ruptur` ha maiàdcea
tgpa G).

Cxgstcn, `geh`, cx`ncs cspcmg`gs mana ` has`dcn h` 23-AL vgt`nge` H c h`

0,23 hg-AL vgt`nge` H.

A cx`nc r`hgadràjgma hcvc scr rc`igz`ha eas p`mgcetcs cn gevcstgd`äía p`r`

astcaparasc, pcia j`ta quc ` n`garg` h`s jr`tur`s vcrtcbr`gs sía `ssgetanàtgm`s
`ssgetanàtgm`s,,
iada a cx`nc r`hgaiýdgma h` rcdgía (maiue` taràmgm` c ianb`r cn pcrjgi) scrg` `
ncilar jarn` hc rc`igz`r a hg`deýstgma. Eas r`gas \, pahcnas cemaetr`r pcrh`
ha tr`bcmui`ha ýssca, mai`psa vcrtcbr`i au `muel`nceta, manprcssía
bgmøem`v` has hgsmas, eýhuias hc ]mlrnai c `jge`nceta h`s martgm`gs.

hcesgtanctrg`   ýssc`
@ hcesgtanctrg` ýssc`   ç a p`hría aura p`r` a hg`deýstgma, naegtargz`äía c
gevcstgd`äía miîegm` ha p`mgcetc man astcaparasc. @s gehgm`äócs p`r` `v`ig`äía
hc hcesgh`hc ýssc` cstía e` t`bci` `b`gxa?

Gehgm`äócs p`r` `v`ig`äía hc hcesgh`hc ýssc`

•  Nuilcrcs man :3 `eas au n`gs

•  Lances man 46 `eas au n`aas
•  Nuilcrcs e` pýs-nceap`us` man nceas hc :3
`eas c lances (36-46) man j`tarcs hc rgsma
•  @huitas man jr`tur` par jr`dgigh`hc
•  @huitas man haceä` au maehgäía `ssamg`h` `
pcrh` hc n`ss` ýssc`
•  @huitas cn usa hc nchgm`äócs `ssamg`h`s ` b`gx`
n`ss` ýssc` au ` pcrh` ýssc`
•   V`mgcetc cn tr`t`nceta, p`r` jges hc
naegtargz`äía c cjgmàmg` tcr`pëutgm`
 

As cqugp`ncetas mcetr`gs `v`ig`n ` n`ss` ýssc` ha qu`hrgi, maiue` c marpa

taha? `a pasta quc as pcrgjçrgmas `v`ig`n ` n`ss` ýssc` eas hchas, puelas,
p`tci`, tîbg` c m`imâeca.

XR@X@NCEXA 
XR@X@NCEXA 

@ prgemgp`i jarn` hc tr`t`nceta h` astcaparasc ç ` prcvceäía

prcvceäía.. As cicncetas
mrîtgmas sía a pgma hc n`ss` ýssc` 
ýssc` (ç hcpcehcetc ha `partc m`iýrgma, h` gedcstía
ha màimga c vgt`nge` H, h` jueäía ncestru`i c h` `tgvgh`hc jîsgm`? c quc amarrc
pýs-nceap`us`.
cetrc as 26 c =6 `eas hc gh`hc) c ` prcvceäía h` rc`bsaräía pýs-nceap`us`.

@  tcr`pg` nchgm`ncetas`
nchgm`ncetas`   utgigz`h` maesgstc hc hu`s mi`sscs prgemgp`gs hc
hrad`s; `dcetcs `etg-rc`bsaräía 
`etg-rc`bsaräía  ha tcmgha ýssca (n`garg`) c `dcetcs
ýssc`. As `dcetcs `etg-rc`bsaräía sía hrad`s quc
cstgnui`harcs h` jarn`äía ýssc`.
gegbcn ` `tgvgh`hc astcamiàstgm`, sceha cspcmg`incetc ûtcgs p`r` p`mgcetcs cn
j`scs hc ràpgh` rcnahci`äía ýssc` h` haceä`? sía cxcnpias hcsasun`b ,
m`imgtaege` c bgsjasjae`tas. As cstgnui`harcs h` jarn`äía ýssc`, rcprcscet`has
pci` Xcrgp`r`tgh`, sía hrad`s m`p`zcs hc cstgnui`r ` `tgvgh`hc astcabiàsgm`,
m`us`eha `unceta gnpart`etc h` n`ss` ýssc`.

MÀIMGA

A maesuna hc màimga `uncet` man ` `tgvgh`hc jîsgm` c t`nbçn ç n`gar e`

dr`vghcz c i`mt`äía. @ ecmcssgh`hcs hgàrg`s v`rg`n hc `marha man ` j`gx` ctàrg`.
@ prgemgp`i jaetc hc màimga e` hgct` ç a icgtc c scus hcrgv`has, n`s t`nbçn cxgstc
cn vcdct`gs mana cspge`jrc, `drgía, brýmaigs c mauvc-n`etcgd`. @ qu`etg`
ecmcssàrg` ç hgjîmgi hc scr abtgh` `pce`s h` hgct` `igncet`r? ecsscs m`sas, pahc
cst`r gehgm`h` ` supicncet`äía.
 

As supicncetas n`gs manues utgigz`has sía hc m`rbae`ta hc màimga. Cstc maetçn

86% hc màimga cicncet`r c prcmgs`n hc ncga àmgha p`r` scr saiubgigz`ha,
part`eta, hcvcn scr gedcrghas æs rcjcgäócs. @ prcsceä` ha n`deçsga `ssamg`ha
eía gejiucemg` ` `bsaräía, n`s ncilar` ` tcehëemg` ` maestgp`äía. As
supicncetas man mgtr`ta hc màimga sía gehgm`has p`r` gehgvîhuas man `miarghrg` c
rchuzcn as rgsmas hc màimuias rce`gs.

ZGX@NGE@ H

@ vgt`nge` H ç sgetctgz`h` e` pcic pci` `äía has r`gas sai`rcs uitr`vgaict` c sajrc
tr`esjarn`äócs ea jîd`ha c eas rges p`r` tare`r-sc `tgv`? j`varcmc ` jarn`äía
ýssc` c j`mgigt` ` `bsaräía getcstge`i ha màimga.

Eas gehgvîhuas hcjgmgcetcs hcss` vgt`nge`, ` supicncet`äía `uncet` ` n`ss`

ýssc` c hgngeug a rgsma hc jr`tur`s? ecsscs m`sas, rcmanceh`-sc supicncet`äía
hc 866 ` <66SG/hg`.

As cjcgtas mai`tcr`gs hcmarrcetcs h` supicncet`äía man vgt`nge` H sía

lgpcrm`imcng` c lgpcrm`imgûrg`.

RCVA]GÄÍA LARNAE@I

]`bc-sc quc ` pcrh` ýssc` ç `mcicr`h` `pýs ` nceap`us`. Var un ncm`egsna

eía bcn manprccehgha,

passgvcincetc as cstrýdceas
`tu`n e` jarn`äía t`nbçn.   gegbcn ` rc`bsaräía ýssc`, c
cstrýdceas 

@ `hngegstr`äía hc cstrýdceas biaqucg` ` pcrh` `mcicr`h` hc assa nchui`r quc

sc vcrgjgm` eas prgncgras `eas `pýs ` nceap`us`? pahcn hgngeugr ` gemghëemg`
hc jr`tur`s h` maiue` cn `tç 36% c ha qu`hrgi, cn ncear csm`i`. Cetrc autras
bcecjîmgas, mgt`nas ncilar` ha pcrjgi igpîhgma, pratcäía has hcetcs c mçrcbra,
hgngeugäía ha rgsma hc @izlcgncr.
 

As cstrýdceas pahcn scr `hngegstr`has par vg` ar`i, subigedu`i, tr`eshçrngm`,

pcrmutâec`, submutâec` au getr`v`dge`i. @ hasc hcvc scr `kust`h` æ p`mgcetc.
Pu`eha manbge`h` man pradcstcrae`, hgngeug ` gemghëemg` hc mâemcr
cehanctrg`i rci`mgae`ha æ larnøega? cetrct`eta, eía hgngeug æ rci`mgae`h` `a
mâemcr hc n`n`.

@ rcpasgäía larnae`i cstà gehgm`h` ea geîmga h` nceap`us` c hcpags, qu`eha `

nuilcr cstà prýxgn` `as 46 `eas. @ maetr`gehgm`äía ç qu`eha cxgstc dr`ehc
tcehëemg` j`ngig`r hc mâemcr hc `n`n au lgstýrg` pcssa`i hc tranbajicbgtc au
`mghcetc v`smui`r mcrcbr`i.

AB]; 
AB];  As nahui`harcs scictgvas has rcmcptarcs hc cstrýdcea  cstrýdcea  (]CRNs)
prahuzcn `daegsna cstradëegma cn `ivas hcsck`has, mana assas c jîd`ha, c
`et`daegsna (au `daegsna nîegna) e`s n`n`s c ûtcra. @s hrad`s n`gs
utgigz`h`s sía a t`naxgjcea c a r`iaxgjcea. A prgncgra `prcscet` mcrm` hc 46%
h` `äía ha cstrýdcea cn tcrnas ha `unceta h` n`ss` ýssc`? c, qu`eta `a
scdueha, cstuha nuitgmëetrgma nastrau quc pahc rchuzgr ` gemghëemg` hc jr`tur`s
jr `tur`s
h` maiue`, n`s eía rchuz ` gemghëemg` hc jr`tur` hc qu`hrgi.

M@IMGXAEGE@

@ m`imgtaege` ç un larnøega prahuzgha pci`s mçiui`s M (p`r`jaigmui`rcs) h`

tgrcaghc. @prcscet` ` m`p`mgh`hc hc nahui`r as eîvcgs sçrgmas hc màimga c jýsjara?
tcn mana prgemgp`i `äía gegbgr ` rc`bsaräía astcamiàstgm`. Cstuha praspcmtgva
sudcrc quc scu usa pahc hgngeugr ` gemghëemg` hc jr`tur`s h` maiue` vcrtcbr`i cn
=4%, n`s eía tcehc ` `itcr`r `s t`x`s hc jr`tur`s ha qu`hrgi.
 

BG]JA]JAE@XA]

@prcscet`n qugngat`mtgsna pci` supcrjîmgc ha assa, hgngeucn ` rc`bsaräía c

pahcn `uncet`r ` jarn`äía ýssc`. @tu`incetc, as n`gs jrcqucetcncetc
utgigz`has ea tr`t`nceta h` astcaparasc sa` `icehrae`tas.

HCEA]SN@BC

Hrad` rci`tgv`ncetc eav`. Xr`t`-sc hc `etgmarpa naeamiae`i quc tcn mana `iva
a R@EOI. @tr`vçs hcss` igd`äía cic gnpchc ` jarn`äía hc astcami`stas c
maescqucetcncetc hgngeug ` rc`bsaräía ýssc`. Stgigz`-sc ` nchgm`äía vg`
submutâec` cn `pigm`äía ` m`h` : ncscs.

GVRGJI@ZAE@

Gegbc ` rc`bsaräía ýssc` c passgvcincetc `tu` e` jarn`äía.

JISARCXA HC ]ÝHGA

@uncet` ` ngecr`igz`äía ha assa tr`bcmui`r. @ vgt`nge` H patcemg`igz` su` `äía

eas astcabi`stas.

@XGZGH@HC JÎ]GM@

@ n`ss` ýssc` ç rci`mgae`h` æ `äía h` nusmui`tur` sabrc a assa, part`eta,

cxcrmîmgas dr`vgt`mgae`gs sía n`gs cjctgvas. Rcmanceh`-sc un pradr`n` ghc`i
gnp`mta,,
hc `tgvgh`hc jîsgm` `qucic quc maetçn; cxcrmîmgas `crýbgas hc b`gxa gnp`mta
mana m`ngel`h`s, un` vcz quc cstgnui`n ` jarn`äía astcabiàstgm` c prcvgecn
` rc`bsaräía? cxcrmîmga hc jart`icmgnceta nusmui`r ? c, cxcrmîmga p`r` ncilar`
praprgamcpäía, gemiugeha a p`hría h` n`rml`, a cqugiîbrga c as rcjicxas, ` jgn
h` praprgamcpäía,
hc hgngeugr ` gemghëemg` hc quch`s.
 

A bcecjîmga prgnàrga h` `tgvgh`hc jîsgm` pahc scr cvgt`r pcrh` ýssc` quc amarrc
man ` ge`tgvgh`hc, a quc hc mcrt` n`ecgr` pahc rchuzgr a rgsma hc jr`tur`.
Cetrct`eta, eía pahc scr rcmanceh`h` mana substgtut` ha tr`t`nceta
nchgm`ncetasa `praprg`ha.

JR@XSR@] A]XCAVARÝXGM@]

@s jr`tur`s c su`s manpigm`äócs sía rcicv`etcs scquci`s miîegm`s h` astcaparasc.

A rgsma hc jr`tur`s astcaparýtgm`s hcpcehc ha scxa, h` r`ä` c h` gh`hc ha
gehgvîhua. Pu`sc tah`s `s jr`tur`s cn ghasas sía hcvgh`s, cn p`rtc, æ b`gx`
hcesgh`hc ýssc`. Vahcn amarrcr cn qu`iqucr assa, parçn n`gs jrcqucetcncetc
`mancetcn as assas ha qu`hrgi  puela  
qu`hrgi  (jënur praxgn`i), maiue` vcrtcbr`i, puela
(cxtrcngh`hc hgst`i has assas ha `etcbr`äa) c mastci`s. E` prcsceä` hc un`
jr`tur` ç hc sun` gnpartâemg` gevcstgd`r ` su` m`us`.

Hc naha dcr`i, `s jr`tur`s ha qu`hrgi sía `s n`gs dr`vcs c amarrcn e`s j`scs
n`gs t`rhg`s h` haceä`. @ssamg`n-sc ` n`gar rgsma hc nart`igh`hc c hc
ecmcssgh`hcs hc mugh`has cspcmg`gs par iaeda pr`za. @ jrcquëemg` hc jr`tur`s hc
qu`hrgi ç hc 2 ` = vczcs n`gar e`s nuilcrcs ha quc eas lances.

@ har, igngt`äía jîsgm` c nuh`eä` ea cstgia hc vgh` rci`mgae`h`s æs jr`tur`s

pahcn m`us`r sgetan`s psgmaiýdgm`s, mana hcprcssía, `esgch`hc, ncha au `tç
ncsna gr`, quc t`nbçn `tr`p`il`n ` rcmupcr`äía.

Hcssc naha, mana `s jr`tur`s, cn dcr`i, amarrcn par quch`s, ç jueh`ncet`i

`hat`r nchgh`s hc prcvceäía, t`gs mana us`r m`iä`has man sai` hc barr`ml`,
pramur`r `paga hc bced`i`, mugh`ha man pgsas csmarrcd`hgas, utgigz`r iuzcs hc
argcet`äía p`r` `uxgig`r ` iamanaäía hcetra hc m`s`, æ eagtc.