Science Exam Break Down

Worth 30% of Final Grade

Unit One – Chemistry

Unit Two- Biology

Unit Three- Physics

Unit Four- Climate Change

Exam Date: Monday June 25 2012

Nikhil Khera
Chemistry
• Periodic Table

o 3 Types of Particles

 Proton (P)  nucleus

• Positive charge

 Neutron (n)  nucleus

• Neutral charge

 Electron (ē)  shells

• Negative charge

o Reading the periodic table

 Atomic Number

• Number of protons and electrons

 Atomic mass

• Protons + Neutrons

 Number of Neutrons

• Atomic Mass – Atomic Number

• Bohr- Rutherford Diagram

o 2 areas

 Nucleus  protons & neutrons

 Shells  electrons

o Drawing

1. Place number of protons/neutrons in the middle

2. Electrons circle in nucleus

• 2 in first shell

• 8 in rest

• Lewis-Dot Diagram

o Drawing

1. Core of atom  represented by element symbol

2. Determine number of valence electrons  4 sides

• One dot clockwise  double

• Compounds

o 3 Ionic Compounds

 Monovalent Compounds

• Definition

o Compound containing metal and non-mental  one charge

• Naming

o Chemical Formula

 Write down element symbols

 Write down charges

 Criss-cross  reduce

o Chemical Name

 Write down metal and non-metal

 Change ending of non-metal  -ide

 Multivalent Compounds

• Definition

o Compound containing a metal and a non metal

 Two or more charges

 • Naming

o Chemical Formula

 Write down element symbols

 Write down charges

 Criss-cross  reduce

o Chemical Name

 Write metal  roman numeral

• Corresponding to charge

 Write down non metal  ends in –ide

 Polyatomic Compounds

• Definition

o Compounds containing metal and polyatomic ions

• Naming

o Chemical Formula

 Write down element symbols

 Write down charges

 Criss-cross  reduce

o Chemical Name

 Write metal and polyatomic ion

o 1 Covalent Bond

 Molecular Compounds

• Definition

o Compound containing

 Non-metal and metalloid

 Non-metal and non-metal

• Naming

o Chemical Formula

 Write down element symbol

 Write down amount of atoms

 Do not reduce
 o Chemical Name

 Write Element

 Use prefixes  according to amount

• Balancing Chemical Equations

o 7 Steps

1. All diatomic molecules  subscript of 2

• HOFBrINCl

2. Balance metal atoms  coefficients

• Add a coefficient

o Adjust number of atoms  other elements

3. Balance non-metals  not oxygen

• Add a coefficient

o Adjust number of atoms  other elements

4. Balance Oxygen

• Check for subscripts  share GCF

5. Balance Hydrogen

6. Coefficients  reduced

7. Coefficient  halves

• Double

• Chemical Reactions

o Follow law of conservation of mass

• Mass of reactants = Mass of Products

o Evidence of a chemical change

• Gas (bubbles) • Colour

• Heat • Odour

o Types of Reaction

• Synthesis Reactions

• Two substances (elements)  combine

o Form a compound

o A + B  AB
• Decomposition Reaction

• Compounds  break apart

o Form smaller compounds/elements

o AB  A+ B

• Exceptions

o Carbonates

 Decompose to Carbon Dioxide + metal oxide

o Chlorates

 Decompose to oxygen gas + metal chloride

o Hydroxides

 Decompose to metal oxide + water

• Single Displacement

• One element replaces another – compound

o Metal replaces metal

o Non-metal replaces non-metal

o A + BC  AC + B

 A=Metal

o A + BC  BA + C

 A= Non – Metal

• Double Displacement

• Metal replaces metal

• Non-metal replaces non metal

o AB + CD  AD + CB

• Combustion

• Fuel burns  reacts with oxygen quickly

o Products  oxide and energy

• 2 Types

o Hydrocarbons (CxHy)

 Only contains carbon + hydrogen

• Complete combustion (oxygen)

o Carbon dioxide

o Water

o Energy
 • Incomplete combustion (oxygen)

o Carbon monoxide

o Carbon

o Carbon dioxide

o Water

o Energy

o Neutralization Reaction

 Acid-base neutralization

• Double displacement

 Acid + Base  Water and Salt

• Salt isn’t always NaCl

o Combination of inside elements

• Acid and Bases

o Acids

• Characteristics

• Molecular compounds

• Dissolve in water

• Reacts with metal/carbonates

• Conduct electricity

• Neutralize bases

• Names and Formulas

• Binary Acids (Hydrogen +Single Element)

o General formula  HX

o General Name  hydro___ic acid

• Oxyacids (Hydrogen + Polyatomic)

o General formula  HXY

o General name

 Polyatomic ends in –ate

• ___ic acid

 Polyatomic ends in –ite

 • ___ous acid

o Base

• Characteristics

• Ionic compounds  made up of OH (hydroxide)

• Dissolve in water easily

• React with cations

• Conduct electricity

• Neutralize acids

• Names and Formulas

• Hydroxide

o General formula  XOH

o General name  metal hydroxide

o Acid – Base Indications

• Indicate

• Chemical  turns different colour

o Comes in contact with acid/base

 • Chemical Indications

• Blue Litmus Paper

o Acid  turns red o Base  nothing

• Red Litmus Paper

o Acid  nothing o Base  turns

blue

• Phenolphthalein

o Acid  nothing o Base  turns

pink

Biology
• Types of Cells
o Two Major Types
• Prokaryotic Cells
• Simple Cells
o Don’t contain nucleus & other membrane-bound organelles
o Bacteria
• Eukaryotic Cells
• Complex Cells
o Contains nucleus & other organelles
o Protists and Amoeba
o Plants and Animals
• Importance of Cell Division
o Allows organisms to reproduce
• Pass on genetic information to offspring
• Two types
• Asexual Reproduction
o Parent cell divides  makes a copy of itself
 Genetically identical
• Sexual Reproduction
o Males create sperm
o Females create eggs
 Sperm and Eggs fuse  genetic information from each parent
o Grow
• Divide  instead of growing too big
• Important chemicals/water can move
• Divide build on one another
• Form the tissues/organs  make up an organism
o Repair damaged areas
• Continuously replacing cells  due to damage
• Cause by cuts and breaks
• Allows for damaged cells to be replaced  organism can continue to function properly
• The Cell Cycle
o Three stages
• Interphase
 • Longest stage  not a resting stage
• Carrying out all life activities  growth, respiration, and specialized functions
• Cell prepares for division
o DNA replicated  two identical strands
o Organelles replicated
o Cell increases in size
• Mitosis
• Definition
o Process of cell division  result in parent cell divided
 Two new daughter cells
• Identical to each other  original parent cell
• 4 Stages
o Prophase
 Cell prepares for nuclear division
• Packages DNA into chromosomes
• Nuclear membrane is dissolved
o Metaphase
 Cell prepares chromosomes for division
• Chromosomes line up at the center of the cell
• Spindle fibres attach from daughter cells
o Chromosomes at the centromere
o Anaphase
 Spindle fibers pull chromosomes apart (centromere splits)
• ½ of each chromosome (chromotid)
 moves to each daughter cell
o Telophase
 DNA spreads out
 2 nuclei form
 New cell wall forms  between two daughter cells
• Cytokinesis
• Cytoplasm divides  produces two genetically identical daughter cells
• Cell Specialization
o Specialized Cells
• Not all identical
• Created to perform specific functions
o Different physical and chemical differences
 Allow each type to perform specific job
• Animal Cells
• Red Blood Cells
o Contain hemoglobin  carries oxygen in the blood
 Smooth  easily pass through blood vessels
• Skin Cells
o Fit together tightly  cover the outside
 Protect cells inside
• Reduce water loss
• Bone Cells
o Collect calcium from food  allow growth and repair
 Build up bone around themselves  create body’s skeleton
• Muscle Cells
o Arranged in bundles  muscle fibres
o Can contact  makes fibres shorter
 Causes bones to move
• White Blood Cells
o Movie like an amoeba  engulf/fight infections
 • Sperm Cells
o Able to move independently
 Carry DNA from male parent  join with egg from female parent
• Fat Cells
o Large vacuoles  store fat molecules
 Cell stores chemical energy
• Nerve Cells
o Long, thin with numerous branches
 Conduct electrical impulses  coordinate body activity
• Photocyte Cell
o Help animals emit light
 Active at night/live in deep ocean
• Plant Cells
• Xylem Cells
o Transport water/ dissolved minerals  throughout plant
• Storage Cells
o Contain special structures  store starch
 Source of energy
• Photosynthesis Cells
o Contain chloroplasts  collect energy from sunlight
 Make sugar for plant
• Phloem Cells
o Transport dissolved sugars around the plant
• Epidermal
o On young roots  absorb water from soil
• Guard
o Surface of the leaves  controls water loss
• Levels of Organization
o Least Complex to Most Complex
• Cell
• Basic unit of life
• Tissue
• Collection of similar cells  perform specific functions
o Animal Tissues
 4 types
• Connective Tissue
o Various types of cells/fibers
 Held together by a matrix (liquid, solid or gel)
o Joins/supports structures
• Epithelial tissue
o Made of a thin sheet of cells
 Tightly packed together  form a protective
barrier
• Muscle Tissue
o Contains proteins  contract/enable body to move
 skeletal muscles  helps you move
 smooth and cardiac muscles  help organs
move
 • Nervous Tissue
o Responds to stimuli
o Sends electrical signals throughout the body
o Plant Tissues
 4 Types
• Vascular Tissue
o Transports water and nutrients
 Xylem  moves water and minerals
 Phloem  moves dissolved sugar
(photosynthesized)
• Epidermal Tissue
o Protective outer covering
 Allows the exchange of materials  CO2 and O2
• Ground Tissue
o Provides support
 Stores water/nutrients
o Photosynthesis occurs
• Meristematic Tissue
o Growth occurs
• Organ
• Structure composed of different tissues  perform a complex body function
o Work in one system  play a role in many
• Organ System
• System of one or more organs  working to together
o Perform a vital body function
• Allow organism to accomplish basic functions
o Obtain oxygen o Sense/respond to
o Obtain nutrients environment
o Eliminate waste o Reproduce
• Organism
• Stem Cells
o Process
• Unspecialised cells  become other specialized types of cells
• Exposed to special environmental conditions
o Cellular Differentiation
 Process that produces specialized cells  directed by genetic
information
o Types
• Embryonic
• Become any type of cell
• Multipotent
• Differentiate into certain types of cells  exist within specialized tissues
o Regeneration
• Body part is re-grown  mitosis
• Limited ability
o Able to regenerate adult fingertips
o Re-grow parts of organs
 Take cells  grow in labs  transplant back into patients
o Future Treatment
• Help body fight cancers
• Recover from degenerative diseases
• Parkinson’s
• Alzheimer’s
• Circulatory System
o Function
• Transport of nutrients
• Digestive system  body cells
• Transports oxygen
• From lungs  body cells
• Transport of wastes
• Away from body cells  lungs and kidneys
• Regulates body temperature
• Transports white blood cells  immune system
o 3 Parts
• Blood
• Connective tissue
• Made up of
o Red Blood Cells
 Carry oxygen, waste and nutrients
o White Blood Cells
 Fight infections
o Plasma
 Water portion of blood
o Platelets
 Used to form scabs  heal wounds
• Heart
• Made up of
o Cardiac Muscle
o Nerve Tissues
o Connective Tissue
• Pumps blood around body
• Regular beat  change in response to events
• Process
o De-oxygenated blood
 Superior/Inferior Vena Cava Right Atrium Right Ventricle
Pulmonary Artery
o Oxygenated Blood
 Pulmonary Vein  Left Atrium  Left Ventricle  Aorta
• Vessels
• Arteries
o Carry blood away from heart
• Veins
o Carry blood towards heart
• Capillaries
o Tiny blood vessels  one cell thick
o Allow substance to diffuse  blood and body tissue
• Respiratory System
o Functions
• Provide oxygen to the body
• Remove carbon dioxide from the body
o Map
• Nasal Cavity  Pharynx Trachea  Bronchi Lungs  Alveoli  Blood Stream Cell
• Digestive System
o Digestive Tract
• Series of hollow organs
• Connect mouth to anus
• Other organs
• Produce/store organs  break down/absorb food
• Map
• Mouth
o Digestion begins
o Saliva  produced by salivary glands
 Breaks down carbohydrates  known as starches
• Peristalsis
o Involuntary muscle contractions
 Triggered by the nervous system
• Stomach
o Passes through the esophagus sphincter  lets food into the stomach
o Glands produce stomach acid  break down proteins
 Thick layer of mucus  protects stomach from its own acid
o Muscle action  mixes food with digestive juices
 Emptied into small intestines  pyloric sphincter
• Intestines
o Small Intestines
 First Part
• Duodenum
o Chemicals produced by other organs  enter digestive
process
o Bile produced by liver  dissolves fat
 Folded into finger-like projections  villi
• Increases surface area
• Food molecules  absorbed into the bloodstream
o Obtains energy and nutrients
o Large Intestines (Colon)
 Doesn’t break down food  Absorbs Water
• Other Organs
o Liver
 Produces bile  Stored in the Gall Bladder
o Pancreas
 Produces insulin
o Body Defences
• Vomiting
• Forcibly remove contents  middle of small intestines and up
• Liver
• Filter the body
• Musculoskeletal System
o Three Parts
• Bones
• Hard and dense
• Made up of bone cells
 o Matrix of minerals (calcium and phosphorus)
• Nerve tissues/blood vessels  pass through canals in bones
• Ligaments
• Lough and elastic
• Hold bones together  at the joints
• Made up of long collagen fibres
• Cartilage
• Cells  matrix of collagen
• Strong and flexible support
• Found in nose, ears and esophagus  disks between vertebrae and joints
o Muscles
• Made up of long cells  muscle fibres
• Contain protein  allow contractions and releases
• Three types
• Skeletal  voluntary
• Smooth  involuntary
• Cardiac  heart
o Functions
• Structure/Support
• Locomotion
• Protection
• Mineral Storage
• Blood Cells  bone marrow
o Osteoporosis
• Definition
• Bones become brittle/fragile  loss of bone tissue
• At risk
• Older adult, postmenopausal women, steroid users
• Preventive Measures
• High calcium, vitamin D, exercise, limit smoking/alcohol
• Nervous System
o Made up of
• Brain
• Spinal Cord
• Peripheral Nerves
o Function
• Senses the environment  co-ordinated appropriate responses
o Organization
• Two major divisions
• Central Nervous System (CNS)
o Brain and spinal cord
o Coordinates all body’s activities
o Relays messages  process information  analyzes responses
o Shielded by bones
 Skull  Brain
 Spine  Spinal Cord
 • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
o Nerve  bundle of axons
 Contain sensory and motor neurons
o Contains all nerves  not part of CNS
o 3 groups
1. Control voluntary muscles
2. Carry sensory information to the brain
3. Regulate involuntary functions
o Structure
• Neurons
• Specialized nerve cells  combined to form tissue
o Help you gather information about your environment
 Interpret the information  react
• Found in the brain, spinal cord and nerves
• Consist of three main regions
o Dendrites
 Pass signals they receive  onto the cell body
o Cell body
o Axon
 Passes those impulses onto other neurons/muscles
• Sensory Receptors
• Receive input from the external environment
• Sensory Neurons
o Send impulses from receptors in skin and sense organs
 To the brain and spinal cord
• Motor Neurons
o Carry impulses away from the brain and spinal cord
 To a gland or muscles  resulting in secretion/movement
• Nerve impulse
o Completes a reflex arc/nerve pathway
 Don’t involve conscious thought
• Immune System
o Layered Defence System  protects organs from infection
• 3 Stages
• Surface Barriers  prevent pathogen from entering
o Skin
 Dead skin cells  prevent invasion by micro-organisms
 Bacteria lives on skin
• Produces acids  kill many pathogens
o Body Fluids
 Saliva, tears and nasal mucous  contain enzyme lysozyme
• Break down bacterial cell walls  kills pathogens
 Mucus  protective barrier
• Blocks bacteria  sticking to inner epithelial cells
 • Non-Specific Immunity
o Cellular Defence
 Phagocytosis
• Phagocytic cells  surround and internalize the foreign
microorganism
o Release digestive enzymes/other harmful chemicals
 Destroys microorganism
o Inflammatory Response
 Increased blood flow to infected area  blood vessels become
penetrable
• Allows white blood cells to escape into infected areas
o Kill infections causing microorganisms
• Specific Immunity
o Active Immunity
 Immunity got/ developed in your life
• Developed by taking a vaccine  expose to the
bacteria/virus
o Immunization
• Deliberate exposure of your body to a germ 
• Primary response/immune memory cells will develop
o Natural Immunity
• Immunity you are born with
• Natural defence against disease
o Immune System Failure
• Diseases can affect immune systems effectiveness
• Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome  AIDS
• HIV infect immune cells
• Become HIV factories  produces new viruses
o Number of healthy immune cells in a infected person decreases
• Organ Transplantation
o General information
• Organs
• Heart • Pancreas • Livers
• Liver • Intestines • Kidneys
• Tissues
• Cornea • Bone • Blood Vessels
• Skin • Tendons • Bone Marrow
o Benefits
• Normal life
• Donor  satisfaction
• Developing research in the area
o Risks
• Organ and tissue  rejected by immune system
• Take drugs to prevent  suppress immune system
o Ability to fight infections reduced
• Associated with surgery
• Donors back up organs could fail
 o Living Donor Organs
• Lung  requires two living donors
• Each provide one lobe
• Kidney  one donor
• Liver  regenerate
• One lobe of liver
• Family members  increased chance of genetic match
o Deceased Donor Organs
• Family members  give consent on behalf
• Sign a donor card
• Organs are checked  damaged/unhealthy
• Recipient searched for
o Factors taken into account
 Blood/tissue types
 Age/location of donor and recipient
 Length of time
o Xeno transplantation
• Xeno=foreign
• Transplanting body parts from one to another
• Pigs provide heart valves
• Cells have been killed  no longer considered living tissue
• Tumour
o Definition
• Caused by uncontrolled cell division of mutated cells
o Types
• Benign Tumour (Cancer)
• Cell division is unchecked  proceeds as a moderate rate
• Doesn’t invade surrounding cells  pushes
• Doesn’t spread
o Harmless  unless found in the brain
• Malignant Tumour (Cancer)
• Cell division is unchecked  occurs rapidly
o Spend little time in Interphase
• Damage and destroy surrounding cells  invades them
• Can spread
o Interfere with the function of other cells  results in death
 Tumour is not destroyed/removed
Physics
• Light
o Properties

 Form of energy

 Travels in straight lines

 Can be reflected  bounced in a new path

 Can be refracted  bend in a new path

 Causes shadows
 Travels at high speed

• Nothing Travels faster

• 300 000 000 m/s  3.00 x 108

 Electromagnetic

• Wave
o Made from electricity and magnetism travelling together

 Travel at the speed of light

o Travel through a vacuum empty space of matter

 Ex. Space

o Doesn’t require a medium  physical substance

• Spectrum
o The Electromagnetic Spectrum

• Radio
o AM Radio

• Microwave
o Microwave Oven

• Infrared
o Night Vision Goggles

• Visible
o

• Ultraviolet
o Suntans

• X-Ray
o Medical X-Rays

• Gamma Ray
o Pet Imaging
o The Visible Spectrum

 Red  Orange
  Yellow  Indigo

 Green  Violet

 Blue
o How is it produced?

 7 Types

• Incandescence
o What

 Producing light due to high temperature

• Object gets hotter causes colour to change

o Example

 Incandescent light bulbs

• Electric Discharge
o What

 Electric current passes through a gas

• Reacts to produce a spark  light

o Example

 Neon light, lightning

• Phosphorescence
o What

 Glow in the Dark

• Special material absorbs UV light  releases visible light

o Period of time
o Example

 Glow in the dark stickers

• Fluorescence
o What

 Emission of light  from a substance that has absorbed light (UV)

• Absorbs UV light  immediately release visible light

o Example

 Fluorescent Light

• Chemiluminescence
o What

 Substance produces heat

• Chemical Reactions
o Example

 Light Stick

• Bioluminescence
o What

 Organism realises light

• Chemical reactions in body takes place

o Emits light
o Example

 Firefly

• Triboluminescence
o What

 Substance gives off light

 • Being scratched, crushed or rubbed
o Example

 Duct tape

• Lasers
o Definition

 Stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

o Compared to Light Bulbs

 Laser

• Consists of electromagnetic waves  same energy levels

• Pure in colour  intense/concentrated

o Travel great distances  without spreading out

 Light Bulb

• Emits different electromagnetic waves  different energy levels

• Not concentrated/intense
o Uses

 Medical  Astronomy

 Industrial  Aesthetics
o Laser Eye Surgery (LASIK)

 Definition

• Vision correction
o People who are near/far sighted or stigmatism

 Reshaped cornea  sharpen vision

• With ultraviolet laser

• Mirrors

o Light behaves when striking a mirror  incident ray

 Reflected, transmitted or absorbed

• Transparent  transmit all incident light

• Translucent  transmit some incident light

• Opaque  transmit no incident light

 Light Rays

• Illustrate path of light  hitting an object

o Laws of Reflection

 Angle of incidence = Angle of Reflection

 Incident ray, Reflection ray and normal  all on same plane/side

o Surfaces
  Specular Reflection  reflection off smooth/shiny surface

 Diffuse Reflection  reflection off irregular/dull surface

o Plane Mirrors

 Two Ways

• Light Rays  how we see images

o

• Equal Perpendicular Lines  how images appear

o Measure distance from object to mirror  do same on other side

 Redraw
o Curved Mirrors

 Types

• Concave  converging
o

• Convex  diverging
o

 Applications

• Satellite dishes
o Parabolic reflectors (concave mirrors)

• Search light

• Solar ovens
o Box cookers
o Curved concentrators
o Panel cookers

• Periscope

• Makeup Mirror  concave

• Security Mirror  convex

• Index of Refraction
 o Snell’s Law

 n1sinΘ1 = n2sinΘ2

• Value of n

o Air  1.00

o Pure Water  1.33

o Definition

 Ratio of speed of light in a vacuum/speed of light in a medium

• Equation
o n=c/v
c
 n = index of refraction
n v
 c= speed of light in a vacuum  3.00 x 108 m/s

 v= speed of light in a given medium

o n=sin∠I /sin∠R

 ∠I = Angle of incidence

 ∠R = angle of refraction

 n = index of refraction

• Refraction
o Definition

 Change in direction  light

• Passes at an angle  one medium to another

o Some light will reflect  rest will refract

o Terms

 Angle of incidence

• Angle between incident ray  normal

 Angle of refraction

• Angle between refracted ray  normal

o Facts

 Ray of light  passes into slower/more optically dense medium

• Bends towards normal

 Ray of light  passes into faster/less optically dense medium

• Bends away from normal

 Angle of incidence = 0

• No refraction

o No change in direction  yes change in speed

 o Rules for Refraction

 Three

• Incident ray, refracted ray and normal  all lie on same plane

• Light bends towards normal  travels more slowly in second medium than first

• Light bends away from normal  travels faster in second medium than first

• Total Internal Reflection

o Recall

 Light slows down  enters a new medium (less dense to dense)

• Bends towards normal

o Angle of refraction < angle of incidence

 Light speeds up  enters a new medium (dense to less dense)

• Bends away from normal

o Angle of refraction > angle of incidence
o Critical Angle

 Angle of incidence  results in an angle of refraction of 90o

o Definition

 Increase angle of incidence past critical angle  refracted ray will no longer exit
medium
• Reflect into the median

o Refracted ray disappears  only reflected ray is visible

o Conditions

 Light is traveling more slowly in the first medium than the second

 Angle of incidence  large enough that no refraction occurs in second medium

o Examples

 Diamonds

• Sparkle  cut of the diamond face combined with high index of refraction
o Results in total internal refraction
o Small critical angle

 Great deal of incident light  undergoes total internal reflection

• Light rays bounce around  before exiting diamond

 Fiber Optics

• Use light to transmit information  glass cables

o Communications industry & medicine

 Phones, computer and TVs

 Endoscope

o Light cannot escape  must have a small critical angle

  Angle of incidence> critical angle

 Optical Fiber

• Used to transmit light to instrument panel in cars

o Rapidly replacing copper wire  three reasons

 Signals aren’t affected  electrical storms

 Carry many more signals over long distances

 Smaller/lighter

 Triangular Prism

• More useful than mirrors  reflect almost 100% of light internals

o Used in periscope/binoculars

 Retro-Reflectors

• Optical device that returns an incident light  same direction

• Built into road sign and bikes

• Optical Phenomenon
o Mirage

 Virtual image  forms as a result of refraction/total internal reflection

• Light travels from cool to warmer air

o Bends away from normal  air temperature increases

 Total internal Reflection

• Occurs in lowest (hottest) air

o Light ray travels up from the hottest layer  cooler later

 Gradually refracted towards the normal temperature decreases

o Looming

 Wind brings warm air over a very cold ocean

• Light from an object  travels upwards

o Curves and starts back down  reaches warmer air

 Light that reaches observes  come from beyond the horizon

o Shimmering

 Image of moon on water’s surface

• Light is refracted  passes through air/different temperatures

o Air above lake  much warmer than air father away from water’s surface

 Coldest layer  light travels more slowly (bends towards normal)

 Warmest layer  light travels faster (bends away from normal)

o Total internal reflection occurs

 Multiple virtual images of moon on surface

o Rainbow

 Dispersion

• Separation of white light  into spectrum by a prism

o Each color of visible light  travels at slight different speeds

 Goes through glass prism

• Violet slows down  red speeds up

o ROYGBIV

 Refraction  light enters drop

• Partial internal reflection  light hits back of rain drop

o Refraction  light exits raindrop

o Sundogs
o Apparent Depth
o Flattened Sun
• Lenses

o Converging Lenses  convex

 Thicker in center

• Parallel light rays  converge in point after lenses

o Diverging Lenses  concave

 Thicker on edges

• Parallel light rays  disperse after lenses

• Human Eye
o Parts of the Eye

 Cornea

• Clear white covering  outside of the eye

o Help eye focus like lens on camera
  Iris

• Part of eye that has colour

o Get bigger and smaller  let more/less light in

 Pupil

• Black opening in middle of eye

o Light comes through this opening

 Lens

• Bends light
o See close up and far away

 Vitreous Humor

• Clear water like substance  back of your eye

 Retina

• Has nerve cells  rods and cones

o Process light

 Rods

• Black, white and shades of grey

 Cones

• Colours
o Three types

 Red

 Green

 Blue

 Optic Nerve
• Carries electrical signals

o Retina  brain
o How the Eye Works

 Process

• Light bounces off objects  into your eyes

o Enter eye  cornea (thick/transparent protective layer on surface of eye)

 Pass through pupil  into lens

• Shines through vitreous humour  back of the eye

o Hits retina  takes light & changes into nerve

impulses
 Sent to brain  optic nerve

 Flipped Image
 • Seeing images  inverted/flipped upside down on retina
o Imperfect Eyesight

 Nearsightedness

• Can see objects up close  not far away

o Myopia

 Light is focused on point in front of retina

• Uses diverging/negative meniscus lens

 Farsightedness

• Can see objects far away  not close

o Hyperopia

 Light is focused on point behind retina

• Uses converging/positive meniscus lens